Pearson Biology 12 New South Wales

Chapter 9 Genetic technologies

9.1 Reproductive technologies

KEY QUESTIONS
1 Artificial insemination is a reproductive technology that involves the deliberate introduction of male sperm into the
female reproductive tract by a method other than sexual intercourse.
2 Answers may vary but could include:
• multiple females can be impregnated from one sample
• females in different geographic locations to the male can be impregnated
• farmers don’t have to keep male animals on their property
• avoids behavioural challenges associated with mating animals
• reproductive health of population protected through screening of semen samples
• requires no animal-to-animal contact, avoiding the spread of disease.
3 Artificial insemination involves the delivery of semen directly into the female reproductive system. Whereas IVF
removes the egg from the female and fertilises it with the sperm in a laboratory setting prior to returning the fertilised
egg back into the female uterus.
4 The two main methods of artificial pollination are mechanical pollination and hand pollination. Mechanical pollination
involves the mass dusting of pollen onto plants from small aircraft or large blowers. Hand pollination involves using a
small brush to transfer the pollen from one plant to the stigma of the other plant.
5 The global decrease in natural pollinators, such as honeybees, is driving the increased need for artificial pollination of
agricultural crops and endangered plant species.
6 A mutualism disruption occurs when a mutualistic relationship between two species is disturbed, usually if the
extinction of a pollinator species causes the co-extinction of a plant, or the extinction of a plant leads to the
co-extinction of a pollinator species.

9.2 Cloning

KEY QUESTIONS
1 Artificial twinning splits an embryo in two very early in the development process. Both halves of the embryo continue to
divide leading to two separate individuals with identical genetic make-up. Artificial embryo twinning differs from natural
identical twin development as it is carried out in a laboratory petri dish, with the early embryo artificially separated into
individual cells and allowed to continue dividing. The embryos are then transferred into a surrogate mother.
2 Somatic cell nuclear transfer involves the removal of chromosomes from an egg cell and replaces them with the
nucleus of a somatic cell taken from the organism being cloned. The egg cell is then induced to divide. Once the
embryo has developed, it is transferred to the uterus of a surrogate female organism. The individual that is born
following gestation will be an identical genetic copy of the animal from which the original somatic cell was taken.
3 Applications of whole organism cloning include scientific research where genetically identical test-subjects are desired
for reliable research outcomes, in animal husbandry where cloning enables desirable traits to be passed on to many
offspring in a method faster than traditional breeding, and in wildlife conservation.
4 Scientific, moral and ethical issues continue to be raised including how young woolly mammoths would learn natural
behaviours without adult woolly mammoths, how it would survive in a modern world facing climate change, whether
the process would result in a biological orphan purely used for exhibits and whether scientists should be interfering
in evolution.
5 Scientists clone genes to: (1) make many copies of a gene to find the DNA sequence or study an aspect of the DNA;
(2) to use the DNA to produce a recombinant protein.
6 The in vivo technique involves the use of restriction enzymes, ligases and vectors to incorporate the desired gene
into the DNA of a living organism, where this gene will replicate. Whereas, the in vitro gene cloning technique uses
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to produce multiple copies of the specific gene in a solution.
7 Gene therapy refers to the insertion of a gene into an individual’s cells to correct or replace defective gene function
that leads to disease.

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 Pearson Biology 12 New South Wales

9.3 Recombinant DNA technologies

KEY QUESTIONS
1 a Human proteins commonly produced by recombinant DNA technology are hormones, enzymes, vaccines and
cytokines.
b Advantages: larger quantities of the protein are easily made; no animals are needed; human proteins can be made,
which work better in humans than animal versions of the proteins.
2 It illustrates gene therapy using a viral vector to deliver DNA into a eukaryotic cell. The target gene is inserted into the
virus and the virus enters the cell and releases the recombinant DNA inside the cell. Examples include delivering the
normal CFTR gene to lung cells of people with cystic fibrosis, and delivering the genes for blood clotting factors to
people with haemophilia.
3 Many human proteins are glycoproteins. They work correctly only with carbohydrate attached to the protein.
Bacteria can’t do this so eukaryotic cells with endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus are used for recombinant
glycoprotein production.
4 A plasmid is a circular molecule of bacterial DNA. Plasmids are useful in gene cloning. They replicate frequently within
the bacterial cell. When a foreign gene such as the human insulin gene is inserted into bacterial plasmids and the
bacteria are cultured, large amounts of the protein (insulin) can be produced by the bacteria.
5 a Genetic modification involves the transfer of DNA from one organism into another.
b Students can select from a range of examples provided in the text. Example: Genetic modification has been
successfully applied to cotton crops, producing GM plants that are insect-resistant. This means that the plants are
not subject to damage by insect pests and do not require treatment with chemical insecticides.
6 A genetically modified organism (GMO) is an organism that has an alteration to one or more genes due to gene
transfer, mutagenesis or gene editing. Transgenic organisms are a subset of GMOs; they have a gene from a different
source inserted into their genome (e.g. a plant with a bacterial insecticide gene, a mouse with a human antibody gene,
or a goat with a spider silk protein gene).
7 a The mouse is genetically modified—genes were edited or cut out to control cell division, new genes were not given
so it is genetically modified but not transgenic.
b The plant will be transgenic because it is given a gene from another organism.

9.4 Benefits of genetic technologies

KEY QUESTIONS
1 Artificial insemination is a relatively inexpensive and non-invasive procedure.
2 Xenotransplantation involves the transplantation of cells, tissues or organs from a donor species to a different species
(e.g. from a non-human donor species to a human).
3 Stem cells are unspecialised cells and have the potential to develop in to cells such as nerve and muscle cells and be
used for a variety of functions including growth and repair.
4 Answers may vary but could include:
• epidermal growth factor used in the treatment of burns to improve the survival of skin grafts
• interleukin-2 used in cancer treatment
• antibodies for immunotherapy
• vaccines against a number of viruses.
5 These technologies can lead to a reduction in genetic variation by focusing on, and selecting for, fewer varieties
and breeds.
6 An advantage is that Fresian cattle have higher milk productivity. A disadvantage is they are not as well-adapted to the
semi-arid environmental conditions of Uganda.

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 Pearson Biology 12 New South Wales

CHAPTER 9 REVIEW
1 a Cryopreservation involves biological samples being cooled to very low temperatures (approximately −135°C).
b Cryopreservation allows for the long-term storage of semen without losing fertility.
2 It provides a low-risk option for breeding as animals do not have to be transported between wildlife centres, and
potential aggression between mating animals and toward keepers can be avoided.
3 Artificial pollination occurs when humans manually facilitate the natural plant pollination process. The pollen is taken
from the stamen (male part) of one flower and dusted over the stigma (female part) of another flower, resulting in
fertilisation and the development of seeds.
4 a The Truebark blossom plant will be affected by the decline in native bees.
b Because the Truebark blossom plant and the native bees share a mutualistic relationship, it could cause
co-extinction or mutualism disruption.
5 a Gene cloning is the production of many copies of a particular gene (e.g. the gene to make insulin).
b Recombinant DNA is DNA that has been altered by the insertion of DNA from another organism. An example is the
insertion of a copy of human DNA for insulin production into bacterial DNA. 
6 Answers may vary. An example flow diagram is:
Finn Dorset ewe Scottish Blackface ewe
donor cell
egg with
no nucleus

Donor cells were taken from the An unfertilised egg was

udder tissue of a Finn Dorset ewe removed from a Scottish
and cultured for a week in low- Blackface ewe and the
nutrient medium to stop them nucleus containing DNA
dividing. was removed with a
micropipette, leaving an
The dormant donor cell and the egg cell with no nucleus.
recipient egg cell were placed
close together and caused to
fuse together using a very
gentle electric pulse.
A second electrical pulse
triggered cell division,
producing a ball of cells
after about 6 days.

The developing embryo was implanted into the

uterus of another Scottish Blackface ewe.

After 148 days the pregnant Scottish Blackface ewe gave birth to Dolly, a Finn
Dorset lamb that was genetically identical to the original Finn Dorset donor.

7 Whole organism cloning produces a whole individual organism, whereas gene cloning creates many copies of a
specific gene.
8 Answers may vary but could include the following information.
Artificial insemination has been successfully used to breed giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) in China. Wildlife
carers inseminate female pandas with semen samples at the optimum time in the oestrus cycle.
9 Insect vectors such as mosquitoes can be genetically modified to be sterile or to die young, before being able to
reproduce. This controls the spread of vector-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue fever.
10 a A restriction enzyme or endonuclease is a bacterial enzyme that can recognise a particular DNA sequence and cut
the DNA at the recognition site.
b Sticky ends are overhanging single-stranded bases at the end of a DNA fragment produced when a restriction
enzyme cuts the DNA at a different place on opposite strands. Blunt ends are flush; there are no overhanging
single-stranded bases. Blunt ends are generated when the restriction enzyme cuts both strands on exact
opposite sites of a double-stranded DNA fragment.
c DNA ligase is used to join the sugar–phosphate backbone, forming phosphodiester bonds, after the sticky ends of
the fragments have bound together by complementary base pairing, or of blunt-ended fragments that randomly
come close together.

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 Pearson Biology 12 New South Wales
11 insulin gene is isolated → insulin gene is inserted into plasmid DNA → plasmid is incorporated in bacterial
cell → bacteria cultured to generate clones → production of large quantities of insulin → insulin purified
12 a Genetic transformation refers to the introduction of DNA from one organism into another.
b Genetic transformation is used to manufacture a number of pharmaceutical products, including human insulin for
treating diabetic patients, vaccines and human growth hormone. Genetic transformation is also used to transfer genes
to plant cells that improve crop yield, such as genes that improve a plant’s ability to survive drought or resist insects.
13 B. To determine which bacterial cells have been transformed, cells are incubated on nutrient agar plates that contain
the antibiotic ampicillin. The bacteria that survive and form colonies will be those that have taken up the plasmid with
the ampicillin-resistance gene.
14 C. Genes such as the lacZ gene are inserted into plasmids for recombinant DNA techniques. Reporter genes can be
used to express an indicator, such as fluorescence, in bacterial colonies indicating that the gene of interest is present
in the plasmid.
15 B. The Flavr Savr tomato has been genetically modified by producing an antisense gene within the tomato to stop the
production of the polygalacturonase enzyme. The tomato is not transgenic as to process it did not involve insertion of
genes from another organism.
16 A gene for arsenic absorption
B recombinant plasmid
C transformed Agrobacterium
D plant cells transformed
E transgenic
17 a The strawberries are transgenic because at least one gene from another species (the antifreeze gene from Arctic
flounder) has been incorporated into their genome.
b The blue pigment is due to the presence of a reporter gene (pT7blue). It allows the scientists to see that the
plasmid has successfully been incorporated into the strawberry plant and that the plasmid genes are being
transcribed and translated. The reporter gene assists the scientists to perfect their method.
c 1  Isolate the antifreeze gene from the trout genome by cutting with a restriction enzyme.
↓
2  Use the same restriction enzyme to isolate pT7blue from its source DNA.
↓
3  Cut open a plasmid with the same restriction enzyme.
↓
4  Incubate the two genes and the plasmid together with ligase to build a plasmid containing the two genes.
↓
5  Introduce the recombinant plasmid to the Agrobacterium.
↓
6  Grow strawberry cells and the Agrobacterium in a culture medium together.
↓
7  Take the cultured cells and grow them into seedlings, which can then be planted out to grow into adult plants.
d There are many concerns with genetically modified crops escaping from the fields where they are being grown.
There are also concerns about pollen from the GM crop cross-pollinating wild cousins of the crop. It is not known
what effect this might have on ecosystems and once genes have escaped it will be impossible to undo any effects.
Students may make other plausible suggestions.
18 Answers may vary but could include:
• intrauterine insemination allowing couples to conceive a child
• gene cloning used for the treatment of disease such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s
• genetically modified model organisms for research.
19 Answers may vary and could include the following information. An advantage is the introduction of specific
alleles to a female for breeding despite geographic barriers between male and female animals. One disadvantage
is the documented decline in fertility in animals such as cattle and horses since the mainstream use of artificial
insemination.
20 A reduction in genetic variation reduces a population’s resilience to changes in abiotic and biotic factors in the
environment (e.g. disease or changes in food resources) making them more vulnerable to extinction.

Copyright © Pearson Australia 2018 (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) ISBN 978 1 4886 1926 7
 Pearson Biology 12 New South Wales
21 Whole organism cloning reduces genetic variation by producing genetically identical individuals (e.g. monoculture
crops). If genetically identical individuals become widespread in a population this poses a threat to genetic, species
and ecosystem diversity.
22 Answers will vary but may include the following information:
• selection of a narrow range of cultivars over wild species
• risk of pesticide- and insect-resistant species leading to invasive pests in the natural environment
• reduction of non-target species such as honeybees as a result of GM
• re-introduction of previously lost wild traits.
23 Student answers will vary but should consider the following:
GMOs that are currently in use in Australia are cotton and canola. GM crops were first introduced to Australia in 1996
and research has shown that since their introduction these crops have improved yield, increased farmers’ incomes
and reduced carbon emissions. No evidence of GMOs cross-breeding with wild relatives and creating ‘superweeds’ has
been found. There are still concerns about the overuse of herbicides on GM crops and the safety of GMOs for human
consumption because the technology is still relatively new. Genetic modification introduces new or altered genes into
a population; however, there are currently no ‘wild’ populations of GMOs and many may not be able to survive without
human intervention. If GMOs are allowed to establish a self-sustaining population then they do have the potential
to change the gene pool of populations forever. This could have both positive and negative consequences depending
on the impacts on biodiversity and human health. It is important to remember that many populations of plants and
animals have already been artificially manipulated and changed forever via selective breeding.

Copyright © Pearson Australia 2018 (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) ISBN 978 1 4886 1926 7