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The Functional Isometrics (FI) method entails performing Table 1 Characteristics of the subjects (MeanSD)
dynamic actions with an isometric contraction at the point of
maximal effort in each repetition (Fleck and Kraemer, 2004). Characteristic Values
In a previous study, Keogh et al. (1999) did not find significant Age (years) 24.833.27
differences in the blood lactate response and TUT when Weight (kg) 78.948.13
comparing the FI method with 6RM. However, the isometric Heigth (cm) 177.835.96
actions in the FI method lasted only two seconds while has 10RM load (kg) 109.5816.58
often been suggested to perform the isometric actions for five
to seven seconds (Fleck and Kraemer, 2004). Table 2 Time under tension and number of repetitions performed during
Several studies have found that the utilization of vascular different resistance training methods (MeanSD)
occlusion has a positive effect on muscle strength and
Time under
hypertrophy (Burgomaster et al., 2003; Shinohara et al., 1998; RTM Repetitions
tension (s)
Takarada et al., 2000). This strategy has been shown to
increase blood lactate concentration (Takarada et al., 2000) and 10RM 10.330.49#,†,‡ 42.083.18
was proposed to induce a preferential activation of the fast Super-slow (SL) 1.000.00 60.000.00*,#
twitch (FT) fibers and to increase the amplitude of the changes Adapted vascular occlusion (VO) 7.171.11†,‡ 53.084.76*
Functional isometrics (FI) 6.581.00‡ 56.336.46*
from hypoxia to hyperoxia during exercise (Kawada, 2005;
Moritani et al., 1992; Takarada et al., 2000). According to this # significantly higher than adapted vascular occlusion (p0.05)
evidence, some weight trainers have employed a maximal † significantly higher than super-slow (p0.05)
isometric contraction prior to normal dynamic lifts in order to ‡ significantly higher than functional isometrics (p0.05)
simulate vascular occlusion (Gentil, 2005). The rationale for * significantly higher than 10RM (p0.05)
this practice lies in the finding that isometric actions interrupt
blood flow and leads to metabolites accumulation, as shown by enter the study was two years. All subjects were informed of
Koba et al. (2004) and Hietanen et al. (1984). However, it is the risks and benefits of the experiment and signed a consent
not known if this practice would have any benefit in form before participating in the study. The experiment was
accumulating metabolites or providing higher mechanical approved by the University of Brasília Institutional Review
stimuli than traditional resistance training with maximum Board. The characteristics of the subjects are presented in
repetitions. Thus, due to the contradictions in the literature Table 1.
with regard to the SL method, as well as the lack of studies
comparing physiologic stimuli among other RTM, the purpose Testing procedures
of the present study was to compare the blood lactate Tests were conduced using a leg extension machine
responses and TUT among four different RTM. (HN1030, Righetto Fitness Equipment, São Paulo-Brazil).
During the week before the experiment, the 10RM load for
Methods each subject was assessed according to the procedures reported
by Simão et al. (2005). Data were analyzed by Pearson product
Experimental procedures moment correlations to estimate day-to-day 10RM reliability
Twelve subjects were tested in all situations. Blood lactate (r0.96).
concentrations were measured in order to assess metabolic All subjects executed the four RTM in a randomized order
stress, similar to previous studies (i.e., Kraemer et al., 1990; with at least 24 hours between each one. Subjects were
Keogh et al., 1999; Hunter et al., 2003). Blood was collected instructed to avoid any type of resistance training involving the
from the right ear lobule immediately before and three minutes quadriceps muscles 72 hours prior to the beginning of tests.
after each RTM. Therefore, a 42 (RTMtime) within-within In all RTM, except the SL method and the specific
design was employed. Due to the unique characteristics of the isometrics moments during the FI and VO methods, subjects
RTM tested (controlled velocity at the SL method and were instructed to maintain a constant velocity of two seconds
isometric moments at the FI and VO methods), it would be in the concentric phase and two seconds in the eccentric phase,
difficult to compare total work volume for the RTM. Hence, as with no pause between phases. The concentric phase started at
load was kept constant, TUT was used as an estimate of the 100° of knee flexion and ended with the knees fully extended.
mechanical load imposed to the muscle. Additionally, previous A metronome was used to control contraction velocity.
studies have found a strong correlation between TUT and
skeletal muscle adaptations (Mikesky et al., 1989). Resistance training methods (RTM)
All RTM were performed with the same knee extension
Subjects machine used during the load tests. The four RTM were
Twelve recreationally weight-trained men with experience in performed with the load equivalent to 10RM. SL was the
all the RTM tested volunteered to participate in this study. The exception, here the RTM were performed until concentric
minimum overall resistance training experience required to failure, characterized when the subject was not able to
Gentil, P et al. J Physiol Anthropol, 25: 339–344, 2006 341
completely extend the knees during two consecutive measurements of the two investigators (r0.98). The mean of
repetitions. The mean number of repetitions performed during the two measures was used in the analysis.
each RTM are presented in Table 2.
The four RTM analyzed in this study were: Statistical analyses
1) Ten maximum repetitions method (10RM): Normal Standard statistical methods were used for the calculation of
isoinertial lifts were performed until concentric failure at the means and standard deviations (SD). Before parametric
load obtained during the 10RM test. analyses were done, the normality of distribution of the data
2) Functional isometrics method (FI): In each repetition, a was assessed with Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests. Differences in
five-second maximal isometric contraction was executed with blood lactate responses during the RTM were assessed using a
the knees fully extended. two way ANOVA 42 (RTMtime). TUT and repetitions
3) Adapted vascular occlusion (VO): subjects performed a 20- among the RTM were compared with one-way ANOVA.
second maximal isometric contraction with the knees fully Multiple comparisons with adjustment of confidence interval
extended and immediately preceded to normal isoinertial lifts. by the Bonferroni method were used for post-hoc comparisons.
4) Super-slow method (SL): subjects performed one 60- The p0.05 criterion was used for establishing statistical
second repetition consisting of 30 seconds for the eccentric significance.
phase and 30 seconds for the concentric phase. To control for
muscle contraction velocity, time was given every five seconds. Results
Blood lactate measurements Table 2 shows the values of TUT and repetitions performed
A small sample of blood (25 m l) was taken from the right ear during the different RTM. The total number of repetitions
lobule immediately before (T0) and three minutes (T3) after performed were significantly different among RTM [f
the completion of each RTM. Blood from these incisions was (3,33)441.136, p0.001]. Repetitions performed during the
allowed to flow into a Brand NH4 heparinized capillary tube. 10RM were higher than those in the SL, FI and VO methods
From the capillary tube, the blood was added to a labeled (p0.01). Repetitions performed during the FI and VO
Eppendorf tube filled with buffer (1% sodium fluoride) at a methods were higher than during the SL method (p0.01).
ratio of 1 : 3 (blood to buffer). These samples were then placed Repetitions performed during the VO method were higher than
in refrigeration at approximately 4°C to be transported to the during the FI method (p0.05).
laboratory and then put in a refrigerator. Blood samples were There were significant differences in TUT among RTM [f
analyzed using the YSI 1500 Lactate Analyzer (Yellow Springs (3,33)43.670, p0.01]. TUT for the SL, FI and VO methods
Instrument Co., Yellow Springs, OH). were higher than 10RM (p0.01). TUT for the SL method was
higher than that for the VO method (p0.01).
Time under tension There was a significant effect of time on blood lactate [f
Time under tension (TUT) was defined as the total time in (1,11)40.048, p0.01]. When all RTM were considered, the
which the muscles were applying force to the implement. blood lactate concentrations at T3 were significantly higher
The same pair of investigators recorded the times of all tests than at T0 (p0.01).
using a digital chronometer. Data were analyzed by Pearson There were significant differences in blood lactate responses
product moment to estimate the correlations between the among RTM [f (3,33)7.466, p0.01]. Blood lactate
Fig. 1 Blood lactate level in different RTM, expressed as means and standard deviation. Analysis were done before (T0) and three minutes after
the end (T3) of each RTM. 10RM, SL (super-slow), FI (functional isometrics), VO (adapted vascular occlusion).
* significantly higher than SL.
342 Acute Response of Resistance Training Methods
concentrations at T0 were not significantly different among of eight repetitions at 28% of 1RM, performed in a slow
RTM (p0.05). However, blood lactate concentrations at T3 cadence (10 seconds for concentric and 5 seconds for eccentric
were higher for the VO and FI methods than for the SL method muscle actions). The traditional resistance training session
(p0.05). The results of the lactate concentrations are consisted of two sets of eight repetitions at 65% of 1RM,
presented in Fig. 1. taking approximately 30 seconds to complete each set.
Contrary to the present study’s findings, the authors reported a
Discussion 50% higher blood lactate response during the traditional
resistance training session.
There is a consensus that mechanical load is crucial for The discrepancy between the present results and those of
gains in muscle size and strength (Kraemer et al., 2002; Hunter et al. (2003) could be due to methodological
McDonagh and Davies, 1984). Based on this paradigm few differences. The load used during the SL method in the
would have been predicted that healthy subjects could obtain experiment of Hunter et al. (2003) was less than half the load
gains in muscle strength and hypertrophy after three weeks of used during traditional resistance training (28% vs. 65% of
walking, as was recently reported by Abe et al. (2006). There 1RM), while the present study equated the loads in both
are several reports showing that metabolic stress results in conditions. Moreover, Hunter et al. (2003) compared
increases in muscle size and strength (Schott et al., 1995; resistance-training sessions with multiple sets, and traditional
Kawada and Ishii, 2005). Some authors suggested that the resistance training involved twice the number of sets than the
recommendation of high load to induce hypertrophy may be SL session of the present study which compared the effects of
derived from an association between load and metabolic stress a single set of each method.
(Meyer, 2006). According to our results, blood lactate responses were
It has been recognized that intracellular metabolic changes higher for the VO and FI methods than the SL method, but no
may be an important signal for muscle hypertrophy, but the significant differences were found between the VO and FI
mechanisms by which acute changes in lactate or other methods and 10RM. In a previous study, Keogh et al. (1999)
metabolites are linked to the hypertrophic signaling cascade is did not report significant differences in blood lactate responses
unknown. In the present study lactate was not used based on a between the FI method and maximum repetitions (6RM),
cause-effect relationship. However, although lactate may not be which does not conflict with the present results. With regard to
a direct promoter of muscle adaptations it may be used as a the VO method, it is difficult to compare our results with
marker of metabolic stress. This assumption was based on previous findings because similar studies could not be found in
previous findings that reported elevated responses of lactate the literature. During the FI and VO methods, isometric
and other metabolites in interventions that promoted increases contractions were performed as an attempt to induce ischemia.
in muscle size and/or strength (Kawada and Ishii, 2005; Schott However, it is not known if these RTM would obtain chronic
et al., 1995; Takarada et al., 2000; Tanimoto and Ishii, 2005). results comparable with those obtained by means of constant
Previous studies have reported positive effects of tourniquet vascular occlusion as reported by Takarada et al. (2000),
vascular occlusion in muscle strength and hypertrophy (Abe et Burgomaster et al. (2003) and Shinohara et al. (1998).
al., 2006; Burgomaster et al., 2003; Shinohara et al., 1998; The differences in blood lactate responses among the RTM
Takarada et al., 2000). However, direct vascular occlusion is a may not be explained solely by mechanical factors (TUT,
very specialized procedure that should be used with careful repetitions or work). If it is assumed that repetitions or total
monitoring of occlusive pressure and blood flow, therefore, work was the sole determinant of blood lactate responses, it
other strategies should be used as alternatives. According to would be expected that 10RM would produce the highest blood
Tanimoto and Ishii (2005), exercises with sustained force lactate response among the RTM tested, however, this was not
generation would be one of these alternatives. observed. On the other hand, if TUT exerted a major influence
With regard to the SL method, the present findings showed on blood lactate, SL would be related to the higher blood
that blood lactate response to this RTM was similar to 10RM, lactate responses rather than VO and 10RM. Therefore, it is
and lower than the VO and FI methods. Previous studies suggested that the differences observed in the present study
comparing blood lactate response between traditional were probably caused by the unique characteristics of the RTM
resistance training and the SL method have yielded conflicting tested, specifically, the isometric moments at the FI and VO
results. Keogh et al. (1999) compared the stress profile of one methods.
set of six different RTM with traditional resistance training In a study of Moritani et al. (1992), the subjects performed
(6RM) during the bench press exercise in 12 resistance-trained repeated contractions at 20% of MVC (maximal voluntary
men and reported no significant differences in blood lactate contraction) for 2 seconds followed by 2 seconds of rest for 4
response between the SL method and 6RM. minutes. Vascular occlusion was induced between the first and
However, Hunter et al. (2003) found opposite results when second minute by a pressure cuff inflated to 200 mmHg.
comparing the metabolic effects of a resistance training session According to their findings, blood lactate concentrations
involving the SL method or traditional resistance training in showed a large increase shortly after the release of arterial
seven resistance-trained men. The SL session involved one set occlusion and it remained significantly elevated during the
Gentil, P et al. J Physiol Anthropol, 25: 339–344, 2006 343
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Sports Med 31: 229–234 Correspondence to: Paulo Gentil, SQS 203 bl.J apt.606,
Pollock ML, Franklin BA, Balady GJ, Chaitman BL, Fleg JL, Brasília, DF 70.233-100, Brazil
Fletcher B, Limacher M, Pina IL, Stein RA, Williams M, Phone: 55–61–8118–4732
Bazzarre T, American Heart Association Science Advisory Fax: 55–61–3322–7972
(2000) Resistance exercise in individuals with and without e-mail: paulogentil@hotmail.com