IEEE Power & Energy Society TECHNICAL REPORT

1998 PES-TR7
Formerly TP133

Modeling and Analysis of

System Transients Using
Digital Programs
PREPARED BY THE
IEEE Working Group 15.08.09

© IEEE 2013 The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Inc.

No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form, in an electronic retrieval system or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
THIS PAGE LEFT BLANK INTENTIONALLY
 IEEE PES Special Publication

MODELING AND ANALYSIS OF SYSTEM

TRANSIENTS
 Prepared By IEEE Working Group 15.08.09

MODELING AND ANALYSIS OF SYSTEM TRANSIENTS USING

DIGITAL PROGRAMS

Working Group Chairman

A. J. F. Keri (American Electric Power)

Task Forces and Chairmen

1) Power Electronics K. K. Sen (Siemens), Le Tang (ABB)

2) Slow Transients R. Iravani (Univ. of Toronto)
3) Switching Transients A. M. Gole (Univ. of Manitoba),
D. W. Durbak (PTI)
4) Fast Front Transients A. F. Imece (ABB)
5) Very Fast Front Transients J.A. Martinez-Velasco (Univ. Politec.
de Catalunya*), D. Povh
(Siemens)
6) Protection and Controls A.K.S. Chaudhary (Cooper Power
System), R.E. Wilson (WAPA)
7) Bibliography T.E. Grebe (Electrotek Concepts, Inc)
J.A. Martinez-Velasco ( * )
Editors:

A. M. Gole, J. Martinez-Velasco, A. J. F. Keri

Acknowledgments: The Working group was originated and technically

supported by Dr. B. R. Shperling (New York Power Authority). T.E. Grebe
was also the Secretary of the Working Group. Dr. A. M. Gole had also the
difficult job of organizing Task Force reports into this Special Publication.

Tutorial On
Modeling And Analysis or System Transients Using Digital Programs
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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction i

1. Background 1-1

2. Power Electronics 2-1

3. Slow Transients 3-1

4. Switching Transients 4-1

5. Fast Front Transients ~ 5 -1

6. Very Fast Front Transients 6-1

7. Protection and Controls 7-1

8. Bib Ii0 graph y ....................... ..... ....... .. .. .. 8-1

 Modelingand Analysis ofSystem Transients Using
Digital Programs
Introduction
IEEE PES Working Group 15.08.09
A.J.F. Keri (Chairman), A.M. Gole
1. INTRODUCTION
This documentis written in order to provideguide-
lines for the modeling of power system apparatus for use in
time - domain solutionof electromagnetic transientphenom-
enon. This publication has been arranged in the following
eight (8) parts.
Part 1 :Background
Part 2 :PowerElectronics
Part 3:Slow Transients
Part 4 :Switching Transients
Part 5 :Fast Front Transients
Part 6 :Very Fast Front Transients
Part 7 :Protection And Control
Part 8 :Bibliography
A general statementof each area is as follows.
1.1 BACKGROUND
This section presents a comprehensive summary of
the background and state of the art for the transientsolutions,
representation of control systems, and modeling of power
systemcomponents.
1.2 POWERELECTRONICS
The guideline presentsthe basic issuesthat are criti-
cal for successfully modeling of power electronics devices
and the interfacebetweenpower electronics and the utility or
industrial system. Modeling aspects are presentedfor simu-
lation of the semiconductor switching devices, power elec-
tronics system, snubber treatment, and simulation errors and
control. A number of simulation examples, including
FACTS modeling, are presented.
1.3 SLOW TRANSIENTS
Modeling guidelines are presented for investiga-
tions of small signal torsional oscillations, large -signalshaft
transient stresses, turbine -blade vibrations, fast bus transfer,
controller interactions, harmonics interaction, and resonance
phenomena. Sample test systems and simulationresults are
provided.
i-I
1.4 SWITCHING TRANSIENTS
The range of frequencies of primary interest in a
switching transients study vary from the fundamental power
frequency up to 10kHz. Switching surge modeling guide-
lines are presentedincluding modeling of the various power
systemcomponents such as transmission lines, cables, trans-
formers, source equivalents, loads and circuit breakers. In
addition, typicalcase studies are also presented.
1.5 FAST FRONT TRANSIENTS
Modeling guidelines are presented for fast front
transients (i.e., frequency range from 10 kHz up to 1 MHz),
with particularemphasison lightningsurge analysis of over-
head lines and substation. Modeling philosophies, simpli-
fied mathematical relationships, typical data, and examples
are given for various power system components. A case
study is presented in order to illustrate the overall modeling
procedure.
1.6 VERY FAST FRONT TRANSIENTS
The objective of this section is to provide an expla-
nation of the phenomena of very fast transients, in the fre-
quencyrange of 100 kHz to 50 MHz. This type of transients
typically occur in the gas insulated substations (GIS).
Effects and modeling guidelines for GIS are presented. An
example of a GIS calculationwith detailed input data is pro-
vided. A simulation accuracyis verifiedwith field measure-
ments.
1.7 PROTECTIONAND CONTROL
General guidelines for modeling of protection sys-
tems is presented. Because digital modeling of protection
systemsin the electromagnetic transients programs is a rela-
tively new procedure, this section describes the advantages
and limitations of the protection system modeling. Model-
ing of instrument transformers, relays - electromechanical,
static and microprocessor based are summarizedand models
are presented.
1.8 BIBLIOGRAPHY
A comprehensive list of references on the subject-
are provided.
 Digital Computation of Eelectromagnetic
Transients in Power Systems: Current Status
Juan A. Martinez-Velasco
Departament d'Enginyeria Electrica
Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, Spain
Abstract- This documentpresentsan introductionto time-domain
solution of electromagnetic transients in power systems using a
digitalcomputer•Currently, the mostwidely usedsimulation tools
tosolve electromagnetic transientsare basedonthetrapezoidalrule
andthe methodofcharacteristics(Bergeron'smethod). Onlyworks
related to this solutionalgorithm are considered in this document
whichcoverstwo maintopics: solution techniques and modeling of
powercomponents.
Keywords : Electromagnetic Transients, Time-domain
Simulation, Trapezoidal Rule, Numerical Oscillations, Control
Systems, Modeling.
1. INTRODUCTION
Transient phenomena in power systems are caused by
switching operations, faults, and other disturbances, such as
lightning strokes. They involve a frequency range from DC to
several MHz. A rough distinction is usually made between
electromechanical transients, traditionally covered by transient
stability studies, and electromagnetic transients. The latter type
of transients can occur on a time scale that goes from
microseconds to several cycles; they are a combination of
travelling waves on lines, cables and buses, and of oscillations
in lumped-element circuits ofgenerators, transformers and other
devices. Some electromechanical transients, such as
subsynchronous resonance, for which detailed machine models
are needed, are usually included in this class of transients.
Several tools have been used over the years to analyze
electromagnetic transients. At early stages, miniature power
system models, known as Transient Network Analyzers (INA),
were used. At present, the digital computer is the most popular
tool, although INAs are still used; in addition, the new
generation of real-time digital systems are probably the most
adequate tool in some applications for which either a very
high-speed or a real-time simulation is required.
Many techniques have been developed to solve electromagnetic
transients using a digital computer. They can be classified into
two main groups : frequency-domain and time-domain
1-1
techniques. The subject of this document is the digital
simulation ofelectromagnetic transients in power systems, using
time-domain techniques. Presently, the most widely used
solution method is based on the application of the trapezoidal
rule and the Bergeron's method, also known as method of
characteristics [1] - [6].
This document has been arranged as follows. Section 2 deals
with the basic solution techniques either already implemented
or proposed for implementation in electromagnetic transients
programs (emtps). It covers not only the algorithms aimed at
solving the transient solution, but procedures to reduce
numerical oscillations produced by the trapezoidal rule,
initialization methods, and procedures to solve the interface
between power networks and control systems.
Section 3 presents a summary of modeling works related to the
most important power components taking into account their
frequency-dependent behaviour.
Due to difficulties for developing power component models
accurate enough for a wide frequency range, much work has
been done to provide modeling guidelines for digital simulation
of every type of transient phenomenon. Section 4 summarizes
the work done in this area and reports about works still in
progress.
Some topics, such as parallel computation or real-time emtp-
based simulation of electromagnetic transients, which are
closely related to the main subjects of this document are not
covered here.
A selected bibliography related to topics of each part has been
included at the end of this document.
2. SOLUTION METHODS
2.1 TRANSIENT SOLUTION
The studies to solve travelling wave problems by means of a
digital computer were started in the early 1960's using two
different techniques, the Bewley's lattice diagram [7] and the
Bergeron's method [8]. Thesetechniqueswereapplied to solve
smallnetworks, withlinearandnonlinear lumped- parameter, as
well as distributed-parameter elements. The extension to
multinode networks was made by H.W. Dommel [1]. The
Dommel's scheme combined the Bergeron's method and the
trapezoidal rule into an algorithm capable of solving transients
insingle- andmulti-phasenetworks withlumped anddistributed
parameters. This solution method was the origin of the
ElectroMagnetic Transients Program (EMTP), whose
development was supported by Bonneville Power
Administration (BPA).
proposed to cope with nonlinear and time-varying elements
[11]. These modifications were based on a current source
representation, a piecewise-linear representation or the
compensation method. Someof the advantages and drawbacks
shownby these approaches were discussed in [5] and [11].
Using compensation, nonlinear elements are represented as
currentinjections whicharesuperimposed to the solution of the
linearnetwork after this solution has been computed. Figure 1
shows the scheme of the compensation method for a single
nonlinear element.
Nonlinear
® lklll Vk m equatio r.~··
I --+ /~
/'
I II

r
Linear, "- »<
Thetrapezoidal ruleis usedto convertthedifferential equations + ! ~----<:
tim e -
<,.....

of the networkcomponents into algebraic equations involving

; UJ ...... _

voltages, currents andpastvalues. Thesealgebraic equations are invariant Vk m ,IT '0 '-.
/ i~ Netw~~k'
assembled using a nodal approach Netwo rk -
I
/ :o' e q u a ti on
/ ' ::l
[ G] [ v ( t)] = [i ( t)] - [ I] I
(I) @
where [G] is the nodal conductance matrix
[vet)] is the vectorof node voltages Figure 1. Principles of the compensation method.
[i(t)] is the vectorof currentsources
[I] is the vectorof "history" terms. Oncethe solution of the network withoutthe nonlinearelement
has been computed, its contribution is computed from the
Veryoftenthenetwork contains voltage sources toground, then following equation
the equation is split up into part A with unknown voltages and
part B with knownvoltages (3)
and the characteristic of the nonlinear element
(2) v km = f(ikm' dikm/dt, t, ... ) (4)
The resulting conductance matrix is symmetrical and remains vkm(O) in (3) indicates the voltage solution acrossthe nodes "k"
unchanged astheintegration isperformed witha fixed time-step and "m'' without the nonlinear element, while rthev is the
size.Thesolution ofthetransient processis thenobtained using Thevenin equivalent resistance.
triangular factorization. One of the main advantages of this
procedure is that it can be applied to networks of arbitrary size Iterative solution methods, such as the Newton's method, are
in a very simple fashion. usedto solvethis step.

Bergeron's method can be efficiently used with lossless and
distortionless lines. However, parameters of actual transmission
systems are frequency-dependent. The first works on
frequency-dependent models were performed for telephone
circuits in the 1920's [9]. The first frequency-dependent
transmission line modeldeveloped for EMTP simulations was
implemented in 1973 [10]. Much effort has been made since
then, and some other frequency-dependent line models have
been developed and implemented, see Section 3.2.
The original Dommel's scheme could be used to solve linear
networks. However, many power components - transformers,
reactors, surge arresters, circuit breakers - presenta nonlinear
behaviour. Several modifications to the basic method were
The compensation method can be generalized to networks with
several nonlinear components [12]. However, its application is
limited to only one nonlinear elementper node.
Other solution methods has been proposed to solve this
limitation. A very simple procedure based on a predictor-
corrector method has been recently presented [13].
An interface for simulation ofHVDC linksand machines, also
basedon the Dommel's algorithm, was presented in [14].
The computation of electromagnetic transients with the
trapezoidal rule is performed in the time-domain. Some other
techniques have been developed to solve network equations

1-2
using a time-domain solution (z-transform methods [15], wave ----~------]
digital filters [16]) or a frequency-domain solution [17]. Some
alternative methodologies taking advantage of the Dommel's
scheme have been recently proposed, they use a hybrid ~ R
frequency- and time-domain approach [18], or a state equation
~ L
modeling [19].

Programs based on the trapezoidal rule are currently the most

widely used for simulation of electromagnetic transients . This
is due to the simplicity of this integration rule, as well as to its a) Scheme of the rectifier
numerical stability. The trapezoidal rule is an A-stable method
which does not produce run-off instability [20]. However, this
rule suffers from some drawbacks: it uses a fixed time-step size
and can originate sustained numerical oscillations. During the
last twenty years several works have been presented to solve or
minimize most of these drawbacks.

The step size determines the maximum frequency that can be

simulated, therefore users have to know in advance what is the
frequency range ofthe transient simulation to be performed. On
the other hand, both slow and fast transients can occur at the
same time in different nodes. A procedure by which two or b) Simulation result without the snubber circuit
more time step sizes can be used in the trapezoidal integration
was presented in [21].

2.2 NUMERICAL OSCILLATIONS

In many cases, such as switching operations or transitions

between segments in piecewise-linear inductances , the
trapezoidal rule acts as a differentiator, and introduces sustained
numerical oscillations. Several techniques have been proposed
, (..,el
to control or reduce these numerical oscillations.

One of these techniques uses additional damping to force
oscillations to decay [22]. This damping can be provided by the
integration rule itself or externally, by adding fictitious
resistances in parallel with inductances and in series with
capacitors. This method can have an important effect on the
accuracy of the solution.
Another technique is based on the use of snubber (RC) circuits
in parallel with switches. This option is particularly interesting
in power electronics applications as snubber circuits are very
often placed in parallel with semiconductors to limit
overvoltages across them. Figure 2 shows a very simple case of
a half-wave single-phase rectifier. Plots without and with
snubber circuit in parallel with the diode illustrate this drawback
of the trapezoidal rule, and one possible solution.
c) Simulation result with the snubbercircuit
Fig. 2. Numerical oscillations and their solution.
Some of the most efficient techniques developed to avoid
numerical oscillations are based on the temporary modification
of the solution method, only when numerical oscillations can
occur, without affecting the rest of the simulation. One ofthese
techniques is based on the CDA (Critical Damping Adjustment)
procedure [23], [24]. During a switching operation, CDA uses
a backward Euler rule and two half-size integration steps. This
method does not require recalculation of the admittance matrix.
Another technique is based on interpolation [25]. Several
approaches have been developed. The procedure presented in
[26] uses two time step sizes and represents switching devices
(power electronics components) by means of characteristic
curves . A modified linear interpolation to solve problems
manifested not only in the network solution, but in the control

1-3
system too, has been presented in [27].
2.3 INITIALIZATION
The solution of a transient phenomenon is dependent on the
initial conditions with which the transient is started. Although
some simulations can be performed with zero initial conditions,
for instance some lightning surge studies, there are many
instances for which the simulation must be started from power-
frequency steady-state conditions. Capabilities to obtain the
initial steady-state solution are of great importance in emtps. In
addition, an initialization procedure can be a useful tool on its
own, for instance to calculate resonant voltages due to coupling
effects between parallel transmission lines.
The steady-state solution of linear networks at a single
frequency is a rather simple task, and can be obtained using
nodal admittance equations [5]
[Y] [V] = [I]
(5)
where [V] is the nodal complex admittance matrix
[V] is the vector of node voltages
[I] is the vector of current sources.
Elements of both [V] and [I] are complex phasor values.
As for the transient solution, this equation is partitioned when
the network contains voltage sources to ground
[YAA ] [VA] = [I A] - [YAB] [VB]
(6)
However, this task can be very complex in the presence of
nonlinearities. Saturation effects in transformers and shunt
reactors, rectifier loads and HVDC converter stations can
produce steady-state harmonics.
The initial solution with harmonics can be obtained using some
simple approaches. The simplest one is known as "brute force"
approach : the simulation is started without performing any
initial calculation and carried out long enough to let the
transients settle down to steady-state conditions. This approach
can have a reasonable accuracy, but its convergence will be very
slow ifthe network has components with light damping. A more
efficient method is to perform an approximate linear ac
steady-state solution with nonlinear branches disconnected or
represented by linearized models. Some emtps have either a
"snapshot" or a "start again" feature. The state of the system is
saved after a run, so later runs can be started at this point. Using
a "brute force" initialization, the system is started from
standstill, once it reaches the steady-state, a snapshot is taken
and saved.
1-4
A significant effort has been made during the last years to
develop efficient procedures for implementation in emtps and
aimed at calculating ac steady-state initial conditions with the
presence of nonlinear components. The techniques can be
divided into three groups: frequency-domain, time-domain, and
hybrid methods.
One of the first methods, known as Initialization with
Harmonics (IwH), was presented in [28]. This procedure uses
an iterative solution based on the superposition of the steady-
state phasor solutions at the fundamental frequency and at the
most important harmonic frequencies, with a representation of
nonlinear inductances as harmonic current sources.
An improved version ofthe IwH method was presented in [29].
This procedure uses a harmonic Norton modeling of nonlinear
branches and a quasi-Newton type method.
Several procedures have been proposed to calculate initial
conditions using time-domain techniques. The search of the
periodic steady-state solution is presented as a two-point
boundary value optimization problem. Techniques developed
during the last years are based on an iterative Newton method.
More recent procedures use a shooting method [30], or a
waveform relaxation technique [31]. The latter paper presents
a procedure with a fast and efficient convergence in networks
with nonlinear power elements and ideal diode-type devices.
Hybrid approaches to calculate initial conditions in nonlinear
networks using both frequency- and time-domain techniques
have also been developed [32].
A different solution method to obtain steady-state solution is
needed when initial operating conditions are specified as power
constraints. An initialization procedure, kown as Multiphase
Harmonic Load Flow (MHLF), was presented in [33] and [34].
In this method, static compensators and other nonlinear
elements, under balanced or unbalanced conditions, are
represented by harmonic Norton equivalent circuits. Further
improvements incorporated a synchronous machine model into
the initialization procedure [35]. A simpler multiphase power
flow solution based on the MHLF procedure was presented in
[36]. If this approach is used for emtp initialization, sources
need to be defmed to drive the transient solution at those nodes
for which load flow models were specified.
2.4 CONTROL SYSTEMS
The development of a section for representation of control
systems in transients programs was initially motivated by
studies of HVDC links. The Transient Analysis of Control
Systems (TACS) option was implemented in the BPA EMTP in
1976 [37]. Although the main goal was the simulation ofHVDC Components other than transfer functions can be included in a
converters, it soon became obvious that TACS had many other TACS section, but they are seen as nonlinear blocks and not
applications, such as the representation of excitation of directly added into the simultaneous solution of transfer
synchronous generators, dynamic arcs in circuit breakers, or functions.
protective relays .
When a nonlinear block is inside a closed-loop configuration,
Control systems are represented in TACS by block diagrams a true simultaneous solution is not possible. The procedure
with interconnection between system elements. Control implemented in the TACS solution is simultaneous only for
elements can be transfer functions, FORTRAN algebraic linear blocks, that is s-transfer functions, and sequential for
functions, logical expressions and some special devices. The nonlinear blocks. When these blocks are present, the loop is
solution method used by TACS is also based on the trapezoidal broken and the system is solved by inserting a time delay. These
rule. A control block in the s-domain can be described by the delays inside control loops, as well as the delay between the
following relationship network and the control system, are the sources of different
X(s) = G(s) U(s) effects. Instabilities, inaccuracies and numerical oscillations
(7) produced by delays have been reported.
where U(s) and X(s) are respectively the input and the output in
the Laplace domain, and G(s) a rational transfer function Although the first release ofTACS was a powerful and flexible
tool, new applications have been demanding other capabilities
N +Ns+ • • • +Ns m than those implemented in the original version. One example are
G ( s) =K 0 1 m msn
Do + D1 S + ••• + Dns n (8) the new digital controls used in static compensators, HVDC
converters and other FACTS devices. The execution of tasks
Transfer functions are converted into algebraic equations in the only when needed, the simulation of conditional branching
time-domain (IF-THEN-ELSE) or the manipulation of vector arrays are
' x ( t ) =Kdu(t) +hist(t-~t)
capabilities not available in the first TACS releases.
(9)
where K is the gain, while c and d are obtained from the Several works have been performed to overcome main
coefficient of the rational transfer function G(s) [5], [37]. limitations and minimize problems originated by TACS :
* Improvements to solve internal time delays, initialization
A control system with many linear blocks results in a system of problems and some FORTRAN code limitations, were
equations with the following general form implemented and presented in [38].
[Ax) [x] + [Ax) [u] = [hist] (10)
* Limitations in FORTRAN code capabilities were solved by
The resulting algebraic equations of a control system are by developing an interface between TACS and FORTRAN
nature unsymmetrical. Due to this fact, the electric network and subroutines. The interface presented in [39] maintains full
the control system were solved separately in the original TACS TACS capabilities and takes advantage of the FORTRAN
release. The network solution is first advanced, network flexibility to represent digital controls.
variables are next passed to the control section, and then control * Another approach to overcome these limitations was provided
equations are solved. Finally, the network receives control by MODELS [40]. Initially known as "New TACS" , the
commands. The whole procedure introduces a time-step delay , MODELS program was developed to substitute the TACS
see Figure 3. program. However, it became obvious that both options
provided alternate approaches, and therefore TACS was
NETWORK preserved in those emtps in which MODELS was imbedded.
solution from - -----____. node volt a ge s. branch
t-tIt to t --........... currents, etc., between * Several techniques can be used to solve simultaneously power
'-""Z
<,<, i-At. end t used us input
network and control system equations and avoid problems
TACS
"'-" related to the interface delay . Two procedures using
voltage and
V;ifJe
( de_l~Y • compensation have been recently developed [41], [42] .
c u r r en t. sources, " U TACS
* A different and simple solution using filter interposition to
...'<, '

lime -varying resistan~: --...~ solution from

etc.. between t ···,ut end t i t · ·M to t
solve inaccuracies caused by the interface time delay was
L
I -_ _
used 8S input to NETWORK in
next step n-om l to t+At. recently presented in [43].

Figure 3. Interface between a network and a control system.

1 -5
 3. MODELING OF COMPONENTS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
An accurate simulation ofevery transient phenomenon requires
a representation of network components valid for a frequency
range that varies from DC to several MHz. An acceptable
representation of each component throughout this frequency
range is very difficult, and for most components is not
practically possible.
Modeling of power components taking into account the
frequency-dependence ofparameters can be practically made by
developing mathematical models which are accurate enough for
a specific range of frequencies. Each range of frequencies
usually corresponds to some particular transient phenomena.
One of the most accepted classification of frequency ranges is
that proposed by the CIGRE WG 33-02 [184]. According to the
CIGRE document, frequency ranges can be classified as four
groups with some overlapping
* low-frequency oscillations, from 0.1 Hz to 3 kHz
* slow-front surges, from 50/60 Hz to 20 kHz
* fast-front surges, from 10 kHz to 3 MHz
* very-fast-front surges, from 100 kHz to 50 MHz.
This part discusses modeling works for some of the most
important network components - overhead lines, insulated
cables, transformers, arresters, network equivalents, rotating
machines, circuit breakers - taking into account their
frequency-dependent behaviour.
3.2 OVERHEAD LINES
Two types of time-domain models have been developed for
overhead lines and insulated cables :
a) Lumped-parameter models, that represent transmission
systems by lumped elements whose values are calculated
at a single frequency
b) Distributed-parameter models, for which two categories
can be distinguished, constant parameter and frequency-
dependent parameter models.
The first type of models is adequate for steady-state
calculations, although they can also be used for transient
simulations in the neighbourhood of the frequency at which
parameters were evaluated. The most accurate models for
transient calculations are those which take into account the
distributed nature of parameters and consider their
frequency-dependence.
1-6
A significant number of papers dedicated to analyze the
frequency-dependence behaviour of overhead lines and
insulated cables for digital simulation has been presented during
the last 30 years. And although some efficient models are
presently implemented in the most widely used emtps, new
efforts are being now devoted to the development of more
efficient models.
Some of the first papers presenting frequency-dependent line
models for digital simulation were published during the late
1960's and early 1970's [44], [45]. Most models were aimed at
solving transmission-line equations using a time-domain
solution. Those models were based on the modal theory :
multiphase line equations are decoupled through modal
transformation matrices, so that each mode can be separately
studied as a single-phase line. For unbalanced and untransposed
lines, transformation matrices are frequency dependent.
However, it is possible to obtain a good accuracy using constant
transformation matrices [46], [47].
Several approaches using modal theory have been proposed:
weighting functions [10], recursive convolutions [48] - [50],
state-space formulation [51]. One of the most popular models
was presented in [52]; the paper proposed the solution of a
transmission line model using a modified recursive convolution
and assuming frequency-independent transformation matrices.
The transient solution of this model is based on the rational
function approximation of the propagation and characteristic
admittance functions. The order of the rational functions will
depend on the line geometry, the frequency range and the
desired accuracy. A high accuracy can only be obtained with a
large number of real poles. This can slow down the simulation
of large networks. Low-order fittings have been proposed as a
compromise between the solution accuracy and the model
simplicity [53], [54]. The validity and limitations of constant
transformation matrices, as well as guidelines on how to choose
these matrices, were discussed in [55].
A procedure for representing dissipative multiconductor
transmission lines with frequency-dependent parameters in a
wide frequency range has been recently proposed [56]. The
procedure is aimed at evaluating the correcting terms to be
added to the propagation and characteristic admittance functions
calculated according to the solution presented in [52].
New methods using frequency-dependent transformation
matrices have been recently proposed. They are based on a
Newton-Raphson iteration technique [57], vector fitting and
modal decomposition [58], or polar decomposition [59].
A different solution method based on the superposition
principle and the Hartley transform was presented in [60].
Some recent works have shown that the solution of line
equations can be efficiently performed using a phase-domain
formulation, instead of modal-domain [61] - [68]. Reference
[68] uses a second method which combines modal and phase
domain solutions.
All the previous papers consider transmission line
representations taking into account only conductor geometry.
Some other parts ofa transmission line, such as the towers, have
an important influence on its performance in lightning studies.
The concept of nonuniform transmission lines includes the
effect of towers and grounding resistances, as well as corona
effect [69], [70]. In lightning studies, towers are represented by
a surge impedance with an associated travel time. Literature
related to tower modeling can be found in [71] - [74].
A source of attenuation and distortion of surges and
overvoltages in overhead lines is corona. An important effort
has been made during the last 20 years to understand this effect
and for its representation in transient studies [75] - [79]. Many
interesting papers dealing with corona representation in digital
simulations have also been published [80] - [86].
3.3 INSULATED CABLES
The formulation of insulated cable equations and their solution
are similar to those used with overhead lines. However, the
large variety of cable designs makes very difficult the
development of a single model for representation of every type
of cable.
One of the first works dealing with a general formulation of
impedances and admittances of single-core coaxial and
pipe-type cables was presented in [87]. The cable models could
be used to evaluate matrices and equivalent pi-circuits ofcables
and to obtain steady-state initialization at a single frequency, but
they should be used to perform accurate transient calculations.
The validity of this formulation is restricted, as mentioned
above, to transient calculations in the neighbourhood of the
frequency at which parameters are evaluated. The derivation of
cable impedances and admittances was the subject of some
previous works, see [88] for coaxial cables and [89] for
pipe-type cables.
Reference [90] presented a method to solve cable equations
considering the frequency-dependence ofcable parameters. The
solution of the cable equations is performed in the modal
domain and assumes frequency-dependence of modal
transformation matrices. The model is valid for transient
simulations over a wide frequency range. Recent works have
presented new approaches based on vector fitting and modal
decomposition [58], or polar decomposition [59].
1-7
Additional works related to cable modeling and some case
studies are presented in [91] - [93].
As mentioned above, a new trend in the solution of cable
equations taking into account frequency-dependence of
parameters is to carry out calculations in the phase-domain [62],
[63], [64], [67].
A method for simulating electromagnetic wave propagation in
coaxial cables represented by finite sections, taking into account
the frequency dependence of cable parameters, was presented
in [94].
3.4 POWER TRANSFORMERS
An accurate representation of a power transformer over a wide
frequency range is very difficult, despite of its relatively simple
design. In addition, two alternative transformer models can be
used whether surge transfer from one winding to another is not
of concern, or surge transfer has to be computed.
Representations for both situations were proposed in the
document written by the CIGRE WG 33.02 [184].
A significant effort on transformer modeling has been made
during the last twenty years. Some modeling approaches for use
in transient programs follow:
1) The representation of single- and three-phase n-winding
transformers is made in the form of a branch impedance
or admittance matrix [95]. This approach is generally used
to derive models for low-frequency and slow-front
transients. Transformer parameters are both nonlinear and
frequency-dependent. Major causes of iron core
nonlinearities are saturation and hysteresis; one of the
main causes of frequency-dependence are eddy currents.
This approach cannot include nonlinear effects of iron
cores. They are incorporated by connecting nonlinear
inductances at winding terminals, Many built-in models
currently available in several emtps use this type of
representation; their derivation is made from nameplate
data.
Iron core nonlinearities have been the subjects of many
interesting papers [96] - [102]. The representation of eddy
current effects has been analyzed in [103] - [106].
2) Detailed models incorporating core nonlinearities can also
be derived by using the principle of duality from a
topology based magnetic model [107] - [110]. This
approach is very useful to create models accurate enough
for low-frequency and slow-front transients.
A different approach to obtain the equivalent circuit of a
three-phase five-legged transformer, valid also for
 low-frequency and slow-front transients, was proposed in related to modeling of surge arresters can be found in [130],
[111]. A hybrid model based on core topology, and [131], [132].
consisting of electric and magnetic circuits was presented
in [112]. MOSAs present a frequency-dependent nonlinear characteris-
tic: the voltage across the arrester is a function ofboth the rate
3) Previous approaches do not consider frequency-dependent
of rise and th~ magnitude of the current conducted by the
parameters, they are not useful to represent a transformer
arrester.ModelmgofMOSAs was the subject ofa paper written
at high frequencies, although they can be improved if
by the IEEEWG on Surge Arrester Modeling [133]. The paper
lumped capacitances are connected across transformer
proposes a procedureto obtain the parametersof the equivalent
terminals. Models taking into account frequency-dependent
model from manufacturer's data.
parameters can be divided into two groups : models with
a detailed description of internal windings [113] and
A different model that represents the frequency-dependence
terminal models, based on the fitting of the elements of a
behaviour by means of a nonlinear inductance in series with a
circuit that represents the transformer as seen from its
nonlinear resistance was proposed in [134]. An algorithm to
terminals [114] - [118].
derive parametersof the arrester model from test data was also
included.
Reference [119] presents a simplified model based on the
classical T-fonn model; this model is extended to high
Modeling guidelines of gapped silicon-carbide surge arresters
freque~cie~ by adding winding capacitances and representing
~or digital simulationsof slow-front transients were presented
short-circuit branches by RL frequency-dependent equivalent
In [135]. The proposed model is based on current-limiting
networks.
arrester design. Recommendations to adapt the model for
lightning studies were also included.
A hybrid model for internal resonance studies, and valid for a
wide frequency range - from a few kHz to a few Mhz -, was
~etal-~xide v~stors (MOV) models suitable for digital
presentedin [120].Themodelis based on a coil-by-coil detailed
simulation ofsenes compensatedlines have been the subject of
model plus intercoil black box models.
some recent works [136], [137].
Detailed models are needed to obtain internal transient voltage
3.6 NETWORK EQUIVALENTS
distribution. These models are reasonably accurate for
insulation design, and generally consist of large networks.
The simulation of transient phenomena in power systems very
However,theymakesystemmodelsunnecessarylargewhenthe
often requires a detailed modeling of just a small part of the
concern is the response at the transformer terminals, Some
system to be studied. Network equivalents can be used to
effortshavebeen devotedto obtainreduced transformer models
represent those parts of the system for which a detailed
using eitherlinear or nonlinear techniques [121] - [124]. '
modeling is not needed. The goal is to reduce the complexity
and the computation time, while the simulation accuracy is
Other models, including saturation, hysteresis, as well as
preserved. Several procedures have been proposed since early
eddy-currentlosses, have been proposed in [125] - [127]. The
1970's to obtain single- and multi-port network equivalents
performance of different transformer models, most of them
[138] - [142].
currentlyimplemented in manyemtps,for the simulationof fast
switchingtransients was analyzed in [128].
Most of these procedures are based on the frequency response
of the network to be represented by the equivalent and on the
Usually models are derived considering the behaviour of the
application of a fitting technique to synthesize either a single-
transformer from its terminals, a method for simulation of
or a multi-port circuit which matches the response of the
internalfaultsinpowertransformers usingcapabilitiesavailable
network over a wide range of frequencies.
in some emtps was presented and validated in [129].
3.7 ROTATING MACHINES
3.5 SURGE ARRESTERS
The need for detailed synchronous generator models in
~~o basic ~es of surge arresters are now in use : gapped
transients programs was motivated by some serious
silicon-carbidearrestersand gaplessmetal-oxide surgearresters
su~~~chronous resonance (SSR) incidents in the early 1970's.
(MOSA). Although many of the arresters still in use are the
~tIhtIe~ were concerned about some problems involving
?lder type gapped silicon-carbide, the majority of the new
interactions between synchronous generators and power
mstalled arresters are the gapless metal-oxide type. Literature

1-8
systems.
The simulation oftorsional interactions between the mechanical
turbine-generator system and the power system needs a very
detailed representation of the generator and the power system.
Several dynamic three-phase synchronous generator models
were developed and implemented in the BPA EMTP at mid
1970's [143], [144]. All those models were based on the Park's
transformation for solving the electrical equations. They
incorporated a detailed representation of mechanical and
electrical parts, used a sophisticated solution method to solve
machine-power system interface, and included interface to
control systems.
Although its development was raised by SSR problems, those
models could also be used for other studies, such as loss of
synchronism, load rejection or transmission line reclosure.
Magnetic saturation effects were not included at early stages. A
simple and efficient representation of magnetic saturation was
added to one model in the late 1970's [145].
Interests in the analysis and simulation of renewable energy
sources motivated the demand for other machine models. A very
powerful and flexible module, known as Universal Machine
(UM), was implemented in the BPA EMTP in 1980 [146]. The
UM module allowed the representation ofup to twelve different
machine models and expanded the applications ofthe program,
for instance to the simulation of adjustable speed drives. The
first UM release had several limitations that were solved in
subsequent versions [147]. Two interface methods,
compensation and prediction, are currently used with this
module.
All the machine models above mentioned are based on the
transformation of phase-quantities into dqo-quantities. The
matrix of self and mutual inductances becomes then constant.
With models based on compensation methods no more than one
machine connected to the same nodes can be simulated. This
limitation is avoided with a prediction-based interface.
However, with this solution method, the prediction of several
electrical variables is needed. This can originate numerical
instability.
The development of a synchronous generator model using
phase-domain equations instead of Park's transformation to
solve the electrical equations has been recently presented [148].
This solution is numerically stable, as no prediction of any
electrical variable is made, and simplifies the inclusion of
saturation effects. With this approach, the matrix of self and
mutual inductances changes with the rotor position, then the
admittance matrix of the network has to be recalculated at each
time step, which generally increases the simulation time.
1-9
Different techniques to solve machine-power system interface
have also been developed and implemented in other transients
programs [149].
Models currently implemented in all emtps are adequate for
simulation of low frequency transients. They are sufficiently
accurate to analyze the interaction between the machine and the
power system, as well as torsional oscillations in the mechanical
part. However, these models are not adequate for simulation of
fast-front transients. Some switching motor operations can
originatesteep-front surges and cause large turn-to-turn winding
stresses. Lightning surges transferred through transformers are
also a source of high stresses and dielectric failures. Recent
works have proposed computer models for analyzing machine
behaviour in fast-front transients and predicting distribution of
interturn voltages caused by steep-fronted surges [150], [151],
[152]. Some of these models have been represented and
simulated using emtp capabilities [150], [152].
Techniques to develop machine models based on their
frequency response have also been proposed [118], [153].
Most emtp studies are dealing with large three-phase
synchronous and induction machines. The analysis and
simulation of small and special machines were presented in
[154], [155].
The simulation of an induction machine using the existing
synchronous machine models available in some emtps was
detailed in [156].
3.8 CIRCUIT BREAKERS
A circuit breaker opens its contacts when a tripping signal is
sent to it. The separation of the contacts causes the generation
of an electric arc. The phenomenon by which the arc is actually
extinguished is very complicated. Although a large number of
arc models have been proposed, there is no general acceptance
for any of them.
Several approaches can be used to reproduce the arc
interruption phenomenon; the most suitable representations in
a transients program are the so called black-box models [157],
[158]. The aim of a black-box arc model is to describe the
interaction of an arc and a electrical circuit during an
interruption process. They consider the arc as a two-pole, and
determine the transfer function using a chosen mathematical
form and fitting free parameters to measured voltage and current
traces. Rather than internal processes, it is the electrical
behaviour of the arc which is of importance. Several levels of
complexity are possible [159], [160] :
1) The breaker is represented as an ideal switch that opens at
 first zero current crossing, after the tripping signal is
given. This model can be used to obtain the voltage across
the breaker, which is to be compared with a pre-specified
transient recovery voltage (TRY) withstand capability for
the breaker. This model cannot reproduce any interaction
between the arc and the system.
2) The arc is represented as a time-varying resistance, whose
variation is determined ahead of time based on the breaker
characteristic. This model can represent the effect of the
arc on the system, but requires advanced knowledge of the
effect of the system on the arc.
3) The most advanced models represent the breaker as a
dynamically varying resistance or conductance. They can
represent both the effect of the arc on the system and the
effect of the system on the arc. No precomputed TRY
curves are required. Most of these models rely on a first
1 dg _ ( 1 vi ) of switching overvoltages, usually provided in the form of
g dt - "1[1 i I I g] P [j i I I g] - 1
order differential equation
where g is the arc conductance
v is the arc voltage
i is the arc current
't ,P are black-box model parameters.
These models are generally developed to determine initial
arc quenching, that is to study the thermal period only,
although some can also be used to determine arc reignition
due to insufficient voltage withstand capability of the
dielectric between breaker contacts. Their most important
application cases are short line fault interruption and
switching of small inductive currents.
Many models for circuit breakers, represented as a dynamic
resistance/conductance, have been proposed. A survey on
black-box modeling of gas (air, SF6) circuit breakers was
presented in [158]. The emtp implementation of three dynamic
arc models, adequate for gas and oil circuit breakers, was
presented in [161]. All those models are useful to represent a
circuit breaker during the thermal period, models for
representation of SF6 breakers during thermal and dielectric
periods were discussed and used [162], [163]. The development
of a user-defined model based on the Newton's method was
proposed in [164]. A new model also based on the Newton's
method and a predictor for calculation ofthe arc resistance was
recently presented [165].
A vacuum circuit breaker has a different performance, its
representation has to consider its statistical properties. Models
for this type of breaker were presented in [166] and [167].
1-10
Several models can also be used to represent a circuit breaker in
closing operations [5] :
1) The simplest model assumes that the breaker behaves as
an ideal switch whose impedance passes instantaneously
from an infmite value, when open, to a zero value at the
closing time. This performance can be represented at any
part of a power cycle.
A closing operation can produce transient overvoltages
whose maximum peaks depend on several factors, for
instance the network representation on the source side of
the breaker, or the charge trapped on transmission lines in
a reclosing operation. One of the factor which has more
influence on the maximum peak is the instant of closing,
which can be different for every pole of a three-phase
breaker.
Most transient programs allow users to analyze the
influence of this factor and obtain a statistical distribution
(11) an accumulative frequency distribution. Two types of
switches can be represented:
a - The closing time of a switch is systematically varied
from a minimum to a maximum instant in equal
increments of time; this type is known as systematic switch.
b - The closing time is randomly varied according to
either a normal (Gaussian) or an uniform distribution; this
type is known as statistical switch. Data required to
represent these switches are the mean closing time, the
standard deviation and the number of switching operations.
When a pre-insertion resistor is used to mitigate switching
overvoltages, the closing time of both main and auxiliary
contacts are statistically determined.
2) The breaker model assumes that there is a closing time
from the moment at which the contacts start to close to the
moment that they finally make. The withstand voltage
decreases as the separation distance between contacts
decreases, an arc will strike before the contacts have
completely closed if the voltage across them exceeds the
withstand voltage of the dielectric medium. Modeling of
the pre-strike effect and its influence on the switching
overvoltages produced during line energization has been
analyzed in [168].
Similar models can be used with other switching devices, for
which a representation for both opening and closing operations
can be needed.
3.9 OTHER COMPONENTS
Capabilities currently available in most emtps make practically
possibleuser-developed modelsof thosecomponents for which
a built-in model has not been implemented. In fact, this is the
case for some componentmodels discussedabove
* a transformermodel for low-frequency transientsbased on
the principle of duality has not been implemented in any
emtp, the capabilities needed to develope such a model
have been used in some papers [107]
* there is no built-in model for circuit breakers in most
emtps, but its representation can be made using branches
and control features, available in all emtps [160], [164]
* althoughthere is a built-in surge arrestermodel
implemented in all emtps, it is not adequate for lightning
studies; users have to improve this model by taking
advantageof other capabilities.
Semiconductors are usuallyrepresentedas ideal switchesin all
switchingoperations,althoughsometransientsprogramsallow
usersto considerignitionvoltagesandholdingcurrents. As with
other components, capabilities available in some transient
programscan be used to developmore accuraterepresentations
[169], [170].
The list of components for which a built-in model is not
available might also include instrument transformers [171] -
[175], protective relays [176] - [181], fuses [182], [183]. The
implementation ofmodelsfor instrumenttransformers andsome
types of relays in one emtp was presented in [178].
4. MODELINGGUIDELINES
The followingaspectsareto be consideredin digitalsimulations
of electromagnetic transients [184] :
a) Very often only approximated or estimated values are used
for some parameterswhose influenceon the representation
of a component can be important or very important. In
general, this happens with some basic parameters and
frequency-dependent parametersin simulations of fast and
very fast front transients. In addition, it is important to
take into account that some parameters may change due to
climatic conditions or be dependenton maintenance.
b) In many overvoltages studies it is the maximum peak
which is of interest. This maximum usually occurs during
the first oscillation after the transient phenomenon starts.
Large differences in peak values are mainly due to a poor
representationof losses, while deviations in inductances or
capacitances will lead to time shifting of the peak but not
to importantdifferences betweenthe maximumvalues.
c) The more components the system in study has, the higher
1-11
the probability of insufficient or wrong modeling. In
addition, a very detailed representation of a system will
require very long simulation time. Some experience will
be therefore needed to decide how detailed the system
should be and choose the model for the most important
components.
Presently there are several sources where it is possible to
consult modeling guidelines of power components for time-
domaindigital simulations :
1) One of the first document published on this subject was
that produced by the CIGRE WG 33-02 [184]; it covers
the most important power components and proposes the
representation of each component taking into account the
frequency range of the transient phenomena to be
simulated.
2) Modeling guidelines can also be found in the documents
produced by the IEEE Working Group on Modeling and
Analysis of System Transients Using Digital Programs.
The group was created in 1991 and later split up into 6
Task Forces. Followinga different approach to that of the
CIGREWG, each TF was created to produce
documentation on a particulartype of studies : Low Ftapn:y
Transients, SwitchingTransients, Fast Front
Transients, Very Fast Transients, Power Electronics,
Protection and Control. Up to date, several papers have
been presented [185] - [190].
3) Currently, the IEC Working Group 28-04 is dealing with
the same subject. This WG started its tasks in 1996. The
aim is to produce a document on modeling guidelines for
digital calculation of overvoltages.
5. CONCLUSIONS
Time-domain simulations of electromagnetic transients using
digitalcomputers were started in early 1960's.Currently, most
transientsprograms are based on the Dommel'sscheme which
combines the trapezoidalrule and the Bergeron'smethod.
Muchworkhas been doneto solvesomeofthe main drawbacks
and limitations of the originalscheme,i.e solution of nonlinear
networks, elimination of numerical oscillations. In addition, a
significanteffort has been dedicatedto the developmentof new
models, specially frequency-dependent models for the most
importantpower components.
The development of the first tools was mainlymotivatedby the
calculation of overvoltages. Presently most emtps can be used
for simulating a broad spectrum of transient phenomena in
power systems : subsynchronous resonance, power quality
analysis, AC-DC links, FACTS and Custom Power
technologies, electronically-controlled drives.
Due to the wide range oftransient phenomena in power systems
and the complexity of many studies, modeling guidelines are
needed to choose a correct representation of the most critical
components of the system to be simulated. Several works have
been published during the last decade aimed at providing these
guidelines. However, some work is still needed to solve
important limitations, i.e. the representation of some
components is very complex, reliable data are not always
available.
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1-13
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 Modeling Guidelines for Power Electronics in Electric Power
Engineering Applications
Report Prepared by the Power Electronics Task Force
of the IEEE Modeling and Analysis of System Transients Working Group
Contributing Members: K. K. Sen (Co-Chair), L. Tang (Co-Chair), H. W. Do~mel, K. G. ~ehrle, A. M.
Gole, E.W. Gunther, I. Hassan, R. Iravani, A. J. F. Keri R. Lasseter, J. R. Marti, J. A. Martinez, M. F.
McGranaghan, O. B. Nayak, C. Nwankpa, P. F. Ribeiro
ABSTRACT -This paper presents a summary of
guidelines for modeling power electronics in various power
engineering applications. This document is designed for use by
power engineers who need to simulate power electronic devices
and subsystems with digital computer programs. The guideline
emphasizes the basic issues that are critical for successful mod-
eling of power electronics devices and the interface between
power electronics and the utility or industrial system. The mod-
eling considerations addressed in this guideline are generic for
all power electronics modeling independent of the computa-
tional tool. However, for the purposes of illustration, the simu-
lation examples presented are based on the EMTP or EMTP
type of programs. The procedures used to implement power
electronics models in these examples are valuable for using
other digital simulation tools.
1. INTRODUCTION
As a consequence of the advances in power elec-
tronics technologies over the last two decades, power elec-
tronics applications have quickly spread to all voltage levels,
from EHV transmission to low voltage circuits in end user
facilities. Commonly observed power electronics applica-
tions include HVDC terminals, various static var compensa-
tion (SVC) systems, high power AC to DC converter for DC
arc furnaces, static phase shifter, isolation switch, load trans-
fer switch, converter/inverter based drive technologies,
active line conditioning, energy storage and instantaneous
backup power systems, renewable energy integration, and
numerous others covered under subjects of Flexible AC
Transmission Systems (FACTS) and Custom Power Systems
(CPS). The need for power electronics modeling and simu-
lation is driven by both existing and new applications.
Objectives of the simulation include:
verification of an application design
prediction the performance of a system
identification of potential problems
evaluation of possible problem solutions.
The simulation is specially important for a concept validation
and design iteration during new product development.
Power electronics applications are relatively new to
many power system engineers. This guideline provides gen-
eral procedures to help these engineers to make their own
simulation cases as needed. The theories of power electron-
ics are not discussed. Attention is focused on the simulation
2-1
of the interaction between the power electronic subsystem
and the connected power system. Thus, a model for a power
electronic switching device can be greatly simplified.
Detailed descriptions about the device representation are
presented in the later section of this paper. In the last section
of the paper, the references related to various power elec-
tronics simulations are listed.
2. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS OF POWER
ELECTRONICS MODELING
2.1. Types ofProblems
Power electronics modeling can be divided into
two basic categories, depending on study objectives. The
first category covers all steady state evaluations. The focus
is from the power system response to the harmonics injected
from a power electronics subsystem. Examples of this type
include a study of the steadystate harmonic propagation in a
transmission and distribution system, harmonic frequency
resonance, system voltage and current distortion, filtering
design calculation and performance evaluation, telephone
interference analysis and system losses associated with har-
monics. In this type of study, the harmonic current injection
can often be assumed independent of the voltage variations
at a point of common coupling (PCC) which is an electri-
cally dividing point between the utility system and the cus-
tomer circuit. Therefore, the power electronics subsystem
can greatly be reduced to a shunt circuit equivalent.
The second type of power electronics modeling
covers a much more extensive and complex range of practi-
cal problems. In many applications, operation of a power
electronics subsystem depends closely upon the operation
state of the connected system. To evaluate the dynamic and
transient performance of a system with power electronics
interfaces, the monitoring and control loops of the system,
including detailed signal processing and power electronics
device firing need to be modeled. Examples of this type of
applications can be a SVC system, a Superconducting Mag-
netic Energy Storage (SMES), active power conditioning
system and various adjustable speed drives applications.
When modeling these applications, variations of system
parameters need to be used to derive the power electronic
controls so the output of the power electronics subsystem
changes accordingly as demanded. Since a power electron-
ics subsystem directly affects overall system operation, a
comprehensive treatment of the supply system and the power
electronics subsystem should be performed.
2.2. Frequency Domain and TIme Domain Simulation
The solution methods are considered from two basic ap-
proaches:
1. frequency domain solution
2. time domain solution.
Digital computers can only simulate circuit phe-
nomena at discrete frequencies or at discrete intervals of time
(step size M or ~t). This leads to discretization errors. Com-
pared with the time domain calculation, a frequency domain
simulation is more robust because a circuit solution is found
at each individual frequency and these errors are not accumu-
lated. The programs using this solution method often treat
the nonlinearity of a system as known current sources. For a
harmonic evaluation, the frequency domain solution usually
requires less computation time compared with a time domain
solution. However, most available frequency domain solu-
tion programs have difficulties in handling the system
dynamics, control interfaces and fast transients. The time
domain solution is based on the integration over a discrete
time interval. The numerical methods applied in different
programs can use either iterative techniques or direct solu -
tion methods. The solution stability and accuracy achieved
are closely related to the time step size selection. Because
discretization errors can accumulate , the solution may
diverge from the true solution if an improper time step is
selected. The time domain simulation has great advantages
over a frequency domain simulation in handling the system
dynamics, power electronic models , non-linearities and tran-
sients .
2.3. Toolsfor Power Electronics Application Simulation
According to their main functions, commonly used
tools for power electronics related simulations can be classi-
fied into three groups:
1. Power electronics simulation tools
2. General transients simulation tools or EMTP type of
programs
3. General harmonics simulation tools or frequency
domain simulation tools .
The tools of the first group may offer the best pro-
ductivity if a detailed application topology and complicated
operation controls need to be simulated and if the main inter-
est of the study is the power electronics subsystem. These
tools often have difficulties when an extensive utility net-
work needs to be included in the simulation or when the main
interest of the study is overall system dynamics and tran-
sients. In such cases, the EMTP type programs are usually
more suitable. The currently available versions of the EMTP
2-2
type programs may be less efficient for detailed power elec-
tronics modeling. However, these programs are very attrac-
tive for an application oriented power electronics simulation
because these programs offer tremendous capability and flex-
ibility in characterizing various types of power system com-
ponents , inc lu d in g power electronics switches with
reasonably simplified characteristics. As graphic interfacing
features are gradually incorporated in these programs, a level
of difficulty in using these tools will decrease.
3. MODELING GUIDELINES
3.1. Representation ofPower Electronics Switching Devices
For a power level application, the commonly used
switching devices are power diode , Silicon Controlled Recti-
fier (SCR), Gate Turn-Off thyristor (GTO) and Insulated
Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT). The diode is a two-termi-
nal, uncontrollable device and the rest are three terminal con-
trollable devices.
Representing the reverse recovery characteristic,
leakage current, and forward voltage drop of a diode is often
not necessary for an application study. For an application
simulation, some details of a device characteristic can be
reduced. In many cases, a simplified device model is accept-
able. For example, instead of trying to represent a power
electronic diode device using its switching characteristic as
shown on the left in Fig. 1, a simplified or an idealized char-
acteristic, shown by solid and dotted lines respectively on the
right , can be used. In commonly used simulation programs,
the simplified diode model may be available as a built-in
device or it can be realized with a voltage controlled switch.
Real Device Simulated Device
Characteristic Characteristic
-==---t"- - - v
Cathode --t<:J- Anode
Fig. I. Actual and Simplified Switching Characteristic of Power Di-
ode Device
If the idealized power diode model is not available,
its characteristic can be realized using a voltage controlled
unidirectional current flowing switch with a specified con-
ducting voltage threshold, Vs, as shown in Fig. 2.
 ..
v ment is excludedfrom the study, there is very little difference
Conducting when v>VS
Fig. 2. An IdealizedPower DiodeRealization
Since an existing diode model does not allow to
specify on-state and off-state resistances, the device can be
realized using two above described switches connected in
parallel (Fig. 3) with the opposite polarities and different
conducting voltage thresholds when loss calculation is of
interest. To include losses, the resistors Rf and Rb can be
inserted in series with the forward and backward current
flowing switches respectively, and a leakage resistor Rl can
be connected crossingthe terminalsof the switch branches.
V
..
Rf
.....+-. .R-==:::::::=:::::(-J ~ ~t--e
Rb
Vsb
Rl
Fig. 3. Power Diode Characteristic Realization
The switching characteristics of an actual, a simpli-
fied and an idealized SCR are shown in Fig. 4. To represent
the simplified SCR device, the tum-on control is added on
the simplifieddiode model. If the controlis applied continu-
ously, this switch simulates the diode which allows unidirec-
tional current flow when the switch is forward biased.
Delaying the gate pulse allows control over the tum-on
instant of the forward biased switch.
Lu
Real Device Simulated Device
Characteristic Characteristic
Igl IgO
--::::=~-+-..-.:====.. ---=-+-=-----
Vbo
Cathode~ Anode
Fig. 4. An Actual and SimplifiedSwitching Characteristic of SCR
Device
2-3
For numerical simulations, if the gating circuit power require-
between modelinga GTO, IGBT or any other three-terminal,
controllable, unidirectional current flowing device. The de-
vice can all be represented by an simplified switch with gate
tum-on and tum-off controls. The different switchingcharac-
teristics can be realized by applying different firing controls.
In the simulation, additional errorscan accrue becausethe gat-
ing pulses can only be applied at integral time-step multiples,
which may not be the case in reality.The impactof this can be
minimized if the program allows a variable time-step or uses
interpolation [60].
In an actualpower electronicsapplication, in order to provide
a continuous current flowing path for an inductive load, a re-
versal diode (free wheeling diode) is used in parallel with a
controllable switching device to form the basic power elec-
tronics switching unit. However, several alternatives are
availablefor implementing this basic switchingunit in digital
simulations.
Considering only the terminal equivalent at the connection
point of the application, the simplest model that can be used
to presentone leg of the bridgerectifier or invertercan be con-
structed with one simplified bi-directional current flowing
switch with gate controls as shown in Fig. 5 (1). This model
Catho~de
Gate X I -----.I
(1) (2) (3 )
Fig. 5. Alternatives for Three-terminal Controllable SwitchingDe-
vice Representation
uses the least number of devices for a given power
electronics topology. The problem with this bidirectionalcur-
rent flowing switch representation is that it fails to correctly
representan operationstate during the idling period. This can
be better explained with an example of a simplified inverter
schemeused in a UPS as shown in Fig.6.
DC AC
Battery Supply
Fig. 6. Simplified InverterScheme in a UPS System
When all the controlled switching devices are
blocked, the DC battery charges through the rectifier bridge
consisting of six reversal diodes. However, if the ideal bidi-
rectional switches are used, while the UPS is idling, the bat-

~~
tery will not be charged by the AC supply.

When the idling mode needs to be more realistically J---=3=- Voltage GTO
represented, the simple bidirectional device model can be Load
improved with a parallel reversal diode as shown in Fig. 5
(2) . When the terminal effects as well as the individual ~O"'"'---+-...l..-_------'
device current carrying conditions are of interest, a further
improvement on the model can be made by adding another To Firing Control
diode as shown in Fig. 5 (3).

It should be noted that for some programs, multiple
switch connections on the same circuit node can lead to a sin-
gular system admittance matrix. When using a program with
such restriction, a small series resistor or inductor can be
used to create intermediate nodes and avoid the problem.
To illustrate a power electronic device realization,
an EMTP example of a GTO operation is given below. In this
example , a GTO module is built with a controlled bi-direc-
tional current flowing switch (type-13 switch) in series with
a built-in diode device (type-ll switch). Considering the
GTO is often utilized in applications with a reactive power
carrying capability, a reversal diode (free wheeling diode)
has been included. The schematic of the module connection
is shown in Fig. 7. A list of the module file is given in
Appendix A. Note that although it has not been shown in
Fig. 7, some small resistors are used to introduce intermedi-
Fig. 8. An Example Circuit to Show GTO Simulation.
The GTO gating signal is illustrated in Fig. 9. When
the gating signal is greater than zero , the GTO is turned on
and when the gating signal is equal to zero, the GTO is
turned off. The GTO is initially open . The current flowing
through the GTO and voltage across the load resistor after
t=O are illustrated in Figs. 10 and 11 respectively. By control-
ling the GTO firing , the average output voltage at the load
terminal can be regulated.
GTO Gating Sqncl
1
, 1
--,--------,-----..-----1\ 1

]~J I
ate nodes between the EMTP switches and snubber elements
are used in this GTO module.

" " " " I1

Fig. 9. The GTO Firing Signal.

type-I 3
switch
• type-l l
switch

Fig. 7. An EMTP Realization ofGTO Device

Fig. 10. The Current Flowing through GTO
An example circuit given in Fig. 8 is used to illus-
trate how this module is used in a circuit simulation. In this
example, the GTO device is used to regulate the voltage at a
resistive load terminal. By controlling the GTO tuning-on
and off, the average voltage across the resistor can be
adjusted.

2-4

6OO1t---+---I---t-+-+--++--
100111-----+-,-------1--'---+--'---1----+---1
Fig. 11. TheVoltage across a Resistive Load
3.2. Representation ofPower Electronics (PE) Systems
If every individual power electronic switching
device is represented, a system model containingpower elec-
tronic applications can easily reach a complicationlevel that
is difficult for implementation. For an example, a HVDC ter-
minal contains tens to hundreds series and parallel SCR
devices in one converter leg for high voltage and MVA rat-
ings. Obviously, if one wants to represent each individual
SCR device in this HVDC system model, one will have to
build a very large model.
Fortunately, (except for some failure mode analy-
ses), for the purposes of most applicationsimulations it is not
necessary to represent all individual devices. Usually, what
needs to be simulated is the terminal characteristics of a
power electronic subsystem and how it interfaces with the
connected system . Thus, the following procedures can be
used to reduce the modeling complexity:
Use one or a few equivalent devices to representseries
and parallel combination of a group of devices
Represent power electronic loads with similar character-
istics by an equivalent load
Use the simplest device model which is appropriate for
the application
Represent a power electronic subsystemby equivalent
source injection whenever it is acceptable
• Represent only the front end of the drive system when
the major concern is utility interfacing
Include the system dynamic and controls only when nec-
essary
• Use modular approach for large scale model develop-
ment
2-5
Snubber R ond C
+
Controlloble SWitching Device
AC Output
DC Supply
Fig. 12. Voltage Source Converter Simulation
With these general guidelines, a voltage source con-
verter model for a system dynamic evaluation can be built as
shown in Fig. 12. Irrespective of how many series and paral-
lel GTO devices are used in an actual application, only two
GTO devices are used in each phase of the model to form a
converter leg. In this example, the just discussed GTO mod-
ule is used as a building block to construct the converter
module.
The GIO firing control signals for the six-step oper-
ation is given in Fig. 13. The firing signal for the switching
cells No. 1 through No.6 are shown in this figure by the
traces with the magnitude 1.1 through 1.6 respectively. The
device firing starts when the time reaches one 60 Hz cycle
ending point. When the gating signal is greater than zero, the
corresponding GTO device is turned on. When the gating sig-
nal is equal to zero, the device is turned off. The resulting
line-to-neutral and line-to-line output voltages are illustrated
in Figs. 14 and 15, respectively.
GTO Firing SignOI vs. Time
~---;-----, - - I
I····
0.'"
o.>·f---+--r----l-t-+-+-+-H-t-+-+--'-I
0.00
Fig. 13. The GTO Firing Signal fortheSix Step Converter Operation
 L; n e- : o - G r o i.J ~ C1 VOllcge

}
600
~

~- i-I
I
' 00 .... !

100
:
"

I
0
i
-100 i
,
: ~ I ii L-.
!
- '00

-600
j
JO '0
Time mS "
Fig. 18. The Resulting Line-to-Neutral Voltage
Fig. 14. Six Step OperationLine-to-Neutral Voltage
tine-t o- Line Voltage

~;
I
. . I~-··f~==q
' C10'&>"il'JS&-~I~ ej

"
Time (mS)

Fig. 19. The Resulting Line-to-Line Voltage

Fig. 15. Six Step Operation Line-to-Line Voltage
For this case, the GTO firing control signal is
derived by comparing the saw tooth carrier signal with a ref-
erence signal of a desired frequency of that phase . As shown
in Fig. 16, whenever, the instantaneous value of the reference
signal is greater than that of the carrier signal, the device is
turned on.
PWMFiring Signal Generation
In this guideline, deta iled considerations related to
applying these system reduction are presented. Some impor-
tant issues addressed are:
Harmonic cancellation when multiple loads are repre-
sented by their lumped equivalent
Existing system distortion.
Appropriate source topology for PE subsystem represen-
tation
• System unbalance
Effects of a DC link or the inverter side connection on
the front end interface with the power supply system
Current or voltage sharing among the parallel or series
switching devices
Switching loss prediction

.
tL
. ----c------,;:----~---____;
- " JO
3.3.Representation ofPowerSystems

Fig. 17. The PWMFiringSignal: Reference VoltageFrequency =60
Hz, Carrier Signal Frequency =600 Hz
The simulated line-to-neutral and line-to-line output
voltages are shown in Figs. 17 and 18, respectively. By
changing the magnitude and frequency of the reference sig-
nal, the output voltage magnitude and frequency can be
changed. The carrier frequency determines the characteristic
harmonic components of the output voltage.
Similar to the situation in a power electronics sub-
system, a power supply system can easily extend to a large
electrical and geographic radius and become too complicated
to model. Therefore, the power system needs to be simpli-
fied . The proper level of system reduction depends on the
study objectives.
If the purpose is to characterize the harmonics gen-
erated by a particular type of power electronics application,
the power system model can be significantly reduced. When
a pre-existing voltage distortion level at a power electronics
interfacing bus is low, the rest of the power system can be

2-6
satisfactorily represented by one or a set of first orderequiva-
lents connected to the bus at a higher system voltage level.
For an example, if the power electronics application inter-
faces with the system at the low voltage bus of a step-down
transformer, the equivalent of the system can be placed on
the high voltage bus of the transformer. When a pre-existing
voltage distortionlevel is greater than 2%, one needs an ade-
quate harmonic source to properly represent the background
distortion.
If the objective is to evaluate effects of the power
electronics on a connected utility system, the model shall be
extended to cover all sensitive loads (i.e. rotating machines
and all other major power electronics) within a concerned
electrical radius. Special attention is needed if an unbal-
ancedsystem conditionis involved.
Extensivepower systemmodel is requiredfor a har-
monic propagation and resonant study. The main system
components and dominant topology need to be kept in the
power system model. Filter banks, nonlinear passive circuit
components, and all other harmonic injection sources should
be represented. Frequency dependent characteristics of the
systemcomponents might need to be considered.
3.4. Representation ofSystem Controls
The system control is one of the most important
aspectof a power electronics simulation. As illustrated in this
paper, a switching device is greatly simplified. The proper
switching performance of a device is realizedvia appropriate
gate controls. Modelingof power electronic controls consists
of three steps:
1. Monitoring and sampling
2. Signalprocessingand controlreference derivation
3. Device gating signal generation.
Most simulation tools provide some means to
implement system controls. In some later developed pro-
grams, the control block diagram and flow-chart structures
are supported for modeling different levels of system con-
trols. Using these tools, a user can define the specified con-
trols in a simulated system with great flexibility. Some key
issues ensuring a correct control modeling is briefly men-
tioned below. These issues are more thoroughly treatedin the
guideline with illustration examples.
For a time domainsimulation, the highestresolution for
a signal samplingis determined by a selectedtime step.
In general, this presentsno problemfor analog control.
However, for digitalcontrolsimulation, if the selected
time step is too large and if the simulated sampling reso-
lution is significantly differentfrom the real systemsam-
piing resolution, significant errorscan be introduced and
even lead to instability.
For a time domainsimulation, the computation time
does not reflect the simulatedcontrollogic response
time. User should always rememberto introduce a rea-
2-7
sonable time delay to match with the limitations of the
control hardware and software.
Whenmodelinga control response, it is importantto
understand the programintroducedtime delay between
the primarysystem and the control interface. For an
example, the controlmodel may introduceone or more
time step delaybecauseof structureand solutionmethod
of the program. This may not cause problemsin some
simulations. However, if the modeled control logic
makesthis time delay caused error to accumulate over a
period of time, it can eventuallyresult in the solution
divergence. The problemcan be correctedin most cases
by reducing the size of the time step or avoidingthe pos-
sible accumulation mechanismin the controlmodel.
Differentmethods may be used to synchronize power
electronics gating signalswith required system refer-
ences. In many cases, a real phase-locked-loop (PLL)
can be greatlysimplifiedto reduce the modeling system
complexity. However, when the system contains signifi-
cant waveform distortions, either harmonicsor transient
disturbances, a practicalPLL with all signal filters
shouldbe carefully implemented in the control model in
order to accurately predict controlresponse. This is par-
ticularly important when the objectiveof the simulation
is to verifycontroldesignand to evaluatethe responseof
a powerelectronic application to primarysystem dynam-
ics.
All power electronic deviceshave their limit in switch-
ing frequency. When a load commutation or a standard
PWMtype scheme is simulated, the highest switching
frequency in the simulationis controlledby the system
frequency or by a carrier frequency. Even considering a
variable carrierfrequency, the number of switchingper
fundamental frequency cycle is known and the highest
switching frequency can be made under a physical limit
of the simulateddevice. However, if the device firing is
determined by a simple comparison between the system
controlreference and the systemoutput,a device switch-
ing may takeplace in simulation whenevera comparison
difference is detected. Therefore, the switchingfre-
quencybecomes highly dependenton the time step size,
and the average switching frequency becomes unpredict-
able. Whenusing this type of firing logic, user should
alwaystake extra measures, such as introducing a hys-
teresis loop, to ensure that the modeled device is work-
ing under its physicalswitchingcapability.
The block diagram for a commonly used phase locked loop
[17,60] is shownin Fig. 20. The systemvoltageat the terminal
of the load is sampled and used to generate the synchronous
reference signal. From Fig. 21 through Fig. 26, the input, in-
termediate output quantities and output signal are plotted to
showthe each step of this signal processing.
 Uref DO-PLLC>lACS - DU ~009(Type g)
Va ""
Vb JOO

Vc 100

100

0
0 10 '0 60
lime (mS)
Fig. 20 The Block Diagramof a PLL
Fig. 24 DerivedFrequency Reference

DO - PLLO>TACS - IH['AR(Type 9)
i

+:t fI::: -+
i
I
I

/ / I / / !/ I
....-....__.... Ii. I
.- ._... _...........
i --f-
/ 7f / / ] /
J 1/ 17 I 1/ 1/ i /
10
Iime (mS)
10 4()
Iime(mS)
00
"'

Fig. 21 Input three-phase Voltage Signal Fig. 25 Output of VCO

0.5 +-1--,---+--+--+L--+- -i-.:---f-!I----+--------,,-j

Fig. 22 DQ Voltage Components Fig. 26 Comparison ofInput and Obtained Syn. Signals

0.1000
DO-PLLO>lACS -DUMD13(lype g) The response of this control circuitry to a system
disturbance is illustrated in Fig. 27. A balanced system fault
is placed on and removed from the system, resulting a three
0.0500
cycle voltage sag.
0.‫סס‬OO

-urseo ,
v , Three phase fault
Rf=0.01 ohms
Tin=0 .025s
Tcl=0.075s
: ,
-0.1000 Kpro= 100
o 100
Kint =8.3E-3
10 40 60 80
Time mS

Fig. 23 Derived Phase Error

With above given control parameters, it takes the
PLL about three cycles to be relocked into the system volt-
age.

2-8
 oscillations in which case it is not a concern to the simulation
engineer. Otherwise, some of the measures listed later in this
section may have to be implemented to obtain correct results.

The fmite nature of the simulation time step that the

EMTP type programs use also poses another problem for
power electronic circuit simulation which necessitates the
use of snubber circuits across fast acting power electronic
switches. Note that in some situations the snubber Rand C
values of the actual system mayor may not work in simula-
tions using some programs. In this case, the Rand C values
of the snubbers needed for stable simulation is primarily
dependent on the time step and secondarily on system config-
uration (capacitors and inductors in the system) and the load
Fig. 27 The PLL CircuitryResponseto a System Disturbance current level. Programs using special features such as vari-
able time steps (very short time steps during switching) or
If the circuit parameters are changed from the above interpolated switching [59] (simulate the switching very
given values to the values listed below, for the same system close to the required instant using linear interpolation
and fault, one can observe that the same PLL logic can be between time steps) do not require fictitious snubber circuits.
relocked into the system voltage within a half cycle period of Therefore, one of the following measures or their combina-
the time as shown in Fig. 28. tions can be taken to prevent numerical inaccuracies in the
simulation:
Three phase fault Select a smaller time step
Rf=O.OI ohms Use artificial snubber circuits
Tin=0.025s Introduce a small smoothing reactor for DC links
Tcl=0.075s Introduce proper stray capacitances in the system model
With Modified: • Provide a parallel damping for lumped system.
Kpro = 1000
Kint = 8.3E-4
A model for a general, unidirectional conducting,
three terminal, controllable power electronic device with
snubber connections is shown in Fig. 29. An actual snubber
configuration can be different from one application to
another. However, if the purpose of a simulation is not to
design the snubber, a sample snubber configuration shown in
this figure can often provide satisfactory results.

ATRMNL

140.0

GTRMNL
Fig. 28 The PLL Circuitry Responseto a SystemDisturbance SNUBBR
O----i

Note that this example of PLL logic based on the SNUBBC

three phase to DQ transformation is valid for three-phase bal-
anced application. Also, its performance characteristic is
highly affected by the parameter settings.
SNUBBC \...---i

3.5. SnubberTreatment in EMTPtype PE Modeling

The simulation programs using trapezoidal integra- CTRMNL

tion method are inherently prone to spurious oscillations
(also known as chatter) in capacitive and inductive circuits
when subjected to sudden changes such as step change in Fig. 29 A Sample Snubber Circuit
voltage, current injection and switching. Some EMTP type
programs take special measures to detect and remove these

2-9
3.6.Simulation Errors and Control

Errors in a Power Electronics simulation can come AC Supply DC Link Induct ion
through the following sources: Motor
1. switching device approximation and system reduction
2. added circuit elements for numerical oscillation control
s~
3. control system simplification
4. time step related truncation
5. program structure and solution method introduced inter-
facing time delay Six Pulse PWM
Diode Rectifier Inverter
6. incorrect system initial conditions
Fig. 30. Electrical Circuit Configuration of an Adjustable Speed
For application simulations, some errors resulting Drive
from the system simplification and measures of numerical
oscillation control are acceptable. The fourth and fifth items The built-in diode models are used to construct the
in the list can be controlled by reducing the time step size. A front end rectifier. The same switching devices with added
recommended time step size should not be greater than 1/5 to open/close controls are used to represent output invert er
1/20 of the period of the highest concerned frequency IGBTs. The EMTP input data modules are use to build this
cycle. For an example, for an IGBT inverter simulation with example case . Both the output reference frequency and the
5000Hz PWM switching, a selected time step could be 10 PWM carrier frequency are made to be controllable. Model-
ms. However, if the objective of the simulation is to see the ing of a signal processing and firing pulse generation is illus-
detailed transient at the terminal of the induction motor trated in this example. The motor load of the drive is
which is fed by the inverter through a section of the cable represented by its R+jX equivalent branch. The simulated
with an 1.0 ms travel time, an adequate time step should be AC input current, carrier and reference signal for the PWM
0.2 ms or smaller. control , AC output voltage and current are presented in Fig.
31 through Fig. 33.
Errors caused by incorrect system initial conditions
can be reduced by just letting the simulation run for a period
<00
of time to reach a corrected initial condition. This may take I
more computing time , but time is saved in model construc-
tion , especially if the program allows to restart. There are
some methods developed which help to accelerate the system
into the correct initial condition quickly.
200

0
-f\ - J f~ h
'\ I-
•
J;
J
Ii
I

\0
~
.3

4. SUMMARY OF DOCUMENTED EXAMPLES

Summary of simulation examples on PWM Voltage

-~ w
_400 1
vV !
-0 iO 80 100
Source Inverter Adjustable Speed Drive, Voltage notching lime (mS)

caused by operation of Current Source Inverter, HVDC ter-

minal and shunt TSC/TCR compensation, modeling of rotat-
Fig. 31. Simulated AC Input Current of A PWM-VSI Adjustable
ing machines and a comprehensive treatment on the voltage Speed Drive
source inverter based FACTS devices and its modeling tech-
niques using EMTP are presented in this section. The exam-
ples can be either a real case study or an exercise for
PWM'vSI>TACS - DlJMC58 yoe 9
illustration purposes.

4.1. Simulation ofthe Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Volt-

age Source Inverter (VSI) AdjustableSpeedDrive (ASD)

The first example is a PWM- VSI AC drive simula-

tion using EMTP. The AC drive (Fig. 30) consisting of a
three-phase diode bridge rectifier, capacitive DC link and
three-phase PWM output inverter. The switching losses of
the drive are a secondary order consideration in the analysis
and the idealized switching characteristics are used.
Fig. 32. Simulated Carrier and Reference Signals for A PWM- VSI
Adjustable Speed Drive Firing Control

2-10
 r
PWMVSI>INVRTA- INVRTB(Type 8)

II II II
8:xJ
i
600, ···· · · ·

~I
' 00
i :
slOO 144 kV snon circun ,"wi.
I i 74 MVA
rio 1

Ig -lOOt Ii ~ i I .... Vvlv 10MVA

-<00
!
.

I I, l- 25 kV Bus
rYjY' 7.87% /
i' i
I I i i
-600 f----
-800
-0 60 80 100 2 km 266 MCM
Time mS
7.5 MVA VJ:A:) I

t5
Fig. 33. Simulated AC OutputLine-to-line Voltage of A PWM-VSI 5.75% : T T
other
Adjustable SpeedDrive 4.16 kV loads
10km
1/0
!!!
TTT
harmonic
, ASD
4.2.Simulation of Voltage Notching Causedby Operation of filters 6000 hp
Current Source Inverter (CSI) ASD 5,7,11

The second example is based on a case study. The I

~:.•,_Iw, ~ -----.-
involved system is illustrated by the one line diagram in Fig.
34 . The 35 kV distribution system is supplied through a 10
MVA transformer from the 144 kV transmission system. The
customer causing the voltage notching problem has a 6000
hp induction motor supplied through a CSI adjustable speed rrrn u:IV
rrrn 1500 kVA
4 .7%
_",_y,,480 Volt bus
4.7%

drive[53] . This drive is at a 4.16 kV bus supplied through a 4.16kV_• •

~ TPF Correction
7.5 MVA transformer. Harmonic filters (5th , 7th , l lth) are
included to control the lower order characteristic harmonics O.5uF ~O
•• Motor Load
(650 hpj
capacitors
(160 kvar)

of the six pulse drive . The actual adjustable speed drive and surge capacitors
800 hp
motor load were represented to reproduce the notching oscil-
lations observed in the measurements.

Operation of the 6000 hp motor and drive resulted

in significant oscillations on the 25 kV supply system . These Fig. 34. One line diagram for the first example system.
oscillations caused clocks to run fast at the customer with the
6000 hp motor (clocks were fed separately from the 25 kV
system) and failure of surge capacitors on the 800 hp motor
at the customer located on the parallel feeder. The objective
of the simulation is to identify the power quality problem
associated with this 6000 HP CSI ASD operation. The simu-
lation was carried out using EMTP.

The worst notching problems are associated with a

firing angle at about 70% load . The simulated waveform for ~ ~ ~
Il"S _ _ ----l
the 25 kV bus voltage is shown in Fig. 35. The oscillations at
Tim ~

Fig. 35. Simulated 25 kV systemvoltagewith drive operating.

each commutation point are in good agreement with the mea-
surement results.
Fig. 36 illustrates the voltage waveform at the 4.16
kV bus where the 800 hp motor surge capacitors cause mag-
nification of the oscillations. The potential for problems at
this location is quite evident.

2-11
 nous condenser (SC) and half-and-half mix of the two
Voltoge 01 4160 Volt Surge Copocitor - Bose Cose
(SVC+SC).

Fig. 38 shows the typical results obtained from the

simulation for a permanent DC block. The fixed compensator
case does not control the overvoltage; howe ver, all other
options do. The SVC option is the fastest to respond followed
by the SVC+SC option and lastly the SC option. This simula-
tion setup can be used to conduct almost any type of perfor-
-6000
mance study including a thyristor miss-fire in HVDC valve
-8000
ltl
I - -----:...-------cc----------I
'~ group or in the SVC itself.

Fig. 36. Simulated waveform at surge capacitor location (4.16 kV

bus of customer on parallel feeder) 1.6

1.5
4.3. Simulation ofHVDC Terminal and Shunt TSCITCR
1.4
Compensation ,-..
;:3
5
eo 1.3
Q)
The third example is an illustration case for model- S
ing of an HYDC system with shunt TscrrCR compensation
at the inverter bus [54]. The simulation example is made
~ 1.2
(/)

using PSCAD/EMTDC. The schematic system shown in Fig.

37 is a modified version of the GlGRE Benchmark Model for
~u 1.1
~

HYDC Control Studies [55]. ....

_ _* 1- - - - - - ,- - - - - - - §YG:- - - - - - - - - -
t:Q) 1.0
Q)

The inverter short circuit ratio has been reduced

from its original value of 2.5 to 1.5 to make the study more
-
>
s::
0.9

interesting. The DC link is a 1000MW, 500kV, 12 pulse 0.8

monopolar system. There are damped low and high pass fil-
ters at each converter terminal to reduce the distortion on the 0.7
AC bus. The control scheme for the HYDC system consists 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
of a rectifier current controller with the gamma controller. Time (s)

1000MW Fig. 38 Inverter AC Voltage Followinga Permanent DC Block

500kV
Rectifier AC 12 Pulse
System
Fig. 37. Study System
The SVC system is a -200/+300 MVAr, 12 pulse,
TCR and TSC (two stage) combination connected to the
inverter bus through a step up transformer, The SVC controls
are designed to coordinate the control of TCR and TSC in
such a way that the combined susceptance of the SVC is con-
tinuous over its entire operating range. The basic control
mode is voltage control and has as a voltage droop built into
the controls. Several studies to evaluate the recovery to full
power after a contingency were simulated [54]. The perfor-
mances of several compensation options were compared.
These options included fixed capacitors (FC), SVC, synchro-
Inverter AC
4.4. ModelingofRotatingMachines
System
Two possible situations can be considered for mod-
eling a rotating machine when simulating a power electronic
system
1. The machine is a component of a larger system where
one or several power electronic devices are operating,
for instance a synchronous machine connected to a
transmission network where FACTS devices are used to
control power flows and improve transient stability.
2. The machine is part of the power electronic system, for
instance an adjustable speed drive.
Similar modeling guidelines for representing rotat-
ing machine in both situations can be used, however some
particular considerations can be taken into account in some
cases and studies. Modeling guidelines provided in this docu-
ment assume that power electronic systems operate at low
frequencies, between DC and 3 kHz. Therefore only the rep-
resentation of rotating machines for this frequency range is
discussed. Regardless of the application to be simulated a

2-12
detailed modeling for the electrical and the mechanical parts
is usually required, saturation effects should be included, and
capacitance effects can be neglected. Frequency dependent of
electrical parameters, mainly rotor parameters might also be
considered. If frequencies of the transient case to be simu-
lated are higher than 3 kHz, the simulation time is no longer
than a few milliseconds and the machine is not close to any
power electronic system (Le. a synchronous machine con-
nected to a transmission system), the mechanical part can be
usually neglected and the machine can be represented by
means of an ideal source behind its subtransient reactance
and a frequency-dependent resistor; capacitance effects
become important, they can be represented by a parallel
capacitance-to-ground [1].
Other representations should be considered for spe-
cific applications
A) An aggregated representation of several
machines can be used to reduce complexity and simulation
time. Ref. [2] resents an aggregated induction model to be
used in power quality studies where short term interruptions
(i.e. sags) are of concern.
B) A very simplified representation for synchronous
and induction machines can be used in harmonic studies
when the machine is not directly connected to the harmonic
source [3].
An important aspect of the simulation of a rotating
machine is the procedure to obtain machine parameters and
the information where these parameters are derived. Electri-
cal parameters of synchronous machines may usually be
obtained in one of the following forms: (1) data supplied
from manufacturer (conventional stability format data, stand-
still frequency response), (2) data from field tests (on-line
frequency response, load rejection test, other tests) and (3)
computer calculation using the finite-element method [4]. A
good discussion about methods to obtain electrical and also
mechanical parameters can be found in [5]. Data from steady
state and short circuit tests include reactances and time con-
stants, armature resistance as well as saturation effects. Sev-
eral procedures have been proposed to pass from these data
to electrical parameters which are used in the transient solu-
tion of the machine [6-8]. Although these tests and the corre-
sponding procedures can also be used to obtain electrical
parameters of an induction machine, data conversion proce-
dures for this type of machines are performed from different
specifications [9-10].
Frequency response tests have received much atten-
tion during the last 25 years. Several methods have been pro-
posed to obtain parameters of d- and q-axis equivalent
circuits; they are based on standstill frequency response
(SSFR) [11-14], and on-line frequency response [15-16].
Some techniques have also been developed to account for
saturation effects [17].
2-13
4.5. VoltageSource Inverter Based FACTS Devices and their
Modeling Techniques Using EMTP
This section describes the fundamentals and the
modeling techniques of Voltage Source Inverter-based Flexi-
ble Alternating Current Transmission Systems (FACTS)
devices, namely, STATic synchronous COMpensator (STAT-
COM), Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC), and
Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) using an EMTP sim-
ulation package. The FACTS model includes all the neces-
sary components - a voltage source inverter with a DC link
capacitor, a magnetic circuit, and a realizable controller. The
UPFC model consists of two solid-state voltage source
inverters which are connected through a common DC link
capacitor. Each inverter is coupled with a transformer at its
output. The first voltage source inverter, known as STAT-
COM, injects an almost sinusoidal current, of variable mag-
nitude, at the point of connection. The second voltage source
inverter, known as SSSC, injects an almost sinusoidal volt-
age, of variable magnitude, in series with the transmission
line. When the STATCOM and the SSSC operate as stand-
alone devices, they exchange almost exclusively reactive
power at their terminals. While operating both the inverters
together as a UPFC, the injected voltage in series with the
transmission line can be at any angle with respect to the line
current. The exchanged real power at the terminals of one
inverter with the line flows to the terminals of the other
inverter through the common DC link capacitor. The func-
tionalities of the models have been verified.
4.5.1 VSI Based Facts Devices
Flexible Alternating Current Transmission Systems
(FACTS) devices, namely STATic synchronous COMpensa-
tor (STATCOM), Static Synchronous Series Compensator
(SSSC) and Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC), are
used to control the power flow through an electrical transmis-
sion line connecting various generators and loads at its send-
ing and receiving ends. Each of the STATCOM and the SSSC
consists of a solid-state voltage source inverter with several
Gate Tum Off (GTO) thyristor switch-based valves and a DC
link capacitor, a magnetic circuit, and a controller. The num-
ber of valves and the various configurations of the magnetic
circuit depend on the desired quality of AC waveforms gen-
erated by the FACTS devices. When the STATCOM and the
SSSC operate as stand-alone devices, they exchange almost
exclusively reactive power at their terminals. While operat-
ing both the inverters together as a UPFC, the exchanged
power at the terminals of each inverter can be reactive as well
as real. The exchanged line flows to the terminals of the other
inverter through the common DC link capacitor. The objec-
tive in this section is to describe each component, such as a
voltage source inverter, a magnetic circuit, and a controller of
FACTS devices and its modeling techniques using an EMTP
simulation package. Since, the emphasis of modeling is
purely on FACTS devices, the power system in which the
FACTS devices are connected to has been modeled in a sim-
plistic way. A simple transmission line, shown in Fig. 39, has
an inductive reactance, X s' and a voltage source 'Vs' at the
sending end and an inductive reactance, X,., and a voltage sssc
source.P, at the receiving end, respectively. The STATCOM
is connected at BUS 1 of the transmission line as shown in
Fig. 39 . The STATCOM model in EMTP consists of a har- 12=
monic neutralized voltage source inverter, VSIl, a magnetic _v, ~~ii2
• ~ i;
circuit, MCI, a coupling transformer, TI, a mechanical
- ES22
switch, MSI , current and voltage sensors, and a controller. E", -

The STATCOM injects an almost sinusoidal current at the

point of connection. This injected current is almost in
quadrature with the line voltage, thereby emulating an induc-
- 1DC2 ES2

tive reactance or a capacitive reactance at the point of con- VSI2 t.Cl

nection. To achieve the bas ic function of a STATCOM, the C9!rtr:'ol~

inverter is operated by regulating the reactive current flow

through it.
Fig.40 A StaticSynchronous SeriesCompensator Model in EMTP

BUS1 The UPFC which is connected to the simple trans-

mission line is shown in Fig . 41. The UPFC model in EMTP
consists of two harmonic neutralized voltage source invert-
ii, ers, VSIl and VSI2, two magnetic circuits, MCI and MC2 ,
two coupling transformers, Tl and T2, four mechanical
switches , MSI, MS2, MS3 , and MS4, two electronic switches,
ES2 and ES22, current and voltage sensors, and a controller.
The voltage source inverters are connected through a com-
mon DC link capacitor. In a basic operation of a UPFC, the
STATCOM is operated by regulating the reactive current
flow through it and the SSSC is operated by injecting a volt-
age in series with the transmission line.
Fig. 39 A StaticSynchronous Compensator Modelin EMTP

Fig. 40 shows an SSSC connected in series with the UPFC

simple transmission line between BUS 1 and BUS 2. The

SSSC model in EMTP consists of a harmonic neutralized
voltage source inverter, VSI2, a magnetic circuit, MC2, a 12=
coupling transformer, T2, a mechanical switch, MS2, two
electronic switches, ES2 and ES22, current and voltage sen-
ii,
_~~ii2
v, • ~ i;
- ES22
sors, and a controller. The SSSC injects an almost sinusoidal E,. -

voltage, of variable magnitude, in series with the transmis- .

'DC2
ES2

sion line. This injected voltage is almost in quadrature with MS3 -

the line current, thereby emulating an inductive reactance or

a capacitive reactance in series with the transmission line. P.C1 VSl1 MS4\ISI2 t.Cl
CQntr:QI~~

Fig. 41 A UnifiedPowerFlowController Modelin EMTP

4.5.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE INVERTER

Fig. 42 shows a single phase inverter circuit,

referred to as a 3-level "pole," which consists of a positive
valve, A+, a negative valve, A-, and an AC valve, AAC '
When a pole is connected across a series of capacitors which
are charged with a total DC voltage of vDC and the valves are
closed and opened alternately, the pole output voltage, vAD,
at the midpoint of the pole A with respect to the midpoint, 0,

2-14
of the capacitor is a quasi square wave containing a positive
sequence fundamental component and all the odd harmonic
components, such as the zero sequence third, the negative
sequence fifth, and the positive sequence seventh, etc.
At- c=a:cJ
VNO' consists of only a fundamental component and odd har-
monic components (n) given by the equation (1) where n =6k
± 1 for k = 1,2,3, etc.
Fig. 44 shows two 6-pulse inverters (ABC and DEF)
which are operated from the same DC link capacitor. On the
aT AC side, they are connected to a 3-phase load (XYZ) through

W
3-Levellnverter Pole I>r aT ~
a magnetic circuit. The poles D, E, and F are operated in such
A",cNJ aT rav aT COl
a way that the pole voltage fundamental phasors
O.5voc~ At-
o A",
o.5v<t:~
Vf!(j
-27t
1t-l'y '""'Y VE, 1, Ve,1 and VF,1 and are 120° apart and the funda -
O.5voc ~ I>r 1VIC Oy 1t-"( 1t .
mental voltage phasor set of the DEF inverter lags the funda-
..{).5v<t: -
mental voltage phasor set of the ABC inverter by 30°. The
displacement angle between two consecutive 6-pulse invert-
Fig. 42 A 3-Level Inverter "Pole" and its Output Voltage ers in a multipulse inverter arrangement is 21t/6m, where m is
the total number of 6-pulse inverters used. The configuration
The amplitude of any odd multiple of fundamental compo- of the magnetic circuit in Fig . 44 is such that if an inverter
nent is pole voltage is time shifted by an angle of -e,
the fundamen-
2 tal and all the harmonic components of the pole voltage get a
fA 0, n 7/DC ccsn ): (1) phase shift by an angle of +e in the positive direction, irre-
= n
spective of their sequence.
where y is the "dead" period during which the AC
valve operates in each quarter cycle and the pole output volt-
age is zero and n =2k + 1 for k =0, 1, 2, 3, etc. For y =0, the
fundamental as well as all the harmonic components have the
InverterOEF . -300

highest possible amplitudes. 3)0

o ~ E ~~F VE,1
V0,1
Vx
x r---o:-
O.5Va::~
~
Vy
o MAGNETIC y f----c:>-- N
t- ORCUIT
O.5Va::~ r-
Vz
zf--c:>-

A l lJc B
VC,1

VA,1

Fig. 44 A 12-Pulse Harmonic Neutralized Inverter Configuration

Fig. 43 A 6-Pulse Inverter with 3-Level poles and its Output Voltag-
es
Fig. 43 shows three poles A, B, and C which are
connected across the same DC link capacitor and the pole
outputs are connected to a 3-phase load whose neutral point,
N, is not connected to the midpoint of the capacitor. The
poles A, B, and C which form a 6-pulse inverter are operated
in such a way that the pole voltages, VAO' vBO, and Yeo, are
time shifted from one another by one third of the time period
of the pole voltage. Therefore, the fundamental phasors
VA, 1, VB, 1 and Ve,1 are 120° apart. Since, the zero
sequence components of each pole current have no return
path to the midpoint of the DC link capacitor, the zero
sequence components of each pole voltage, vNO =(vAO + vBO
+ veo)!3, appear between the neutral point and the midpoint
of the DC link capacitor. Therefore, each phase of the load
voltages, VAN =VAO - VNO, VBN =VBO - vNO' and vc» =Veo-
with 3-Level poles
Table 1 shows the time shifted A and D pole volt-
ages, first twenty five harmonic components, final phase
angles after appropriate phase shift. The pole voltages from
the ABC inverter exhibits a 6-pulse harmonic neutralized
waveform with harmonic components n = 6k ± 1 for k = 1, 2,
3, etc. Similarly, the pole voltages from the DEF inverter
exhibits a 6-pulse harmonic neutralized waveform whose
=
harmonic components (n 6k ± 1 for k 1,2, 3, etc .) have =
the same magnitudes as the corresponding harmonic compo-
nents of the ABC inverter's 6-pulse harmonic neutralized
waveform. However, the harmonic components (n 6k ± 1 =
for k = 1,3,5, etc.) are in opposite phases while the harmonic
components (n = 6k ± I for k = 2, 4, 6, etc.) are in phases with
the corresponding harmonic components of the ABC
inverter's 6-pulse harmonic neutralized waveform. There-
fore, if all the outputs from each 6-pulse inverter are com-
bined by connecting the corresponding phases in series, a 12-
pulse harmonic neutralized waveform is obtained. The result-

2-15
ing output voltage exhibits a fundamental component and component and odd harmonic components (n) where n = 12k
odd harmonic components (n) given by the equation (1) =
± 1 for k 1, 2, 3, etc. The presence of 12-pulse harmonic
where n = 12k ± 1 for k = 1, 2, 3, etc. Note that the output components in the inverter output voltage may not be accept-
voltage of a 12-pulse inverter with 3-level poles is referred to able in many applications. Therefore, an inverter with a
as a 12-pulse waveform when the poles are operated with higher pulse output voltage should be considered [56-58].
dead angle y = o.
Fig. 45 shows a possible configuration of the mag-
netic circuit which can be used to generate a 12-pulse har- 4.5.3 MODELING TECHNIQUE
monic neutralized voltage. The ABC 6-pulse inverter voltage
is fed to a Y-Y transformer and the DEF 6-pulse inverter ig. 46 shows the block diagram of the EMTP simu-
voltage is fed to a ~- Y transformer. The inverter side A lation program layout. Sample EMTP program files are
winding and DE winding will have per tum fundamental given in [56-58]. First, some general constants are defined.
component voltages which are of same magnitude and in Next, the control or the Transient Analysis of Control Sys-
phase and the fifth and the seventh harmonic components tems (TACS) section receives its input signals from the sen-
each of which are of same magnitude but in opposite phase. sors or measuring switches. This section generates the gating
Therefore, if the line side of the transformer windings are signals for the pole valves "on the fly." The ideal pole volt-
connected in series, the phase-X voltage will exhibit only a ages are mathematically combined to produce harmonic neu-
fundamental component and 12-pulse harmonic components. tralized inverter voltages, eI, which are fed to the source
Note that the inverter side ( winding has J3 times the turns section. In an actual simulation case, the gating signals are
as the inverter side Y winding has. This is needed in order to used to operate the pole valves of an inverter structure such
keep the same volts per turn in both windings. The line side as the one shown in Fig. 42.
inverter windings can have any turns ratio other than 0.5 to
increase or decrease the output voltage.
IGeneral Qlnsta1Is I
n time shift phase final time shift phase final
shift phase shift phase ConboI/TACS Inverter
pole A angle poleD angle Voltages
5 -5*(0) 0 0 -5*( -1tI6) +1t/6 1t
7 +7*(0) 0 0 +7*(-1tI6) +1t/6 1t
11 -11*(0) 0 0 -11*(-1tI6) +1t/6 0
13 +13*(0) 0 0 + I3*(-1tI6) +1tI6 0
17 -17*(0) 0 0 -17*( -1tI6) +1tI6 1t
Brmch
19 +19*(0) 0 0 +19*(-1t/6) +1t/6 1t • Transnission Li1e
23 -23*(0) 0 0 -23*(-1t/6) +1t/6 0 • Tn. ISformeI
25 +25*(0) 0 0 +25*(-1tI6) +1t/6 0
Solrnes
• TAC CooboIIed
Table 1 Phase Angles of a 12-Pulse Inverter Phasors • .1CIepeI1dert

Fig. 46 EMTP Modeling Structure

Each valve, located in the switch section, can be

ri VF modeled with a number of GTO thyristors connected in
Ve
Vx
series each having an antiparallel diode and appropriate
Vo
Vy
snubber circuits. The pole output voltages are fed to a mag-
VA
Vz
netic circuit, located in the branch section, which produces a
~t} VB
3-phase voltage set. In this way, the effects of a nonideal
~~I
Vc
magnetic circuit, which includes leakage reactance, magnetic
saturation, etc. can be studied. However, in this paper, the
valves and the magnetic circuit are assumed to be ideal. The
voltage, vDC' across the DC link capacitor is maintained by
Fig.45 A Magnetic Circuitfor a 12-Pulse Harmonic Neutralized In- the power balance equation at both AC and DC sides of the
verter inverter. This modeling technique gives sufficient insight to
the operation of the power circuit which produces a 3-phase
The 12-pulse inverter configuration, shown in Fig. voltage set. The source section has some independent volt-
45, presents a 3-phase voltage which contains a fundamental age sources which establish the power flow in a transmission

2-16
line. Next, the controlled and the independent sources are
fed to the branch section which contains the transmission line
and the coupling transformer. The line voltage set, vb at
BUS 1, the inverters' current sets, i l and i2, and the line cur-
rent, i, are measured by the measuring switches. Finally, the
output section is defmed. In reality, the magnetic circuit can
also serve as the coupling transformer. Therefore, there is no
need for an additional coupling transformer.
The modeling may be done at various levels. For
example, to study the functionality of a FACTS device on an
elaborated power system network, a FACTS device with a
simplified model consisting of sinusoidal voltage sources and
detailed control and protection schemes may be adequate.
For magnetic circuit and valve designers, the primary focus
should be on the modeling of the detailed power circuit. The
modeling techniques described in this section are useful tools
to the FACTS designers.
The various control techniques of FACTS devices
and simulation results are described in the next section. In
each case, an instantaneous 3-phase set ofline voltages, vI> at
BUS 1 is used to calculate the reference angle, which ise
phase-locked to the phase a of the line voltage, Via'
A. STATCOM
The controller of a STATCOM is used to operate the
inverter in such a way that the phase angle between the
inverter voltage and the line voltage is dynamically adjusted
so that the STATCOM generates or absorbs desired VAR at
the point of connection [56]. Fig. 47 shows the control block
diagram of the STATCOM. An instantaneous 3-phase
I
I Gale
I
I PatIem
I 1...cJge
V1 I
I
IL I
~
Fig. 47 Control BlockDiagram ofa Static Synchronous Compensa-
tor
set of measured inverter currents, iJ, is decomposed
into its real or direct component, hd, and reactive or quadra-
ture component, h q, respectively. The quadrature compo-
nent is compared with the desired rference value, h q•, and
the error is passed through an error amplifier which produces
a relative angle, 0. , of the inverter voltage with respect to the
line voltage. The phase angle, eJ, of the inverter voltage is
2-17
calculated by adding the relative angle, 0., of the inverter
voltage and the phase-lock-loop angle, e. The reference
quadrature component, h q., of the inverter current is defined
to be either positive if the STATCOM is emulating an induc-
tive reactance or negative if it is emulating a capacitive reac-
tance. The DC link capacitor voltage, VDC, is dynamically
adjusted in relationship with the inverter voltage. The con-
trol scheme used in this section shows the implementation of
the inner current control loop which regulates the reactive
current flow through the inverter regardless of the line volt-
age. However, if one is interested in regulating the line volt-
age, an outer voltage control loop must be implemented. The
outer voltage control loop will automatically determine the
reference reactive current for the inner current control loop
which, in turn, will regulate the line voltage.
Fig. 48 shows the digital simulation results from the
reactive current control operation of a STATCOM. Between
oand 50 ms, the mechanical switch, MSJ, stays open, discon-
necting the STATCOM from the transmission line . The DC
link capacitor is precharged. The inverter output 12-pulse
voltage of phase a, el a, and the line voltage of phase a, Via,
are in phase. At 50 ms, MSJ closes and the quadrature cur-
•
rent demand, h q , of the inverter is set to zero. Since the
inverter current is zero , the inverter voltage of phase a, el a ,
and the line voltage of phase a, Via, have equal amplitudes.
At 125 ms, the quadrature current demand, Ilq •, of the
inverter is set to one per unit capacitive, which means the
STATCOM should "see" the system as an inductive reac-
tance and the inverter current of phase a, i la, lags the line
0
voltage of phase a, Via , by almost 90 .
V,A
(PU)
-1-
1
-1-
Fig. 48 Performance of a Static Synchronous Compensator with a
12-PulseHarmonic Neutralized InverterOperating in Capacitive and
Inductive Modes

The inverter voltage set, el, is greater than the line
voltage set, VI. At 175 ms, the quadrature current demand,
IIq *, of the inverter is set to one per unit inductive, which
means the STATCOM should "see" the system as a capaci-
tive reactance and the inverter current in phase a, i la, leads
the line voltage at phase a, VIa, by almost 90°. The inverter
voltage set, el, is less than the line voltage set, VI. At 250
IDS, the quadrature current demand, IIq *, of the inverter is set
to one per unit capacitive and the transition takes place in a
subcycle time. The phase angle, a, between the inverter
voltage and the line voltage is dynamically adjusted so that
the inverter maintains proper DC link capacitor voltage.
Fig. 49 shows the expanded view of two sections of
Fig. 48. The inverter voltage and current show the presence
of 12-pulse harmonic components.
V,A
(pu)
1-
-1-
1-
250
tine
(ms)
-1
Fig. 49 Waveformsfrom a Static Synchronous Compensator with a
12-PulseHarmonicNeutralizedInverterOperatingin Capacitiveand
Inductive Modes
B. SSSC
An SSSC controller uses a solid-state voltage source
inverter to inject an almost sinusoidal voltage, of variable
magnitude, in series with a transmission line. This injected
voltage is almost in quadrature with the line current. A small
part of the injected voltage which is in phase with the line
current provides the losses in the inverter. Most of the
injected voltage which is in quadrature with the line current
emulates an inductive or a capacitive reactance in series with
the transmission line. This emulated variable reactance,
inserted by the injected voltage source, influences the electric
power flow in the transmission line. If an SSSC is operated
with an energy storage system, the controller becomes an
impedance compensation controller which can compensate
for the transmission line resistance as well as reactance. The
reactance compensation controller is used to operate the
2-18
inverter in such a way that the injected alternating voltage in
series with the transmission line is proportional to the line
current with the emulated reactance being the constant of
proportionality [57]. When an SSSC injects an alternating
voltage leading the line current, it emulates an inductive
reactance in series with the transmission line causing the
power flow as well as the line current to decrease as the level
of compensation increases and the SSSC is considered to be
operating in an inductive mode. When an SSSC injects an
alternating voltage lagging the line current, it emulates a
capacitive reactance in series with the transmission line caus-
ing the power flow as well as the line current to increase as
the level of compensation increases and the SSSC is consid-
ered to be operating in a capacitive mode. An SSSC control-
ler can also be used for stable reversal of power flow in the
transmission line.
I
I
I
I
I
V1
I
I
IL I
~
Fig. 50 ControlBlock Diagramof a Static SynchronousSeriesCom-
pensator
Fig. 50 shows a control block diagram of an SSSC.
An instantaneous 3-phase set of measured line currents, i, is
first decomposed into its real or direct component, Id, and
reactive or quadrature component, I q , and then the amplitude,
I, and the relative angle, 0 in of the line current with respect
to the phase-lock-loop angle, E>, are calculated. The phase
angle, E>;, of the line current is calculated by adding the rela-
tive angle, E>ir, of the line current and the phase-lock-loop
angle, 0. The calculated amplitude, I, of the line current
multiplied by the compensating reactance demand, X q*,is the
insertion voltage amplitude demand, Vq *. The phase angle,
0"" of this insertion voltage demand is either 0 i+900 if the
demanding compensating reactance is inductive or 0;-90° if
the demanding compensating reactance is capacitive. The
DC link capacitor voltage is dynamically regulated in rela-
tionship with the insertion voltage amplitude demand. The
insertion voltage amplitude demand, Vq * ,and the DC link
capacitor voltage demand, VDC*, are related by the inverter
DC-to-fundamental AC amplitude gain factor (K;nv = 2/n for
a true harmonic netralized voltage source inverter). The DC
link capacitor voltage demand, VDC *, and the measured DC
voltage, VDC, are compared and the error is passed through an
error amplifier which produces an angle, p. The phase angle,
02, of the inverter voltage is calculated by adding the angle,
p, of the DC voltage regulator and the phase angle, 0\1> of the
insertion voltage demand. The compensating reactance
demand, X q *, is either negative if the SSSC is emulating an
inductive reactance or positive if it is emulating a capacitive
reactance. In another application, the insertion voltage
amplitude demand, Vq * may directly be specified and the
SSSC will inject the desired voltage almost in quadrature
with the line current.
neous DC link capacitor voltage is proportional to the ampli-
tude of the inverter voltage.
Therefore, when an SSSC emulates a reactance in
series with the transmission line, the power flow in the trans-
mission line always decreases if the emulated reactance is
inductive. Also, the power flow always increases if the emu-
lated reactance is capacitive.
Fig. 52 shows the expanded view of the two sections of Fig.
51. The inverter voltage show the presence of 24-pulse har-
monic components.

2- V,A,X,P 1-~~P ~

o~~~
(PU)
/i a
1

4- q
0 Pq

1-
-1
Qq X*q
tiTle
I (ms)
-2-
200 400 600

Fig. 51 Performance of a Static Synchronous Series Compensator

with a 24-Pulse Harmonic Neutralized Inverter Operating in Induc-
tive and Capacitive Modes

Fig. 51 shows the digital simulation results when an

SSSC emulates a reactance in series with the transmission
line. At the beginning of the operation, the mechanical
switch, MS2, and the electronic switch, £S22, are open and
the electronic switch, £S2, is closed. The inverter, VSI2,
injects no voltage. The DC link capacitor voltage, VDC, is
zero. At 50 ms, an inductive reactance compensation of 0.15
per unit is requested. The inverter output 24-pulse voltage,
0
e2a, of phase a leads the line current, i a, by almost 90 . At
175 ms, the inductive reactance demand is increased to 0.3
per unit. As the inductive reactance demand increases, the
line current, i a , and the power flow, Pq and Qq, in the trans-
mission line decrease. At 300 ms, a capacitive reactance
compensation of 0.1 per unit is requested. The inverter volt-
0
age, e2a, lags the line current, ia, by almost 90 . At 450 ms,
the capacitive reactance demand is increased to 0.15 per unit.
As the capacitive reactance demand increases, the line cur-
rent, i a, and the power flow, Pq and Qq, in the transmission
line increase. In reality, the SSSC would encounter power
losses in the valves and in the magnetic circuit. Therefore,
there will always be a small part of real current component,
lId, flowing into the inverter and the inverter voltage will be
0
almost 90 out of phase with the line current. The instanta-
Fig. 52 Waveforms from a Static Synchronous Series Compensator
with a 24-Pulse Harmonic Neutralized Inverter Operating in Induc-
tive and Capacitive Modes
C. UPFC
The stand alone operations of the STATCOM and
the SSSC, as just described, only allow the inverters to
exchange almost exclusively reactive power at their termi-
nals. However, ifboth the inverters are operated from a com-
mon DC link capacitor, the injected voltage by the SSSC can
be at any angle with respect to the line current. The real
power exchanged at the terminals of the SSSC appears at the
terminals of the STATCOM through the DC link capacitor.
The STATCOM can still be used to control the reactive cur-
rent flow through it independently [58]. The current injected
by the STATCOM has two components. First, a real or direct
component, which is in phase with the line voltage, absorbs
or delivers the real power exchanged by the SSSC with the
line. Second, a reactive or quadrature component, which is
in quadrature with the line voltage, emulates an inductive or
a capacitive reactance at the point of connection with the
transmission line.
The SSSC can be operated in many different modes,

2-19
such as voltage injection, phase angle shifter emulation, line
impedance emulation, automatic power flow control, etc. In
each mode of operation, the final outcome is such that the
SSSC injects a voltage in series with the transmission line 1
[58]. In this section, the SSSC is operated in a voltage injec-
tion mode. The control block diagram for the SSSC is shown
in Fig. 53.

The desired peak fundamental voltage , Vdq*, at the

output of the inverter and its relative angle, P, with respect to -1- ia
the reference phase-lock-loop angle are specified. The phase
angle, 0z, of the inverter voltage is calculated by adding the
relative angle, P, of the inverter voltage and the phase-lock- Fig. 54 Performance of a Unified PowerFlow Controllerwith a 24-
PulseQuasi Harmonic Neutralized Inverterwith 3-Level Poles Op-
loop angle , 0 . The dead angle of each pole is calculated in eratingin a VoltageInjectionMode
accordance with the operation of 24-pulse quasi harmonic
neutralized inverter [58]. At the beginning of the operation, the mechanical
switch, MS2, and the electronic switch, ES22, are open and
the electronic switch, ES2, is closed. The inverter, VSI2,
injects no voltage. The voltage , VIZa, at the terminals of the
*
coupling transformer, T2, is the voltage across its leakage
Vd:I
reactance. The mechanical switch, MSI , is open, disconnect-
vo:; -t------'
ing the STATCOM from the transmission line. The DC link
P-t-- - - - - --, capacitor is precharged. At 50 ms , MSI closes and th e
•
quadrature current demand, Ilq , of the inverter is set to zero.
At 100 ms, a series voltage injection of 0.2 per unit at an
angle of 60 0 leading the reference phase-lock-loop angle is
Fig. 53 ControlBlockDiagram ofa StaticSynchronous SeriesCom-
pensator requested. The series inverter output voltage, eza , of phase a
Fig. 54 shows the digital simulation results from the leads the line current, i a , by an angle o. The real power
voltage injection mode of operation of an SSSC while the absorbed by the series inverter appears at the BUS 1 through
STATCOM is operated to deliver no reactive current. the STATCOM. The shunt inverter output voltage, el a , of
phase a is in phase with the current, ;I a, flowing through it.
The power delivered at the receiving end decreases. At 175
ms, the injected voltage request is increased to 0.4 per unit
V,A,P,Q while maintaining the same angle. As the voltage injection
(pu) Va: demand increases, the line current, i a , and the power flow, P,
and Q,., in the transmission line decrease. By injecting a volt-
1 age by the SSSC of any magnitude, within the rating of the
inverter, and at any angle with respect to the line current, the
real power, P,., and the reacti ve power, Q,., at the receiving
O t---~::---+-------.:....A'-----~
end of the transmission line can be increased, decreased or
time even reversed selectively.
(ms)

Fig. 55 shows the expanded view of two sections of

1
Fig. 54. The inverter voltage and current show the presence
of harmonic components.

-1-

2-20

V,A
(PU)
-1-
1- ia
-
:D)
time
(ms)
-1-
Fig.55 Waveforms froma UnifiedPowerFlowController witha 24-
PulseQuasiHarmonic Neutralized Inverterwith 3-LevelPolesOp-
eratingin a Voltage Injection Mode
4.5.4 SUMMARY
FACTS devices - STATCOM, SSSC, and UPFC,
have been modeled using an EMTP simulation package. The
UPFC consists of two voltage source inverters - one injects
an almost sinusoidal voltage in series with the transmission
line and the other injects an almost sinusoidal current at the
point of connection . The injected voltage can be at any angle
with the line current. The injected current has two parts.
First, the real part , which is in phase with the line voltage,
delivers or absorbs real power to the line that is exchanged by
the injected voltage source plus losses in the UPFC. Second,
the reactive part, which is in quadrature with the line voltage,
emulates an inductive reactance or a capacitive reactance at
the point of connection . The SSSC model has been operated
injecting a voltage in series with the transmission line. The
STATCOM model has been operated regulating the reactive
current flow through it and the transition from one mode of
operation to the other mode takes place in a subcycle time .
The operation of the model is verified with the model con-
nected to a simple transmission line which can easily be
replaced by the utility's existing more complex power system
network.
5. CONCLUSIONS
The appropriate characterization of the power electronics is
very important in power system simulations involving power
electronics operations. In most of these simulations, detailed
representations of the power electronics are not necessary.
Depending on the objective of a study, the involved power
electronics subsystem can be always reduced to some extend
with minimal loss of accuracy.
Numbers of the digital computation tools are capable of sim-
ulating power electronics cases. However, in power systems
2-21
engineering community, the EMTP type of programs are
more commonly used. This results mainly from the great ca-
pabilities and flexibility of these programs in handling con-
ventional power system dynamics and electromagnetic
transients beside their capabilities of handling power electron-
ics. With an adequate power electronics device and circuit
simplification, the EMTP type of programs are powerful for
modeling various types of power electronics applications .
Because these programs are based on the time domain solu-
tion method, the dynamic interaction between the power elec-
tronics and the rest of the system can be easily incorporated in
simulation.
The important considerations for simulating power electron-
ics applications have been summarized in this guidelines .
Several modeling examples including a comprehensive treat-
ment of voltage source inverter based FACTS device and its
modeling techniques using EMTP type of programs were pre-
sented. The procedures used to implement power electronics
models in these examples are valuable for using other digital
simulation tools.
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 Modeling Guidelines for Low Frequency Transients
Report Prepared by the Low-Frequency Transients Task Force
of the IEEE Modeling and Analysis of System Transients Working Group

Contributing Members: R. Iravani (Chair), A.K.S. Chandhury,

I.D. Hassan, J.A. Martinez, A.S. Morched,
B.A. Mork, M. Parniani, D. Shirmohammadi, R.A. Walling
Abstract: The objective of this report is to provide guidelines l.Torsional oscillations (5 to 120Hz)
for modeling and analyses of low-frequency (approximately 5 to
1000 Hz) transients of electric power systems, based on the use 2.Transient torsional torques(5 to 120Hz)
of digital time-domain simulation methods. For the ease of ref-
erence, the low-frequency transients are divided in seven dis- 3.Turbine blade vibrations (90 to 250 Hz)
tinct phenomena. This report (1) briefly describes the physical
nature of each phenomenon, (2) identities those power system 4.Fastbus transfer(1 to 1000Hz)
components/apparatus which either contribute to or are
5.Controller interactions (10 to 30 Hz)
affected by the phenomenon, (3) provides guidelines for digital
time-domain simulation and analyses of the phenomenon and 6.Harmonic interactions and resonances (60 to 600 Hz)
(4) provides sample study-system and typical digital time-
domain simulation results corresponding to each phenomenon. 7.Ferroresonance (1 to 1000 Hz)
A comprehensive list of reference is also included in this report
to provide further in-depth information to the readers.

Keywords: Low-Frequency Transients, Electromechanical For each of the above phenomenon this report provides (1) a
Transients, Modeling, Time-Domain Analysis, Torsional brief explanation of the physical phenomenon, (2) modeling
Dynamics, Turbine Vibrations, Bus-Transfer, Controller guidelines for time-domain simulation and analyses, and (3)
Interactions, Harmonic Interactions, Ferroresonance typical sample systems and simulation results.

1. INTRODUCTION
An interconnected power system can experience undesirable
oscillations and transients as a result of small-signal perturba-
tions, large-signal disturbances, and nonlinear characteristics
of the system components. The oscillations cover a wide fre-
quency range approximately from 0.01 Hz to 50 MHz. Oscil-
lations in the frequency range of 0.01 to 1000 Hz are defmed
in this report as low-frequency (slow) transients. We inter-
changeably use the terms "slow transients", "low frequen-
cy(LF) dynamics", and "LF oscillations" throughout this
report. All the issues relevant to I ow-frequency inter-area
electromechanical oscillations (approximately 0.1 to 1 Hz)
and classical turbine-generator swing modes (approximately
1 to 2.5 Hz) are discussed by other IEEE working groups, and
are not discussed here. A general guideline for representation
of network elements for electromagnetic transient studies
have been previously published [1.1]. The mandate of the
IEEE Low-Frequency Transients Task Force is to provide
modelling guidelines for time-domain analysis ofLF oscilla-
tions within the frequency range of 5 to 1000 Hz. Low fre-
quency dynamics are of concern with respect to power system
stability issues and/or temporary overvoltages.
phenomena of 60 Hz power systems in the LF range are di-
vided into the following categories:
This report is intended for practicing power system engineers
who are involved in system analysis, system control, and sys-
tem planning. To use the report efficiently, adequate under-
standing of the physical phenomenon of interest and
familiarity with the concepts and techniques of digital com-
puter simulation approaches are necessary.
Section 2 of the report deals with low-frequency transients
which involve both electrical and mechanical dynamics, i.e.,
torsional oscillations, transient torsional torques, turbine-
blade vibrations and fast bus-transfer. Section 3 discusses
low-frequency electrical dynamics, as a result of control sys-
tems interactions. Section 4 provides analysis guidelines for
harmonic interactions and resonance phenomena. The phe-
nomenon of ferroresonance is discussed in Section 5.
2. LOW-FREQUENCY ELECTROMECHANICAL
DYNAMICS
This section provides modeling and analysis guide-
lines for low-frequency dynamics which involve electrome-
chanical oscillations. The phenomena which are covered in
this section are torsional oscillations, transient torques, tur-

3-1
bine-blade vibrations, and bus-transfer.
2.1 DEFINITIONS
2.1.1 Torsional Oscillations [2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5J
Shaft system of a steam turbine-generator experiences tor-
sional oscillations when one or more of its natural oscillatory
modes, usually at subsynchronous frequencies, are excited.
Sustained or negatively damped torsional oscillations occur
when a turbine-generator shaft system exchanges energy with
an electrical system at the shaft oscillatory modes. This ex-
change of energy can exist if the electrical system is equipped
with either series capacitors or HVDC converter stations. The
phenomenon of torsional oscillations can also exist as a result
of interaction between the shaft system of a steam turbine-
generator and
the generator excitation systems through either AVR or PSS
control loops,
electronically controlled governor system,
voltage control loop of an electrically close static VAR. compen-
sator (SVC)
large electric arc furnaces.
Although AVR, PSS and governor system can excite torsional
oscillations, the excitation is primarily due to inadequate con-
trol design considerations and can be avoided by introducing
filters in the control circuitry. Thus, this report does not con-
sider the generator controls as the main contributors to the
phenomenon of torsional oscillations (Table 1).
The phenomenon of torsional oscillation is referred to as sub-
synchronous resonance (SSR) when it is a result of interaction
between a shaft system and a series capacitor compensated
transmission line. The problems associated with the phenom-
enon of small-signal torsional oscillations are:
i) Sustained or even negatively damped oscillations which
are considered as small-signal instability problems, and
ii) (loss of life of turbine-generator shaft segment(s) due to the
fatigue induced in the shaft segment(s) as a result of each
oscillatory cycle.
2.1.2 Transient Torsional Torques [2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5]
The shaft segments of turbine-generator units are exposed to
large-amplitude, oscillatory, mechanical stresses as a result of
electric network faults, and planned and unplanned switching
incidents. Frequencies of the shaft mechanical stresses are
3-2
the natural frequencies of the shaft torsional oscillatory
modes. Usually, the oscillatory mode at the first torsional fre-
quency dominates the shaft transient oscillations. The major
incidents which result in severe shaft stresses are: line-to-line
faults, three-phase faults, fault clearing, automatic reclosures,
and out-of-phase synchronization. The amplitudes of the
shaft transient stresses can be particularly large when the net-
work is equipped with series capacitors.
High amplitude shaft mechanical stress can induce significant
fatigue in the shaft segments and result in noticeable shaft
life-time reduction during each oscillatory cycle. Such oscil-
lations may even result in catastrophic shaft failure. The pri-
mary purpose of time-domain investigation of turbine-
generator shaft mechanical stresses is to identify the peak
torques imposed on the shaft segments, after system distur-
bances. Transient shaft mechanical stresses calculated based
on time-domain simulation methods also can be used to esti-
mate shaft loss of life as a result of system disturbances.
2.1.3 Turbine-Blade Vibrations [2.6]
Frequencies of turbine-blade vibrational modes are
usually within 90 to 250 Hz, and constitute supersynchro-
nous frequency modes. Identification of supersynchronous
frequency modes and their corresponding frequencies is best
carried out by solving elasticity equation of the shaft system
as a continuum, based on the use of finite element methods.
This approach is beyond the scope of this report and usually
carried out by turbine manufacturers.
In this report, the objective is to investigate the impact of
large-signal disturbances on those supersynchronous frequen-
cy natural modes which are the reason for turbine-blade vibra-
tions. Thus the required model is tailored to represent
particular supersynchronous modes and not all of them.
The concern with turbine-blade vibrations is fracture
and loss-of-life of the blades due to the fatigue induced in the
blades by repetitive or sustained oscillations. Vibrations of tur-
bine-blades can be excited by large-signal electrical distur-
bances, e.g. faults, fault clearing, line switching, reclosure, and
out-of-phase synchronization.
2.1.4 Fast Bus Transfer [2. 7,2.8,2.9]
Motors and other loads in utility and heavy industrial applica-
tions are supplied during normal operation from a preferred
power source. An alternate power source is normally provid-
ed to supply such motors and other loads during planned shut-
downs and upon loss of normal power from the preferred
power source. The process of disconnecting the motors and
other loads from one source and reconnecting to an alternate
source is commonly defmed as "bus transfer". Manual trans-
fer means are normally provided to allow transferring the mo-
tors and other loads from one power source to the other.
However, upon loss of the preferred power source, the motors
and other loads are automatically transferred to the alternate
power source. This automatic transfer is necessary to allow
uninterrupted operation of the motors and other loads impor-
tant to personnel safety and process operation. This report
does not address the concept ofbus transfer by means of semi-
conductor switches [2.23].
The normal and alternate power source connections are al-
ways selected such that they are in phase. Therefore, manual
transfers can be accomplished in a make-before-break, i.e.,
the motors and loads are connected to the second power
source before the first power source is disconnected. In this
overlapping transfer, the power supply is not interrupted and
the motors are not subjected to transients. However, during
automatic transfers, the motors may be disconnected from
both power sources for a short duration depending on the type
oftransfer and the associated circuit breakers operating times.
The time during which the motors are disconnected from both
power sources is termed the "dead time". Dead time is usually
between two cycles to 12 cycles. If the relative angle between
the motor residual voltage and the power source voltage be-
comes large enough at the time of reconnection with signifi-
cant residual voltage remaining, the resultant voltage
between the power source and the motor will produce an in-
rush current. The inrush current may be significantly largely
than the normal full voltage staging current. Such high inrush
currents cause high winding stresses and transient shaft
torques which can damage the motor and/or the driven equip-
ment.
The most common bus transfer scheme is the fast bus transfer
scheme. In this scheme, opening of the normal power source
breaker initiates closing of the alternate power source breaker
without intentional time delay. Fast bus transfer operations
result in the motors being disconnected from both power
sources for a duration of as short as two cycles to as long as
12 or more cycles.
Presently, there are no generic criteria to ensure
acceptable fast bus transfer operations. Therefore, it is nec-
essary to analyze the transient behavior of motors during fast
bus transfer operations. The analysis should be on a case by
case basis to ensure that the motors will not be subjected to
excessive inrush currents and/or shaft transient torques.
2.2 MODELING GUIDELINES
2.2.1 Study Zone
In contrast to an inter-area, electromechanical, oscillatory
3-3
mode which propagates almost through the entire of an inter-
connected electric network, the phenomena described in Sec-
tion 2.1 are experienced only within a limited part of the
network. The section of the network which experiences the
phenomenon of interest, and must be represented in adequate
detail for the study of the phenomenon, is referred to as the
"Study Zone" The rest ofthe network is referred to as the "ex-
ternal system" The external system is represented by an
equivalent model. Identification of border nodes of the study
zone for a meshed network requires significant familiarity
with the network, as well as engineering judgment. As of
now, there is no straightforward and systematic approach to
identify the border nodes. One approach involves multiple
harmonic analyses of the system under investigation as
boundaries are extended to identify if new resonant frequen-
cies (at the frequency range of interest) with low dampings ex-
ist.
Proper determination of the study zone can exert a major im-
pact on the investigations of torsional dynamics and transient
torques. Comparatively, the impact of the study zone on the
vibrations of turbine blades is less significant. Identification
of the study zone for bus transfer studies is relatively straight-
forward.
2.2.2 Component Model
Table 1 identifies the study zone components and their equiv-
alent models for investigations of slow transient phenomena.
Further explanation ofthe system components are given in the
following sections.
2 2 2 1 Synchronous Generator Electrical System [2 lOJ
Figure 2.1 shows a second-order and a third-order
models of a synchronous machine. Inclusion of the differen-
tialleakage inductance Lfld in the second-order model is
recommended. The differential leakage inductance has
noticeable influence on the damping, and the range of insta-
bility of each torsional mode, (with respect to series compen-
sation level), particularly for a salient pole machine.
However, Lfld does not influence the phenomenon of blade
vibrations.
Representation of machine electrical system based on
the third-order model, Fig. 2.1, is more accurate. Inclusion of
the differential leakage inductance Lf12d in the third-order
model has the same impact as that of Lfld for the second-order
model. Magnetic saturation of a synchronous machine, both on
d-axis and q-axis, does not have any significant impact on the
phenomenon of small-signal torsional oscillations, but has pro-
 Component Torsional Transient Turbine-Blade Fast Bus
Oscillations Torques Vibrations Transfer
Synchronous Second-Order Third-Order Third-Order Model Not
Generator's Model and Model (d-q-o (d-q-o Model) applicable
Electrical System Preferably Third- Model) Including
Order Model (d-q-o Including Saturation
Model) Saturation
Turbine-Generator Mass-Spring- Mass- Spring- Detail Not
Shaft System Dashpot Model Dashpot Model Mass-Spring- Applicable
Dashpot Model
Power Conventional Conventional Conventional Conventional
Transformer Low-Frequency Low-Frequency Low-Frequency Low-
Model including Model including Model including Frequency
Saturation Saturation Saturation Model
Characteristic Characteristic Characteristic including
Saturation
C harac terist ic
Transmiss ion Line Equivalent-a Equivalent-a Equivalent-a Not
Model Model Model Applicable
Series/Shunt Ideal Capacitor Ideal Capacitor Ideal Capacitor Ideal
Capacitor Capacitor
Series/Shunt Series R-L Series R-L Series R-L Series R-L
Reactor
Static Load Fixed Impedance Fixed Impedance Fixed Impedance Fixed
Load Load Load Impedance
Load
Large Motor Load d-q-o Model of Voltage Source Voltage Source d-q-o Model
Electrical System, Behind Fixed Behind Fixed of
Mass-Spring- Impedance Impedance Electrical
Dashpot Model of System,
Shaft System Mass- Spring-
Dashpot
Model of
Shaft System
HVDC Converter Detailed Model of Detailed Models of Detailed Models of Not
Station Converter and Converter and Converter and Applicable
Linearized Controls Controls
(Simplified)
Model of Controls
SVC Detailed Model of Detailed Model of Detailed Model of Not
Power Circuitry and Power Circuitry Power Circuitry Applicable
Linearized and Contro Is and Controls
(Simplified)
Model of Controls
Circuit Breaker Ideal Switch Ideal Switch Ideal Switch Ideal Switch
Generator Unimportant Unimportant Unimportant Not
Controls Applicable
Protection System' Unimportant Series Capacitor Ser ies Capac itor Not
Overvoltages Overvoltages Applicable
Protection System Protection System

Table 1: Component Model

3-4
nounced impact on transient torques andbladevibrations. erator unitmust be separately represented.
In most studies, the power plant under consideration is com-
posed of more than one turbine-generatorunit. If all the tur-
bine-generator units are nominallyidentical,and under almost
equal loading conditions, they can be representedby a single,
equivalent turbine-generator unit. Otherwise, each turbine-
generatorunit must be separately represented.
d-axis
Lt
~
STATOR ~
Rlq ~q ~

HP EXC

=
q-axis IP LPA LPB G

1.( LfJd LId RId

STAToJl:- HEW
d-axis Fig. 2.2. Turbine-generator shaftsystemand its mass-spring-dashpot mode

STATOR
FinalStageBlade Early Stage Blade
t ,
q-axis

Fig. 2.1. Synchronous machine 2nd-order and 3rd-order models

2 2 2 2 Turbine-Generator Mechanical System [2 11, 2 12,

2.lll
Fig. 2.2 shows a six-mass shaft system and its equivalent
mass-spring-dashpot model. The mass-spring-dashpot model
of Fig. 2.2 assumesthat (1) the high-pressure turbine(HP),the
intermediate-pressure turbine (IP), the low-pressure turbines
(LPA and LPB), the generator rotor (G), and the excitor
(EXC) are rigid masses, and (2) each shaft section is com-
posed of a spring constant (Kij) and a cyclic damping (Dij).
The main shortcoming of the model is that neither the shaft
cyclic dampings (Dijis) nor the viscous dampings (Diis) can
be directlymeasured or calculated. Neglectingthe dampings
providesthe most pessimisticdynamicresponse, which is of-
ten the objectiveof an investigation. The discussion of [2.11 ]
provides further descriptionof the mass-spring-dashpot mod-
el. Figure 2.3 shows a mass-spring-dashpot model of the tur-
bine-generator set of Fig. 2.2 for investigation of turbine-
blade vibrations. This model representsbladesof turbinesec-
tions as lumped masses [2.6].
Fig. 2.3. Mass-spring dashpotmodelof the turbine-generator for turbine-
bladevibrational studies(mechanical dampingis neglected)
2 2 2 3 power Transfonner
Classical low frequency transformer model with proper con-
nections at both HV and LV sides is adequate for representa-
tion of each powertransformerwithin the Study Zone. Figure
2.4 shows the classical model of a single-phase transformer
for simulationof low frequencydynamics. No-load V-I mag-
netic saturationcharacteristic can be used as a fair approxima-
tion of core saturationfor the phenomenaof interest. A three-
phase transformer model is developed based on proper con-
nections of primary and secondary windings of the single-
phase model of Fig. 2.4.
L2 R2

In moststudies, the power plantunder consideration is

composed of more thanoneturbine-generator unit. If all thetur-
bine-generator units are nominally identical, and under almost Nl:N2
equal loading conditions, they can be represented by a single,
equivalent turbine-generator unit. Otherwise, eachturbine-gen- Fig. 2.4. Low frequency modelof a single-phase transformer.

3-5
2 2 2 4 Transmission Ijne
The Equivalent-pi is an accurate model for representation of a
long or medium length transmission line for the phenomena
under investigation. In many reported studies, the shunt ca-
pacitive branches of the line model are also neglected. Shunt
capacitive branches of the line model do not have any major
impact on the
system subsynchronous frequency resonant modes, but their
effect on supersynchronous oscillatory modes can be notice-
able. Shunt capacitive branches, particularly in the case of
long lines, have a significant effect on the system steady-state
conditions, e.g. the magnitude of generator power angle.
Therefore, depending on the operating conditions, they may
have a noticeable impact on the dampings of low frequency
oscillatory modes.
2 2 2 5 Series and Shunt Capacitor Banks
Series capacitors are the main cause of severe shaft torsional
oscillations and their presence in each transmission section is
accurately represented by three lumped, ideal, capacitor
banks. Similar to the shunt capacitive branches of a transmis-
sion line, shunt capacitor banks do not have any direct impact
on the shaft dynamics. However, since shunt capacitors alter
the voltage profile of the system, they may noticeable impact
on the dampings of the oscillatory modes depending on the
operating condition. Thus, representation of shunt capacitors
in the system model, particularly under heavy loading condi-
tions, is recommended.
2 2 2 6 Shunt Reactor
Shunt reactors can have a noticeable impact on the steady-
state operating conditions, e.g. voltage profile, which can im-
pact the dampings of the low frequency dynamics. Thus, rep-
resentation of shunt reactors, particularly under light loading
conditions, is recommended.
"Fixed Impedance" model is an adequate load repre-
sentation when turbine-generator shaft dynamics are of concern.
However, if an induction motor load or a synchronous motor
load is comparable to the MVA rating of the turbine-generator
under consideration, fixed impedance representation of the load
may result in erroneous conclusions. Under such conditions, the
load is best represented by either an equivalent induction motor
or an equivalent synchronous motor.
Motor loads must be represented in details for fast bus transfer
phenomenon. For these studies, parallel identical motor loads
can be lumped in an equivalent motor load.
2 2 2 8 HYDC Converter Station
3-6
Shaft dynamics of a turbine-generator can be excited as a re-
sult of interaction between the turbine-generator and either
rectifier current-control or the inverter extinction angle (volt-
age) control of an HYDC link. Thus, ifboth the rectifier and
the inverter stations are within the study zone, both converter
stations, de line, and the associated controls, with adequate
level of sophistication, must be represented in the system
model.
Each arm of a six-pulse converter is modelled by an ideal
switch including series and parallel snubber circuits. The
switch represents a group of series/parallel connected diodes
or thyristor valves. The three-phase transformer model of
Section 2.2.2.3 can adequately represent converter transform-
er of a six-pulse HYDC converter for low frequency studies.
Connection of two six-pulse converter models with proper
transformer models constitutes a 12-pulse HYDC converter
model. The model of each pole of an HYDC converter station
is realized by assembling an adequate number of 12-pulse
converter models. If small-signal dynamics are of concern,
e.g. torsional oscillations, a bipole HYDC link can be approx-
imated by an equivalent monopolar link. Otherwise, e.g. for
investigation of transient torques, bipolar representation is
necessary. Models of smoothing reactors and ac/dc filters are
developed by proper connections of lumped RLC elements.
Multiple -sections is the recommended model of an HYDC
line.
Block diagram of the controls of a bipole Hvdc system for
time-domain simulation is given [2.14]. Further details of the
control blocks are available in Chapter 8 of [2.15].
When the inverter station is not within the Study Zone, the in-
verter station and the de line can be represented by an equiv-
alent controlled voltage source, and only the rectifier station
and its controls must be modelled in details. Similarly, the
rectifier station and the de line can be modelled as an equiva-
lent controlled current source and only the inverter station and
its control system be represented in detail, if the rectifier sta-
tion is not within the Study Zone.
An HYDC installation may have multiple auxiliary controls
for various purposes, e.g. damping inter-area oscillations, fre-
quency control, and reactive power/voltage modulations. It is
recommended to represent such auxiliary controls in the sys-
tem model to identify their possible adverse impacts on the
torsional oscillatory modes.
2 2 2 9 Static VAr Compensator (SVC)
Field experience and theoretical studies indicate that possible
adverse effect of an SVC on the shaft torsional dynamics are
not as severe when compared with that of an HYDC converter
station [2.16]. However SVCs have been recognized as ef-
fective countermeasures for shaft torsional dynamics. A con-
ventional SVC is composed of thyristor-switched capacitors
(TSCs) and thyristor-controlled reactors (TCRs) [2.17]. Dur-
ing small-signal dynamics, e.g. torsional oscillations, an SVC
can be approximated as fixed capacitors (FCs) and TCRs.thy-
ristor valves in each arm of either the TCR or the TSC are
modelled as two equivalent ideal switches including the par-
allel snubber branch. The three-phase transformer model of
Section 2.2.2.3 can adequately represent an SVC transformer
for low frequency studies. Controlled reactor, switched ca-
pacitor and the SVC filter components are represented in the
time-domain simulation model by proper combinations of
lumped RLC elements. Chapter 9 of [2.15] and reference
[2.18] provide details of the controls of an SVC for time-do-
main simulation. Similar to an HVDC converter station, an
SVC may be equipped with auxiliary controls, e.g. supple-
mental SSR damping control. Thus, all the closed-loop con-
trols must be represented in the simulation model to attain a
realistic time-response of an SVC.
2 2 2 10 Generator Controls
Conventional generator controls, i.e. automatic voltage regu-
lator (AVR), power system stabilizer (PSS), and governor
system generally do not have major (positive or negative) ef-
fects on turbine-generator shaft dynamics. Although there are
reports oftorsional excitation as a result ofPSSs and electron-
ically controlled governors, the adverse effect can be prevent-
ed by introducing filters in the control circuitry. Thus, the
dynamics of excitation and governor systems are neglected,
and the input mechanical power and the generator field volt-
age are considered as constant values for time-domain inves-
tigation of shaft dynamics. For those particular cases where
either AVR, PSS or governor may aggravate torsional oscil-
lations [2.1,2.2,2.3,2.4,2.5], they can be represented by their
linearized models in the system model.
2 2 2 11 Protection System
Overvoltage protection system of series capacitor can have a
significant impact on large-signal torsional torques and tur-
bine-blade vibrations following network transients. Thus, for
the simulation of these two phenomena, the series capacitor
overvoltage protection scheme including ZnO varistor and
the associated bypass logic and power circuitry must be rep-
resented in the system model.
2.3 TESTSYSTEMS
2.3.1 Torsional Oscillations
The IEEE Working Group on Subsynchronous Resonance has
introduced two benchmark models for time-domain simula-
tion of turbogenerator torsional oscillations [2.12, 2.13]. The
benchmark models have been extensively used for time-do-
main as well as frequency-domain investigation of the phe-
3-7
nomenon of torsional oscillations. Numerous study results,
using the benchmark model, have been published in the IEEE
PES Transactions [2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5].
Time-domain simulation and frequency-domain eigen analy-
sis are widely used as complementary approaches for recipro-
cal verification of torsional studies.
2.3.2 Transient Torques
The first and the second IEEE benchmark models for Small-
Signal torsional studies introduced in Section 2.3.1 also have
been extensively used for transient torque studies. Due to the
nonlinear nature of large-signal torsional oscillations, digital
time-domain simulation is the only approach to investigate
the phenomenon. There are no measurement results regarding
transient torques in the widely circulated technical literature.
Thus, simulation results cannot be readily compared with ac-
tual field tests. At this stage, a general verification rule is to
ensure that the simulation results satisfy the well understood
behavioral patterns and immediately after switching inci-
dents.
2.3.3 Turbine-Blade Vibrations
The radial power system of [2.6] is recommended as the test
system. The system is composed of a multi-mass tubine-gen-
erator which is connected to an infinite bus through two par-
allellines. The system can be used to study blade vibrations
of low-pressure turbine sections. It should be noted that in
contrast to the shaft torsional oscillations (either small-signal
or large-signal), the blade vibrations are not readily quantifi-
able from time-domain responses. Thus, a frequency spec-
trum analysis, e.g. FFT should be conducted on the time
response to obtain the relative amplitudes and frequencies of
the blade dominant oscillatory modes.
A qualitative verification of the simulation results can be ob-
tained based on the comparison ofthe frequencies of the blade
vibrations, deduced from FFT of the simulation results, with
those provided by the turbine manufacturer.
2.3.4 Bus-Transfer
The simplified system introduced in [2.7], is recommended as
the test system for bus transfer studies. Typical motor load
data for simulation studies are available in [2.19].
Ideally, validating a model of a fast bus transfer operation
should include validating the individual motor models and the
circuit breakers operating times. Individual motor models can
be validated by simulating motor starting and running condi-
tions and comparison of other simulation results to data re-
corded during an actual motor instantaneous current, power,
apparent power (VA), and speed. However, since a typical
bus transfermodelmay include 15or moremotors, it maynot
be practical to validate individual motormodels.
To establish the dead time and a range of the expected accu-
racy,it is recommended to performa fastbus transfertestwith
a few motorsconnected and simulating the test conditions us-
ing motor models based on the manufacturer supplied data.
Since measuring the transient variations in the motor shaft
torque is a complextask, it is suggested to monitor, simulate
and compare the following parameters:
businstantaneous voltage
individual motors instantaneous currents
total instantaneous currents through the alternate source circuit
breaker
individual motors instantaneous power andapparent power
motor speed
errors can then be determined by comparison of the test data
with simulation results. A statistical measure of the expected
modelaccuracy may be basedon the methodof the rootof the
sumof the squaresof the individual errors(RSS). The expect-
ed error in the actual bus transferanalysis wouldbe less than
the RSS of the errors deriveddue to the largernumberof mo-
tors included. References [2.7,2.8, 2.9]provide sometest re-
sults which can be used as general guidelines to verify the
pattern of behaviour of the system variables due to the bus
transferphenomenon.
Appendix A provides further information regarding fast bus-
transferand typical time-domain simulation results.
3. CONTROL SYSTEM INTERACTIONS
3.1 DEFINITION
Closed-loop controls associated with various power system
apparatus, e.g. SVC controls, HYDC converter controls, con-
trols of adjustable seriescapacitors, generator automatic volt-
age regulators (AVRs), and generator power system
stabilizers (PSSs) have natural oscillatory modes at frequen-
cies in the subsynchronous frequency range of 1 to 35 Hz.
Depending uponthe "electricaldistance" betweenthe appara-
tus, the associated closed-loop controls can interact and result
in either unsatisfactory operation of the device(s), sustained
oscillations, or even small-signal instability. Another type of
controller interactions is the interaction between a closed-
loop control system and a natural oscillatory mode of an ap-
paratus. One practicalcase of controller interaction phenom-
3-8
enonis thatof multiple SVCs[3.1]. The problemof controller
interactions attracts more attention as the number of power
electronic baseddevices increases.
3.2 STUDYZONE
When two or more interacting controls are identified, the
study zone encompasses those system components which
must be represented with adequate details to investigate the
interaction phenomenon. Sincethe frequencies of interestare
in the subsynchronous frequency range,the studyzone is usu-
ally identified based on the criteriaused for the study zone of
torsional oscillations, Section2.2.1.
3.3 DEVICEMODELS
3.3.1 Generator ElectricalSystem
If a turbine-generator controls system, i.e. governor system,
AVR, PSS, and its torsional mechanical modes do not partic-
ipate in the interaction phenomenon, then the generatorelec-
trical system can be modelled as an ideal, fixed-frequency,
three-phase, voltage sourcebehind a three-phase inductance.
Otherwise, the second-order model or the third-order model
for Section2.2.2.1 shouldbe used.
3.3.2 Turbine-Generator Mechanical System
Whenthe generator electrical systemis represented either by
the second-order model or the third-order model, the shaft
system should be represented by the mass-spring-dashpot
modelof Section2.2.2.2. Otherwise, the shaft dynamics and
consequently its oscillatory modes can be ignored.
3.3.3Power Transformer
Whena generator is represented by a voltagesourcebehindan
inductance, the generator step-up transformer is represented
by a seriesRL branchin each phase. Otherwise, the low-fre-
quency transformer model of Section 2.2.2.3 should be used
to represent the transformer in the overall system model. In
general, the low-frequency transformer model is an adequate
representation of a power transformer for investigation of
controller interaction phenomenon. The harmonics generated
as a result of transformer saturation have much higher fre-
quencies than those of controller interactions. Thus the satu-
ration does not have any major role in the controller
interaction phenomenon.Transmission Line
Per-phase equivalent- modelis an adequate representation of
a line for investigation of the phenomenon of controlinterac-
tions.
3.3.4Series and Shunt Capacitor Banks
Presence of series capacitors in a transmission line can alter
the level of controller interactions or even excite the interac-
tion mode(s) [3.2]. Impacts of parallel (shunt) capacitors on
the controllerinteractionsis significantly less than that of a se-
ries capacitor. Both series and shunt capacitors can be ade-
quately represented by three-phase lumped capacitor banks
for investigationof controller interactions.
3.3.5 Shunt Reactor
Similarto shunt capacitors, fixed, shunt inductors do not have
a major impact on controllerinteractions. Nevertheless, shunt
reactorsare adequatelyrepresentedby three-phase lumpedin-
ductancesfor investigationof controllerinteractions.
3.3.6 Loads
"Fixed Impedance" modelof loads withinthe studyzonepro-
vides accurate representation of the loads for investigation of
controllerinteractionphenomenon. Very large load areas can
also be representedby an "infinite bus" with proper phase an-
gle to draw the requiredpower at the fundamental frequency.
The impacts of various load models on the phenomenon of
controller interactions have been neither adequately investi-
gated nor reported in the literature.
3.3.7 HVDC ConverterStation
Rectifier or inverter firing angle controls can interact with
other systemcontrollers, e.g. SVC controls,and excitecontrol
interactionphenomenon. Contributionof an HYDC convert-
er stationto the controllerinteractionphenomenon is primari-
ly as a result of the natural oscillatory modes of its control
loop(s) and not due to the harmonics generated by the valve
switchings. If both inverter and rectifier are within the study
zone, both converter stations, the connecting de link, and all
the associatedcontrolsmust be representedin the study mod-
el. Furtherdetails on representation of each 12-pulse convert-
er are given in Section 4.3.8.
All the steady-state continuouscontrolsof rectifierand invert-
er stations, e.g. DC current control, DC voltage control, AC
voltage control or reactive power control,real power control,
and frequency control must be representedin the model. The
control model must adequately represent firing and synchro-
nization schemesused for the convertervalues.
When the inverterstation is not withinthe StudyZone, the in-
verter station and the dc line can be representedby an equiv-
alent controlled voltage source, and only the rectifier station
and its controls be modelled in detail. Similarly, the rectifier
station and the de line can be modelled as an equivalentcon-
trolled current sourceand only the inverterstationand its con-
trol system be represented in details, if the rectifier station is
3-9
not within the Study Zone.
3.3.8 Static VAR Compensator (SVC)
A conventional SVC, which is composed of thyristor-con-
trolled reactor (TCR) and fixed capacitor (FC), can interact
with an HYDC converterstation or other SVCs through their
closed-loop controls and excite the phenomenonof controller
interaction. An SVC model for control interaction studies
should accurately representthe SVC and its control system in
the frequency range of 5 to about 45 Hz. The steady-state
continuous controlsincludingall the auxiliaryloops, e.g. SVC
voltage controland SSR damping control, must be represent-
ed in the simulationmodel. Further details of an SVC small-
signal model are availablein Section 4.3.9.
3.3.9 GeneratorControls
Conventional synchronous generator controls, i.e. governor
system, AVR, and PSS are designed to perform correspond-
ing tasks at very low frequencies (0.1 to 2.5 Hz), and are not
the prime cause of controllerinteractions. Thus the dynamics
of the generatorcontrols often can be neglected for the inves-
tigation of controller interaction phenomenon. However, if
their presence in the overall system model is required, their
conventional low-frequency, linearized models would suf-
fice.
3.3.10HarmonicFilters
Harmonic filters of SVCs are adequately represented by
lumpedRLC circuits. Similarly, ac side and de side harmonic
filters ofHYDC converterstations are representedby lumped
RLC circuits.
3.4 TEST SYSTEM
Fig.3.1 showsthe recommended test system for the investiga-
tion of controller interactions [3.1] of multiple SVCs. De-
pending upon the operating conditions and parameters, the
voltage control loops of the SVCs can interact and exhibit
small-signal instability. Inclusion of control limits in the
model is not necessary since the control interaction consti-
tutes a linearphenomenonand nonlinearities are not involved.
icomp in Fig. 3.1 is the total current of each TCR and the as-
sociated capacitor bank. The systems data and initial condi-
tions are given in [3.3, 3.4].

230kV
250km 220km 180km
'I
(b)
Fig. 3.1. Testsystemsfor investigation of controller interaction phenomena
3.5 VERIFICATION OF SIMULATION RESULTS
Small-signal controller interactions also can be investigated
based on the linearizedmodel of the systemunder investiga-
tion, using eigen analysis approaches [3.6, 3.7. 3.8]. Both
time-domain simulation and the eigen analysis of controller
interactions are conducted for qualitative comparison of the
results and their mutual verifications.
4. HARMONIC INTERACTION AND RESONANCE
4.1 DEFINITION
Operation of power electronic converters, e.g. an HVDCcon-
verter station,is characterized by generation of currentand!or
voltageharmonics. These harmonics are classified as charac-
teristic and noncharacteristic harmonics. In contrastto char-
acteristic harmonics, amplitudes and orders of
noncharacteristic harmonics cannot be accurately predicted
by conventional analytical techniques, e.g. Fourier analysis.
Time-domain simulation methods provide an alternative ap-
proach for the analysis of noncharacteristic harmonics. Ref-
erences [4.1] and [4.2] provide a comprehensive description
of the physicalphenomena resultingin harmonic interactions.
The main concerns with the presenceof noncharacteristic har-
monics are (1) harmonic interactions and/or resonance [4.1],
and (2) the interference phenomenon [4.2].
Radio and telephone interference as a result of dc side har-
monics of HYDC converters is a well known phenomenon.
Also, secondand third harmonic instability of ac systemsdue
to harmonic modulation characteristic of HYDC converter
has been encountered in the existinginstallations [4.1].
4.2 STUDYZONE
68kV
Thosesystemapparatus whicheithergenerateor interactwith
the frequencies of interestmustbe representedin adequatede-
tails,andthey identifythe studyzone. Also transmission lines
which connect the apparatus within the study zone must be
represented with adequate accuracyin the frequency range of
interest in the system model. The remainder of the system
which neither generates nor interacts with the harmonics can
be simplified and represented by its frequency dependent
equivalent model [4.3].
4.3 DEVICE MODEL
4.3.1 Generator Electrical Model
Rotating machines withinthe study zone do not-contribute to
the harmonic interaction phenomenon and can be represented
by equivalent voltagesourcesbehind fixed RL elements.
4.3.2 Turbine-Generator Mechanical System
dynamics do not play any noticeable role in the harmonic in-
teraction phenomenon. Thus, the shaft model can be readily
discarded from the overallsystem model.
4.3.3 Power Transformer
Both stray capacitances and magnetic saturation characteris-
tics of powertransformers withinthe study zone can have sig-
nificant impact on power system harmonics. The magnetic
saturation characteristic has a deterministic impacton the sec-
ond harmonic instability and can be fairly represented by the
no-load V-I characteristic in the magnetization branch of the
transformer. The winding stray capacitances to the tank have
a noticeable effecton the interference phenomenon[4.2]. The
stray capacitance can be adequately modelled by a single ca-
pacitance from the windingterminal to the ground [4.2].
4.3.4 Transmission Lines
Transmission lines withinthe study zone are best represented
as distributed parameterlines including parameter frequency
dependency. However, if the frequency range of interestdoes
not cover high frequencies (more than 300 Hz), each trans-
missionline can be represented by multiple sections.
4.3.5 Series and Shunt Capacitor Banks
Seriesand shunt capacitors have deterministic impactson se-
ries and parallelresonantfrequencies of the system and must
be represented in the overallsystemmodel for harmonicstud-
ies. Both series and shunt capacitors are adequately repre-
sentedby lumpedthree-phase capacitorbanks.
3-10
4.3.6 Shunt Reactor
Similarto series and shunt capacitors, shunt reactors also in-
fluence the system natural resonant frequencies and must be
represented in the systemmodel. A shuntreactoris adequate-
ly represented by a three-phase lumpedreactorbank.
4.3.7 Loads
"Fixed Impedance" model is a valid representation for loads
withinthe studyzone,unlessthe load is knownto havepartic-
ular resonant frequency or generates particular hannonic(s)
whichcan affect the harmonic phenomenon of interest.
4.3.8 HVDC Converter Station
The HVDe converter station is one of the major
sources for generation of harmonics which cause interference
and/or instability of electrical power networks [4.1]. The
required model of an HVDe converter station for studying inter-
ference and harmonic interaction phenomena is the same as the
model described in Section 3.3.8.
cs
Neutral Filter
Fig.4.1. Lumped equivalent of the stray capacitances ofa 12-pulse HVDe
converter and the convertertransformers
Exactparameters of the snubbercircuitsof each valve
chainshouldbe included in the model[4.2]. It shouldbe
noted that in some transients programs, the exactparam-
eters of snubbercircuits cannotbe used. Unrealistic
snubbercircuits are required by theseprograms to avoid
numerical problems.
The model used for the valve firing circuitry should gener-
ate actual firing instants. Otherwise, the amplitudes and
orders of noncharacteristic harmonics will be noticeably
distorted as a result of improper firing instants [4.4].
Stray capacitances of the converter transformers, valve
structure, and smoothing reactormust be adequately rep-
resentedin the systemmodel [4.2]. The impactof stray
capacitances can be represented by a set of lumped
3-11
capacitors, Fig. 4.1.
Magnetic saturation characteristics of convertertrans-
formers must be includedin the model [4.4].
4.3.9 Static VAR Compensator (SVC)
StaticVAR compensators have not been reported as a source
of interference phenomenon and harmonic interactions.
However, in the vicinity of HVDC converter stations and
FACTS devices, a static VAR compensator can aggravate
harmonic related issues [4.4]. The required SVC model for
time-domain investigation of harmonic problems is the same
as the modeldescribed in Section3.3.9,exceptfor the follow-
ing differences:
Snubber circuits of each valve chain must be includedin
the simulation model.
The model of valve firing circuitry must be capable of gen-
erating exact firing instants.
Operating point and parametervalues of a SVC can readily
influence series/parallel resonant frequencies of a network
andconsequently tunethe systemfor resonantconditions, e.g.
secondharmonic resonance [4.4]. The above model can also
be used for this class of resonant conditions which normally
occur at noncharacteristic harmonics generated by power
electronic circuits.
4.3.10 Generator Control
Automatic voltage regulator, power system stabilizer, and
governor system do not influence harmonic related problem.
Thus,their modelcan be excluded from the systemmodel for
time-domain harmonic studies.
4.3.11 Harmonic Filters
SVC and HVDC harmonic filters must be modelled as de-
scribedin Section3.3.11.
4.4 TEST SYSTEM
The HVDC-AC system of Fig. 4.2 is proposedas the test sys-
tem for the investigation of harmonic interactions phenomena
and the secondharmonic instability issues.
Fig. 4.2. HVDC-AC test systems for time-domain simulation of harmonic
interaction phenomena, and the second harmonic instability
The HVDC link is a ±450-kV, 936-km, 2000-MW, 12-pulse,
bipole configuration. Each pole is equippedwith ac side and
de side filters. The inverterneutralis equippedwith a neutral
filter. The rectifierneutralis solidlygrounded closeto the sta-
tion. Parameters and controlsystemof the ManitobaHydrois
Bipole-2 HVDCsystem[4.5,4.6] are adoptedfor the test sys-
tem of Fig. 4.2.
Therectifierac system, Fig. 4.2, is composed of an equivalent
26-kV source which is connected to the rectifier ac bus
through a 26/235-kV transformer and a short 230-kV line.
The effective short circuitratio (ESCR) of the rectifierac sys-
tem is 3.6.
The inverterac system consists of a 230-kV ac source which
is connectedto the inverterstationthrougha 500-kV, 832-km
transmission system. The transmission line is equipped with
240/525-kV y - Y connectedtransformer at the source side.
The ac line is divided in three sections, Fig. 4.2. Each inter-
mediate station is equipped with a 400 MVA capacitorbank
for voltageprofileimprovement. Loads#1, #2, and #3 arerat-
ed at 920-MVA, 400-MVA and 360-MVA respectively. The
inverter station is also equipped with an SVC which can ad-
just its reactive power from 180-MVAR inductive to 510-
MVAR capacitive. Electrical parameters of the inverter ac
systemare givenin [4.7]. The ESCR of the inverterac side is
2.2.
References [4.8] and [4.9] provide various HVDC/ac bench-
markmodelsthat also can be used for the analyses of harmon-
ic interactions and resonance phenomena. The first HVDC
benchmark model [4.8] proposed by CIGREWG 14-02 also
exhibits second harmonic resonance and can be adopted for
investigation of harmonic instabilityphenomenon. This sys-
tem is less complicated as compared with that of Fig. 4.2.
Reference [4.10]providesa very simple circuitconfiguration
which exhibits instability due to switching characteristic of
thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR). A set of time-domain
simulations results of the test systems of Fig. 4.2 is given in
[4.4].
4.5 VERIFICATION OF SIMULATION RESULTS
There are several technical papers which deal with analysis
and measurement of noncharacteristic harmonics of HVDC
converter stations [4.2,4.11,4.12,4.13]. The primary con-
cern in these papers is the de side triplen harmonics which
cause interference and not the second harmonic instability
problem. Reference[4.15]providesa modelling approachfor
representation of a six-pulseconverterwithrespectto the sec-
ond harmonic for eigen analysis. Such eigen analysis ap-
proach can be used as an alternative technique for validation
of simulation results. Eigen analysis studies based on the
3-12
modelling approach of [4.15] are reported in [4.14]. Refer-
ences [4.16,4.17,4.18] provide a comprehensive and funda-
mental description of the harmonic interactionphenomenon.
However, there are not that many measurements and investi-
gationof the harmonic interaction phenomenon to establisha
method for verification of time-domain simulation studies.
Reference [4.19] introduces an alternative approachbased on
frequency scanning methodfor identification of harmonic in-
stabilities in HVDCsystems. This approachmay be used for
qualitative verification of digital time-domain simulationap-
proach.
5. FERRORESONANCE
In this section, ferroresonance is introduced and a general
modeling approach is given. An overview of available litera-
ture and contributors to this area is provided. A simple case
of ferroresonance in a single phase transformer is used to il-
lustrate this "phenomenon". Three phase transformer core
structures are discussed. Ferroresonance in three phase
grounded-wye distribution systemsis describedand illustrat-
ed with waveform data obtainedfrom laboratorysimulations.
Representation of the study zone is discussed, modelingtech-
niques are presented, and implementation suggestions are
made. Three case studied are presented. Transformerrepre-
sentation is criticalto performing a valid simulation. The di-
rection of ongoing research is discussed, and the reader is
advisedto monitor the literature for ongoing rapid improve-
ments in transformer modelingtechniques.
5.1 INTRODUCTION TO FERRORESONANCE
Research involving ferroresonance in transformers has been
conducted over the last 80 years. The word ferroresonance
first appears in the literaturein 1920[5.7],althoughpapers on
resonance in transformers appeared as early as 1907 [5.4].
Practical interest was generated in the 1930s when it was
shown that use of series capacitors for voltage regulation
caused ferroresonance in distribution systems [5.9], resulting
in damaging overvoltages.
The firstanalytical workwas doneby Rudenberg in the 1940s
[5.36]. More exacting and detailed work was done later by
Hayashi in the 1950s [5.17]. Subsequent research has been
divided into two main areas: improving the models used to
predict the behavior of the transformers, and studying fer-
roresonance involving transformers installed in power sys-
tems.
An understanding of the nonlinear parameters describing a
transformer core is prerequisite to dealing with ferroreso-
nance. Swift [5.47] and Jiles [5.20] have provided insight into
transformer core behavior and the separation ofhysteresis and

~
eddy current losses. Frame [5.15] and others have developed R~2 R",. LU l~l
+ lEX
piecewise-linear methods of modeling the nonlinearities in
saturable inductances. V,_", ~ll
Hopkinson [5.19] performed system tests and simulations on xc IDEAL HO
the effect of different switching strategies on the initiation of TRANSFOIUlER
ferroresonance in three phase systems. Smith [5.38] catego-
rized the modes of ferroresonance in one type of three phase
distribution transformer based on the magnitude and appear- 1.0

ance of the voltage waveforms. Arturi [5.2] and Mork [5.29] 0 .75

~
have demonstrated the use of duality transformations to ob- 0 .5
W
rt.
rt.
tain transformer equivalent circuits . Mork [5.27] and Kieny 0 .25
III
~ 0 .0
Q.
::;
:l
0
[5.21] have shown that the theories and experimental tech- 0
> « 0
Z
-0 .2 5
niques of nonlinear dynamics and chaotic systems can be ap- t=
~
-0.5
plied to better understand ferroresonance and limitations -0.7 5
inherent in modeling a nonlinear system. Developments in
the near future are expected to be in the areas of developing
TIME
improved transformer models and applying nonlinear dynam-
ics to the simulation of ferroresonance. Fig. 5.1. Unloaded singlephasetransformer withratedvoltage applied.Solid
waveform is appliedvoltage; dashedwaveform is exciting current

Although usually assumed linear, RC is dependent on voltage

5.2 FERRORESONANCE IN A SINGLEPHASE TRANS-
FORMER
In simple terms, ferroresonance is a series "resonance" in-
volving nonlinear inductance and capacitances. It typically
involves the saturable magnetizing inductance of a transform-
er and a capacitive distribution cable or transmission line con-
nected to the transformer. Its occurrence is more likely in the
absence of adequate damping . A simple case of ferroreso-
nance is presented here as an illustration.
When rated voltage is applied to an unloaded single phase
transformer, only a very small excitation current flows (Fig.
5.1). In this case, the 120-volt winding of a 120-240 volt 1.5
kVA dry-type transformer is energized , resulting in an excit-
ing current, whose peak amplitude is 0.05 per unit. Referring
to the equivalent circuit shown, it is seen that this current con-
sists oftwo components: the magnetizing current and the core
loss current. The magnetizing current, which flows through
the nonlinear magnetizing inductance LM, is required to in-
duce a voltage in the secondary winding of the transformer.
The core loss current, flowing through RC, makes up the eddy
current losses and hysteresis losses in the transformer's steel
core.
and frequency. The excitation current contains high order odd
harmonics, due to transformer core saturation. RW and LL
are the winding resistance and winding leakage inductance,
respectively . They are assumed to be linear parameters. Their
magnitudes are relatively small compared to LM and RC and
so are usually ignored in no-load situations [5.3,5.24] .
If a capacitor is placed between the voltage source and the un-
loaded transformer, ferroresonance may occur (Fig. 5.2). An
extremely large exciting current (1.92 per unit peak) is drawn
and the voltage induced on the secondary may be much larger
than rated (1.44 per unit peak) . The high current here is due
to resonance between CS and LM; ferroresonance in most
practical situations results in smaller exciting currents . Any
operating "modes" which result in a significantly distorted
transformer (inductor) voltage waveform are typically re-
ferred to as ferroresonance, although the implication of reso-
nance in a classical sense is arguably a misnomer. Even
though the "resonance" occurring does involve a capacitance
and an inductance, there is no defmite resonant frequency,
more than one response is possible for the same set of param-
eters, and gradual drifts or transients may cause the response
to jump from one steady-state response to another.
High-order odd harmonics are characteristic of the wave-
forms, whose shapes might be conceptually explained in
terms of the effective natural frequency 1 LMCS as LM goes
in and out of saturation. Steep slopes (fast changes) occur
when LM is saturated, and flat slopes occur when LM is op-
erating in its linear unsaturated region .

Due to nonlinearity, two other ferroresonant operating modes

3-13
are possible, depending on the magnitudes of source voltage
and series capacitance. In this case, all modes are seen to pro-
duce periodic voltage waveforms on the transformersecond-
ary [5.26,5.29]. In general, gradualchanges in source voltage
or capacitance will cause state transitions. A reversalto con-
ditions that caused a transitionwill not reverse the transition,
due to nonlinearity ofLM [5.36]. Transientscan also trigger
transition from mode to mode.
In modem terms, these jumps are referred to as bifurcations
[16,27,29,45], and may be better understood by applying the
theory of nonlinear dynamics and chaos. A long-used intui-
tive explanationof thesejumps, basedon a graphical method,
is given by Rudenberg [5.36]. However, this method is not a
good analyticaltool since it is based only on the fundamental
frequency and neglects harmonics.
Damping added to the circuit will attenuate the fer-
roresonant voltage and current. Some damping is always
present in the form of resistive source impedance, transformer
losses, and also corona losses in high voltage systems, but most
damping is due to the loadapplied to the secondary of the trans-
former.
i : IiI I : , f : I
···..··f·············:·
Fig. 5.2. Same transformeras in Fig. 5.1, fed througha 7511F capaci-
tance,operatingin ferroresonance. Solid waveformis terminal voltageof
transformer; dashed waveform is the current.
Damping added to the circuit will attenuate the ferroresonant
voltage and current. Some damping is always present in the
form of resistive source impedance, transformer losses, and
also corona losses in high voltage systems, but most damping
is due to the load applied to the secondary of the transformer.
Therefore, a lightly-loaded or unloaded transformer fed
through a capacitive source impedance is a prime candidate
for ferroresonance.
This elementary type of ferroresonance is similar to that
which occurred in the series capacitor compensated distribu-
tion systems of the 1930s. It can also occur, from different
sources of capacitance, in today's single phase distribution
transformers and voltage instrument transformers [5.1,5.18].
It can also occur in series-compensated transmission lines.
Ferroresonance can leadto heatingof transformer, due to high
peak currentsand high core fluxes. High temperatures inside
the transformermay weakenthe insulationand cause a failure
under electrical stresses. In EHV systems, ferroresonance
may result in high overvoltages during the first few cycles, re-
sulting in an insulation coordination problem involving fre-
quencieshigher than the operating frequency of the system.
Because of nonlinearities, analytical solution of the ferrores-
onant circuit must be done using time domain methods. Typ-
ically, a computer-based numerical integration method is
applied using time domain simulation programs such as the
EMTP.
5.3 MAGNETIC BEHAVIOR OF THREE PHASE TRANS-
FORMERS
It is incorrect to assume that a three phasetransformer
core is magnetically equivalent to three singlephasetransform-
ers, i.e. that the three phases haveno direct magnetic coupling.
Such an assumption can leadto serious errors, especially if one
is investigating a transformer's behavior under transient or
unbalanced conditions.
I I g _:>r. 'l'lUPtEX CoRE (I"ACKED OR -.oUND) CDRE roRW (~ACKED )
~ ~~ 110
- 11:.t
-se.e
"HELL P'OR¥ ~ACK!lD)
5-IBdOED WOUND CORE
I~
Fig. 5.3. Core configurations commonly used in three phase transform-
ers.Only one set of windings is shown.
The only type of core that displays magnetic characteristics
similar to three single phase transformers is the triplex core.
Althoughthe cores share the same tank, they are magnetically
isolated(except for leakage fluxes). Core laminations can be
stacked or wound. Zero sequence fluxes will circulate indi-
vidually in each core, and tank heating is not a problem. Un-
der normal balanced operation, exciting currents in each
phase are identical, except for their 120 shift in phase angle.
All of the other core conftgurations provide direct flux linkag-
es between phases via the magnetic core. Simply stated, ap-
plying a voltage to anyone phase will result in voltages being
3-14
induced in the other phases (only in the adjacent phase(s) in
the case of the five-legged wound core). Further, the degree
of saturation in each limb of the core affects the way flux
flows divide. The apparent reluctance seen by each of the
windings changes depending on the degree of saturation in
each of the limbs of the transformer core. Therefore, exciting
currents vary from phase to phase, even under balanced oper-
ation. A brief discussion of each of these core types follows:
Core-form transformers require the least amount of core ma-
terial to manufacture. Laminations are stacked. Their worst
problem is that unbalanced operation results in zero sequence
fluxes which cannot circulate in the core. These zero se-
quence fluxes are forced through the insulation surrounding
the core and through the transformer tank. Tank steel is not
laminated like the core is, so eddy currents can heat the tank
and cause damage. Therefore, this type of core should only be
used where load currents are balanced.
The shell-form core provides a magnetic path for zero se-
quence flux, and is much better-suited for unbalanced opera-
tion. Laminations are stacked. There is a large base of
transformers with this type of core (about half of the installed
three phase power transformers in the US).
lines, capacitor banks, coupling capacitances between double
circuit lines or in a temporarily-ungrounded system, and volt-
age grading capacitors in HV circuit breakers. Other possibil-
ities are generator surge capacitors and SVCs in long
transmission lines. Due to the multitude of transformer wind-
ing and core configurations, system connections, various
sources of capacitance, and the nonlinearities involved, the
scenarios under which ferroresonance can occur are seeming-
ly endless [5.5].
System events that may initiate ferroresonance include single
phase switching or fusing, or loss of system grounding. The
ferroresonant circuit in all cases is an applied (or induced)
voltage connected to a capacitance in series with a transform-
er's magnetizing reactance.
Fig. 5.4 gives three examples offerroresonance occurring in a
network where single phase switching is used. A wye-con-
nected capacitance is paralleled with an unloaded wye-con-
nected transformer, The capacitance could be a capacitor
bank or the shunt capacitance ofthe lines or cables connecting
the transformer to the source. Each phase of the transformer
is represented by jXm, since ferroresonance involves only the
magnetizing reactance.

The four-legged core also provides a magnetic path for zero

sequence flux. This type of core design is not very common.
It is the only type of core whose outer phases do not exhibit A

like behavior. a}

The five-legged stacked core also provides a magnetic path

for zero sequence flux, but has a more symmetric core. This
type of core is often specified where a low-profile is desirable
for shipping or for visual appearance in urban substations. ,; v«
---------~-------
s.
- - - - - .. - - - -
__L

....,
J
J
_

The five-legged wound core is made up of four concentrical-

ly-laminated cores. The unique feature ofthis core is that only
adjacent phases are directly linked via a magnetic path. As- b)
suming no flux leakage between cores, the two outer winding
assemblies are not magnetically coupled. Tank heating is
minimized, since there are zero sequence flux paths in the
core. Because of its low cost, this type of transformer core is
, ,
1 8.1
widely used in distribution systems. I
-~----~------~--

The winding configuration used does not have any effect on

the transformer core model. Delta, wye, or zig-zag winding
connections are made outside of the model of the core equiv-
c)
alent. However, behavior of the transformer is strongly de-
pendent on the winding configuration.

5.4 FERRORESONANCE IN THREE PHASE SYSTEMS I

.. - ... - 4 - - - - - - - - ,..,

Ferroresonance in three phase systems can involve large pow-

er transformers, distribution transformers, or instrument
transformers (VTs or CVTs). The general requirements for
ferroresonance are an applied (or induced) source voltage, a
saturable magnetizing inductance of a transformer, a capaci-
tance, and little damping. The capacitance can be in the form
of capacitance of underground cables or long transmission
Fig.5.4.Threeexamples offerroresonance in threephasesystems.
If one or two poles of the switch are open and if either the ca-
pacitor bank or the transformer have grounded neutrals, then
a series path through capacitance(s) and magnetizing reac-

3-15
tance(s) exists and ferroresonance is possible. Ifboth neutrals
are grounded or both are ungrounded, then no series path ex-
ists and there is no clear possibility of ferroresonance. In all
of these cases, the voltage source is the applied system volt-
age. Ferroresonance is possible for any ofthe core configura-
tions of Fig. 5.3 (even for triplexed or a bank of single phase
transformers).
Depending on the type of transformer core, ferroresonance
may be possible even when there is no obvious series path
from the applied voltage through a capacitance and a magne-
tizing reactance. This is possible with three phase core types
which provide direct magnetic coupling between phases,
where voltages can be induced in the open phase(s) of the
transformer. To illustrate, a grounded-wye to grounded-wye
transformer typical of modem distribution systems is consid-
ered. A recent survey in the US showed that 79% of under-
ground rural distribution systems use this configuration, so
ferroresonance problems in this type of installation are of spe-
cial interest [5.23,5.25,5.40,5.41]. A simplified schematic of
such a system is shown in Fig. 5.5. The distribution line is
represented by its RLC pi equivalent, with no interphase cou-
pling. Three phase circuit breakers and gang-operated
switches are used at the substation where distribution lines
originate, but single phase switching and interrupting devices
are used outside of the substation.
]I)
Fig. 5.5. Typical distribution systemsupplyinga three phaseloadthrougha
grounded-wye to grounded-wye transformer.
Either overhead lines or underground cables connect trans-
formers to the system. Cables have a relatively large shunt ca-
pacitance compared to overhead lines, so this type of
ferroresonance most often involves underground cables, but is
also possible due solely to transformer winding capacitance.
Three phase or single phase transformers can appear at the
end of a distribution line or at any point along the line. Three
phase transformers may have anyone ofthe several core types
discussed in the previous section.
3-16
Whether ferroresonance occurs depends on the type of
switching and interrupting devices, type of transformer, the
load on the secondary of the transformer, and the length and
type of distribution line. A long underground line is much
more capacitive than a short overhead line. However, due to
nonlinearities, increased capacitance does not necessarily
mean an increased likelihood of ferroresonance. Operating
guidelines based on linear extrapolations of capacitance may
not be valid. Also, as mentioned previously, the smaller the
load on the transformer's secondary, the less the system damp-
ing is and the more likely ferroresonance will be. Therefore,
a highly capacitive line and little or no load on the transformer
are prerequisites for ferroresonance. Binary loads (either full
load or no load) such as irrigation, are essentially zero most of
the time and cannot be relied upon to damp ferroresonance.
Ferroresonance is rarely seen provided all three source phases
are energized, but may occur when one or two of the source
phases are lost while the transformer is unloaded or lightly
loaded. The loss of one or two phases can easily happen due
to clearing of single phase fusing, operation of single phase
reclosers or sectionalizers, or when energizing or deenergiz-
ing using single phase switching procedures.
If one of the three switches of Fig. 5.4 were open, only two
phases of the transformer would be energized. If the trans-
former is of the triplex design or is a bank of single phase
transformers, the open phase is simply deenergized and the
energized phases draw normal exciting current. (Existence of
capacitor banks or significant phase to phase capacitive cou-
pling could still result in ferroresonance, but that possibility is
not addressed here).
However, if the transformer is of the three-, four- or five-
legged core type, a voltage is induced in the "open" phase.
This induced voltage will "backfeed" the distribution line
back to the open switch. If the shunt capacitance is signifi-
cant, ferroresonance may occur. The ferroresonance that oc-
curs involves the nonlinear magnetizing reactance of the
transformer's open phase and the shunt capacitance ofthe dis-
tribution line and/or transformer winding capacitance. It has
been shown that the ferroresonant circuit is a series combina-
tion ofthe shunt cable capacitance and the magnetizing induc-
tance of one of the transformer's wound cores [5.23]. The
equivalent circuit for this transformer is derived later in this
paper.
An example of ferroresonant voltage and current waveforms
occurring under this scenario is shown in Fig. 5.6. In this
case, rated voltage was applied to X2 and X3, while Xl was
unenergized and had 9~ attached to simulate a length of un-
derground distribution cable.
Whether in ferroresonance or not, this backfeed situation can
be dangerous, as operating personnel may assume that the
load side of the open switch is deenergized and safe to work
on, when in fact a high voltage is present. Also, it can be seen
that single phase loads connected along this backfed phase
will continue to be supplied, although with dangerously high
or low voltage levels and with poor power quality.
Therefore, use of single phase interruption and switching
practices in systems containing the five-legged core trans-
formers is the main operating tactic responsible for initiating
ferroresonance . Replacement of all single phase switching
and interrupting devices with three phase devices would elim-
inate this problem, although economics discourages such
large scale upgrades. An alternate solution would be to re-
place all five-legged core transformers with single phase
banks or triplex designs wherever there is a small load factor.
System wide operation and design implications of this prob-
lem have been more fully addressed in prior work [5.25] .
5.5 NONLINEAR DYNAMICS AND CHAOS APPLIED
TOFERRORESONANCE
Ferroresonant circuits can be analyzed as damped nonlinear
systems driven by sinusoidal forcing function(s) [5.27]. The
nonlinear behavior of ferroresonance falls into two main cat-
egories. In the first , the response is a distorted periodic wave-
form , containing the fundamental and higher-order odd
harmonics of the fundamental frequency. The second type is
characterized by a nonperiodic, or chaotic, response. In both
cases the response's power spectrum contains fundamental
and odd harmonic frequency components. In the chaotic re-
sponse, however, there are also distributed frequency harmon-
ics and subharmonics. A good conceptual introduction to
chaos and nonlinear dynamics is given by [5.16], and a good
theoretical introduction can be found in [5.45] .
At least 2 different periodic responses are possible for
a single phase transformer [5.26], similar to that ofFig.5.1. Fer-
roresonance in the above three phase five-legged core distribu-
tion transformer can be periodic or nonperiodic. "Lower energy
modes" [5.1] (involving relatively low energy oscillations
between the inductance and capacitance, similar to the wave-
forms shown in Fig. 5.5) produce periodic voltages on the sec-
ondary. Some of the periodic modes of ferroresonance may
contain subharmonics, but still have strong power frequency
components, but take longer than one fundamental cycle to
repeat. This occurs more typically for very large values of C.
Fig. 5.6. Measurement offerroresonance in a three phase grounded-wye to
grounded-wye five-leggedcore transformer. Voltage waveform is solid;cur-
rent waveform is dashed.
3-17
The "higher energy modes" [5.1] offerroresonance involving
relatively large capacitances and little damping can produce a
nonperiodic voltage on the open phase(s). These voltage
waveforms can be quite similar to those ofDuffmg's equation
[5.45] , which describes a nonlinear forced oscillator common-
ly used to illustrate the behaviors of a nonlinear dynamical
system. Transitions between periodic and nonperiodic modes
occur due to gradual changes in circuit parameters or to tran-
sients. And as with Duffing's equation, initial conditions de-
termine the mode that operation stabilizes in after the
transients die down.
The recognition that ferroresonance is a nonlinear and some-
times chaotic process opens up many possibilities. The new-
ly-developed techniques for analysis of nonlinear dynamical
systems and chaos are being evaluated for use with ferroreso-
nance [5.27,5.21]. Use of geometric graphical methods like
phase plane projections and PoincarE sections can be applied
to obtain a better understanding of ferroresonance .
5.6 MODELLING AND ANALYSIS OF FERRORESO-
NANCE
5.6.1 Overview
Ferroresonance has never been well-understood. Therefore,
there is a great deal of misinformation on ferroresonance in
the literature. A good example of this concerns the applica-
tion of grounded-wye to grounded-wye five-legged core dis-
tribution transformers. As recently as 1989, specification of
this type of transformer was recommended to eliminate or
minimize the possibility offerroresonance [5.14,5.35] . This
misinformation is gradually being corrected [5.25 ,5.32], but
engineers must be cautious and continue to update them-
selves.
Efforts in past years seem focused on refining equivalent cir-
cuit models for transformers and performing simulations us-
ing a transient circuit analysis program such as EMTP.
Although these programs use fairly robust methods ofnumer-
ical integration, such as the trapezoidal rule , results are only
as good as the models used (and the initial conditions if the
onset offerroresonance is a concern). Simulation results have
a great sensitivity to the model used and errors in nonlinear
model parameters. Unfortunately, determining the model's
nonlinear parameters is probably the biggest modeling diffi-
culty. Three phase transformer modeling has not progressed
as far as single phase modeling. A different model is required
for each type of core, and a different means of determining the
model parameters.
Ideally, use of a correct transformer model would allow an en-
gineer to simulate situations where ferroresonance is likely.
Simulation results could then be used to avoid this problem
when designing a distribution system. Difficulties in deter-
mining an adequate model and in simulating every possible
combination of initialconditionandtransientmakeprediction
less than certain.
5.6.2 The Study Zone
Parts of the system that must be simulatedare the source im-
pedance, the transmission or distribution line(s), the trans-
former, and any capacitance not already included. Source
representation is not generally critical. Unlessthe sourcecon-
tainsnonlinearities, it is sufficientto use the steady-state thev-
enin impedance and open-circuit voltage. The distribution
line or transmission line can be assumed to be an RLC cou-
pled pi-equivalent, cascadedfor longer lines. Shunt or series
capacitors may be represented as a standardcapacitance, par-
alleled with the appropriate dissipation resistance. Stray ca-
pacitance may also be incorporated eitherat the comers of an
open-circuited delta transformer winding or midway along
each winding. Other sources of capacitance are transformer
bushings and interwinding capacitances, and possiblybusbar
capacitances.
One of the most critical parts of any ferroresoriance study is
the transformermodel. The transformer containsthe nonlin-
earities, and modeling results are most sensitive to correct
representation of magnetic saturationand core loss. The rest
of this discussion focuses mainly on how the transformer
shouldbe modeled. Manyare dissatisfied with the transform-
er modeling capabilities in today'smodeling packages. There
has been much discussionrecently as to what improvements
can be made in modeling techniques [5.6,5.13,5.46].
5.6.3 More on Single Phase Transformer Models And
Parameters
Singlephase transformers are typicallymodeledas shown in
Fig. 5.2. This model is topologically correctonly for the case
wherethe primaryand secondarywindings are not concentri-
callywound. LL2 is essentially zero for concentric coils. Er-
rors in leakage representation are not significant, however,
unless the core saturates. Obtaining the linear parameters for
this 2-winding transformer may be difficult. Short circuit
tests give total impedance (Rl + R2) + j(XI + X2). A judge-
ment must be made as to how it is dividedbetweenthe prima-
ry and secondarywindings.
If the transformerhas three or more windings, the Rs and Xs
for the individual windings of each phase may be separated.
Sometimes one of Xs is negative, but this will not usually
causea problemin the time domaintransientsimulation. This
approach satisfactorily separates the windingresistances, but
may not correctlyaccount for mutual inductive coupling. To
solve this problem, a coupled L representation for the short
circuit inductances is recommended [5.11]. Binary short cir-
cuit (shortingtwo windingsat a time while leavingall others
open)tests for all possiblecombinations of windings must be
performedto obtain the inductance matrix. Additional devel-
opments are still needed, however, since the core equivalent
3-18
cannotbe correctlyincorporated with this representation (the
only place it can be connected is on one of the external trans-
formerterminals).
Model performance depends mainly on the representation of
the nonlinearelements RC and LM. RC has traditionally been
modeledas a linear resistance. Such a core loss representa-
tion, if it represents the average losses at the level of excita-
tion being simulated, may in fact yield reasonable results.
Due to eddy currentlosses and hysteresis lossesbeing nonlin-
ear, calculation of a linear core loss resistance RC gives dif-
ferent values for each level of excitation. Using the value of
RC closest to rated voltage may be a good enough estimate.
Past research has shown low sensitivities to fairly large
changes in RC [5.29] for singlephase transformers, but a high
sensitivity for three-phase cores.
LM is typically represented as a piecewiselinear -i character-
istic [5.22], or perhaps as a hysteretic inductance
[5.15,5.20,5.33]. The linear value ofLM (below the knee of
the curve) does not much affect the simulation results [5.8],
although great sensitivities are seen for the shape of the knee
and the fmal slope in saturation.
Factorytest data providedby the transformermanufactureris
often insufficient to obtainthe core parameters. Open circuit
tests shouldbe madefor 0.2 to 1.3pu (or higher)insteadof the
typical 0.8 to 1.14pu range. It is importantthat open circuit
testsbe performed for voltagesas high as the conditionsbeing
simulated, or the fmal -i slopeof LM must be guessed. Some
thought should be given to the requirements of test reports
when specifying new transformers.
A method proposedby Dommel [5.11,5.22] is often used to
convertthe RMSV-I opencircuitcharacteristic to the -i char-
acteristic of LM. To successfully use this method, the first
(lowest) level of excitationmust result in sinusoidal current,
or errorswill result in the form of an S-shaped -i curve. Also,
the V-I characteristic must extend as high as the highest volt-
age that will be encountered in the simulation. An extension
on this method has been proposed to obtain a nonlinear v-i
representation ofRC [5.31], but the resulting flux-linked vs.
lEX loopdoesnot seemto correctlyrepresentthe core losses.
Modem low-loss transformers have comparatively large in-
ter-winding capacitances whichcan affectthe shapeof the ex-
citationcurve [5.47]. This can cause significant errors when
the abovemethodis being used to obtain core parameters. In
thesecases,factory testsmustbe performedto get the -i curve
beforethe coils are placed on the core. A means of removing
the capacitive component of the excitingcurrenthas also been
developed [5.29].
5.6.4 Three Phase Transformer Models And Model Parame-
ters
For three phase transformers, it is possible to make a simpli-
fied model by connecting together three of the above single
phase models. If this is done, a triplex core configuration is
assumed (see Fig . 5.3). A delta-wye transformer of this type
is shown in Fig. 5.7. It is postulated that zero sequence (ho-
mopolar) effects are included almost entirely by the leakage
inductance of the delta windings [5.11,5.22].
pr imory : Delto secondary : grounded Wye
PA
R2 L2
P8
R2 L2
PC
R2 L2
Fig. 5.7. Modelofa delta to wye transformerbank madeup of three single
phase transformermodels [22].
If the transformer does not have any delta windings, zero se-
quence effects may be included by adding a set of delta wind-
ings to the model whose total leakage impedance is equal to
the transformer's zero sequence inductance. This may work
for a three-legged core transformer that has an air path for
zero sequence flux, but is highly questionable in the case of
transformers having a saturable zero sequence flux path.
Factory three-phase excitation test reports will not provide the
information needed to get the magnetizing inductances for
this model. Note that standards require the exciting current to
be stated as the "average" value of the RMS exciting currents
of the three phases. Unless it is a triplexed core, this is mean-
ingless, since the currents are not sinusoidal and they are not
the same in every phase . Therefore, the waveforms of the ap-
plied voltage and exciting currents in all three phase should be
given by the manufacturer for all levels of applied voltage.
The model might be improved by using a coupled inductance
matrix to model the short circuit characteristics of three phase
transformers. Binary short circuit tests involving all windings
of all phases must be performed. Problems can arise for RMS
short circuit data involving windings on different phases,
since the current may be nonsinusoidal. A problem also exists
with connecting the core equivalent. Three single phase core
equivalents are often attached to the windings closest to the
core, and may provide acceptable results in some cases , espe-
cially in the case of the three-legged stacked core. Questions
exist as to this method's validity, especially depending on the
type of core being analyzed. The most important question is,
however, what is the topology of the core equivalent? A
method of obtaining topologically correct models is presented
SA in the next section .
5.6.5 Use ofDuality Transformation s to Obtain Equivalent
Circuits
This method is based on the duality between magnetic and
electrical circuits. It was originally developed by Cherry
[5.10] in 1949 and SIemon [5.37] in 1953. Using duality
58 transformations, equivalent circuit derivations reduce to exer-
cises in topology. These methods did not receive much atten-
tion at first, presumably since computers were not available.
Researchers have recently begun to use duality to provide
equivalent circuit models which are more topologically cor-
rect [5.2,5.29,5.30,5.34,5.39,5.42,5.44]. This approach re-
sults in models that include the effects of saturation in each
individual leg of the core, inter-phase magnetic coupling, and
5C leakage effects. Results are promising, and ongoing work
seems most focused on developing and improving duality-
based models .
To illustrate the method, a duality derivation used to obtain
the model for the five-legged wound core transformer [5.28]
is done here and a case study is presented later in this paper.
A section view of this type oftransformer is shown in Fig. 5.8.
The magnetic flux paths and assumed leakage flux paths are
labeled. In the equivalent magnetic circuit, windings appear
as MMF sources, leakage paths appear as linear reluctances,
and magnetic cores appear as saturable reluctances.
The next step is the duality transformation itself. Using the
symbol to denote the transformation between electrical and
magnetic circuit elements, MMF I (MMF =NI), d /dt V, and
L (L = N2/). In terms of topology, meshes and nodes in the
magnetic circuit transform into nodes and meshes respective-
ly in the electrical circuit. The resulting equivalent circuit is
given in Fig. 5.9.
To make the model practically useful , each current source re-
sulting from the transformation has been replaced with an ide-
al transformer to provide primary-to-secondary isolation and
coupling to the core, while preserving the overall primary to
secondary turns ratio. Turns ratios are chosen so that core pa-
rameters are referenced to the low voltage windings. The por-
tion of the model inside the coupling transformers represents
3-19
the core and leakages. Winding resistance and interconnec- The capacitance in this case comes from whatever "stray"
tion of the windings appears external to the coupling trans- coupling capacitance exists between the delta windings and
formers . The advantage to this is that the derived core earth. Adding a resistive burden to the VT can elim inate the
equivalent can be used independently of winding configura- problem .
tion (delta, wye, zig-zag, etc.). Winding resistance, core loss-
es, and capacitive coupling effects are not obtained directly ,
but can be added to this topologically-correct equivalent elec-
trical circuit.

LUKAGE X1- X! H1 X1
L£AKAcz: Xl-la LEAICACf: la-X!

Rx
X2

-
I/J L[AIC 'Ill"

H3 X3
I I~ ~I ;
~ ~II~ ~x N
x ~III x
N

CDI[ I
HO xc
...L

Fig. 5.9. Duality derived equivalent circuit with current sources replaced by
ideal coup ling transformers. Winding resistances have also been added
1/2 LlM X1X1

Fig. 5.8. Development of magnetic circuit for grounded-wye togrounded - A recent problem occurring in a 50-kV network in the Hafs-
wye five-legged wound core transformer. At top, transformer core sectional lund area near Moss, Norway, serves as an excellent example
view used as a basis for duality derivation . Leakageflux paths are labeled.
Bold dividing lines mark division in corereluctances. Equivalent magnetic
[5.18]. The clearing of a short circuit removed the only re-
circuit is shown at bottom. maining source of grounding on the system. After the fault
was cleared, the only remaining zero sequence impedance
Tests have been developed to determine the parameters for was due to capacitive coupling to earth. After operating in
this model [5.28]. this way for only 3 minutes , ferroresonance had destroyed 72
of the VTs used for measurement and protective relaying. All
5.7 CASE STUDIES 72 of the damaged VTs were from the same manufacturer.
The VTs of two other manufacturers that were also in service
5.7.1 Case Study #1: VT Ferroresonance on Floating Sys- during this time were not damaged.
tems
Fig. 5.10 shows the typical VT arrangement used in this sys-
It is possible that parts of a power system can be oper- tem. The VTs have two low voltage windings. The secondary
ated for short times without system grounding . One common is used for measurement and protective relaying purposes.
example is the no-load energization of the wye side of a wye to The burden on that winding has a very high impedance and its
delta power transformer. effects can be ignored when considering ferroresonance. It is
the tertiary windings which are shown in Fig. 5.10. These
The delta side will "float" with respect to earth, until some windings are connected in open delta and loaded with a damp-
load or other source of grounding is connected. If there is a ing resistance RO. The purpose of this damping resistance is
voltage transformer (VT) connected to the delta side of the to damp out ferroresonance, and this design has been com-
power transformer, ferroresonance can occur (see figure) .

3-20
monly used for many years. ances were found to be very small compared to the primary
impedances of the VTs, and could be neglected. The zero
sequence impedance ZO consists almost entirely of the stray
capacitance of the floating system, and is therefore very impor-
tant. Values ofZO varied from 0.6 - j219 to 0.2 - j221 ,depend-
ing where in the system. ZO therefore becomes the only system
impedance needed in the model, and the positive sequence volt-
age sources can be modeled as stiff sources. The core losses of
the VTs were also neglected, their values being much higher
than the damping resistance RO.

- ---t--.-.-.-.. -t------.-..- I

• MAX fLUX L1111:+ AT Vr.' &'. I

·----·---·-·-·-··-1---·------···-··-----1-············.- - -.
i i
i !
i i

B.O
I I
I----'---~__'__--'----+---'----'-___'_------I-~~.l..---~__'__--'----'

I.~ loll 1.1 c.n

Fig. 5.10. Typical VT connection in 50-kVNorwegian subtransmission sys- "A~1lI iTIZNG C&J." illiT <AMF'8)
tem.

Since some of the VTs were damaged and the others weren't, Fig. 5.11.Comparison of the saturationcharacteristics of the three VTs.
Notethe much lowersaturationlevel of VT # 1, the ones that were damaged.
the VTs of different manufacturers obviously must have dif-
ferent characteristics. The problem at Hafslund therefore
VA
forced a re-evaluation of the specification and application of I ( +--a~--..-----------
....
A
voltage transformers. EMTP was used to simulate the system
conditions that caused the VT failures. VT model parameters
were obtained from the manufacturers. Parameters are shown VB
in Table 2. Saturation characteristics were calculated based I (t-+-<J~--+-----..------
B
on core material B-H data, core dimensions, and number of
primary turns. Data for the damaged VTs are listed as VT #1.
Vc
The designed flux densities BM at rated voltage vary. As a I ( +--a~--+------+-----..--
....
more uniform basis of comparison, the flux densities were C
converted to flux-linked values (Fig. 5.11). Note that VT #1
will saturate out at lower levels than the other VTs, and one
might guess this to be one of the reasons these failed and the
others didn't. But this can only be confrrmed from simulation
results.
Fig. 5.12.Reducedsystemequivalent, neglecting line impedances and lump-
ing all VTsin each phase into an aggregatejXM.

I Rp
I Xp
I XT I Nl:N3 I BMAX
I Many simulations were run, with various combinations of
VTs and values of RO. It was found that ferroresonance oc-
VT#1 32500 25000 0.010 20k:23 l.05T curred in most cases where RO was set to the 60 value typi-
cally used in system design. It was also seen that the high
VT#2 32180 30940 0.010 -36k:42 0.77T
magnetizing currents drawn by VT #1 while in ferroresonance
VT#3 75880 48330 0.010 25k:29 0.83T caused high loR losses in the windings, which thermally de-
stroyed those VTs. If all of the VTs from manufacturer #1
were replaced with different VTs and ifRO was reduced to 10
, ferroresonance would not occur. It was therefore recom-
Table 2: Linear parameters used to model the VTs at Hafslund
mended that the failed VTs be replaced with those of either
Fig. 5.12 shows the reduced equivalent used in the
EMTP model. System positive and negative sequence imped- VT #2 or VT #3. A decrease in the value of RO standardly
being used was also recommended.

3-21
 latedare very close for the periods one, two, and three. Period
five is generally correct, with slightly lower than actual peak
5.7.2 CaseStudy #2: Ferroresonance in Distribution Systems amplitudes predicted. The chaotic response predicted is slightly
higher than actual. Themodel useda simplistic linearresistance
This case involvesthe verificationof the 75-kVAfive-legged to represent the core losses of each core. The model's accuracy
wound-core distribution transformermodeldeveloped earlier. couldbe improved by implementing a more correct (complex)
Ferroresonance was staged on the secondary windings in the corelossrepresentation.
laboratory. Balanced 3-phase voltage was applied to the sec-
ondary windings, and then one or two phases of the supply 5.7.3 CaseStudy #3: Ferroresonance ofAutotransformer
were removed and replaced with various values of shunt ca-
pacitance. Scenarios investigated were loss of one source This case is taken from the Ontario Hydro system
phase to the centeror an outer winding, and loss of two source where the Cataraqui 230/115-kV autotransformer T2, fedby line
phases to either the two outer windingsor to the center wind- X3H, was experiencing ferroresonance upon deenergization of
ing and one outer winding [5.27]. lineX3H and the 115-kV bus(Fig. 5.15). The deenergizing cir-
cuit breaker was also experiencing a high recovery voltage. It
Measured waveforms were then compared to EMTP simula- wasdeduced that capacitive coupling between line X3H and the
tions. The transformerequivalentcircuitused was essentially still-energized lines X4H and X522A was driving the autotrans-
that of Fig. 5.9. Details of model development and parameter former into ferroresonance. Damping resistors were added to
values are given in [5.29]. the tertiary of T2, but it was not certain whetherthe resulting
damping was sufficient to limit the duration of ferroresonance
Since many ferroresonant modes are possible, bifurcation andtherelated recovery voltage.
simulations were first run. A bifurcationis essentially a jump
from one mode of ferroresonance to another. A simulation
technique was developedto very slowlyrampthe capacitance 600 If>....i.j~erroresonance: I Laboratory
Simulated ._-_.: ~
\ 22.5uF Connected Xl-XO I
[5.12,5.28] and recordjumps from one mode to another. Fig. zr400 ..... ..
['h,
.~

~":
5.13 gives one bifurcation diagram for the case where a ! r-, L••.

RJ.: \
("' i..•
200 ....
-...,..
ramped capacitance is connectedto unenergized winding Xl
r-;
l ! ..
I'-
!
/ t· \··
and rated positive sequencevoltage is applied to X2 and X3. x~ a ···· ..· · · 1·· ..·..........1··....·

! \\~
. ~J
Due to nonlinearities, it is importantto ramp the capacitance f
II)

-200 ..... 'c........

)
> ·400 . ...
both upward and downward, to ensure that as many ferrores- .: r

onantmodes are discoveredas possible. -600

Using the bifurcation diagram as a road map, ferroresonance a 234 5 6

60-Hz Periods
for capacitances of 5~F, lO~F, 22.5~F, 14.6~F, and 18 ~F Fig. 5.14. Period3 ferroresonance, 22.51lF connectedXI
was simulated. This corresponds to waveforms of periods 1,
2, 3, 5, and chaotic (nonperiodic). "Period 3" simply means
that the waveform takes three periods of the forcing function
to repeat -- it contains 1/3harmonics. X4H
X3H

hl---6owa""":":,~-:---+--:"=",""",,-++-,,,, TO HAWTHORNE SOO TS

14.26 ml. .. ....-- 5.15 mi..------..

X2H

CATARA Q UI I S

·· F'E "RRO·R' E ~O'"ANC·t· ·X f.:.· J

r
- :. LENNOX 230
Bur - ) ~ 38uF . o
......................•..
~ ,

KINGSTON y .
GAROINER TS

........ . "" ~iii

z:
,!,
.
X"
~
"0
~ :> -288 .8
HINCHINeROOKE TS

e
::>
i :
·········:························i····
5.8 1B .8
CAPACITANCE X I- H (uF)
Fig. 5.14. Samplebifurcationdiagram. Shunt capacitanceon XI is ramped
from 0 to 30 IlF. Blurredareas correspondto chaos.
Fig. 5.14 shows the result of one of the EMTP simula-
tions and compares it to the actual measurements. The model
correctly predicts the existence of all modes of ferroresonance at
the correct values of capacitance. The actual waveforms simu-
. . ~
Fig. 5.15. OntarioHydro230-kVsystem. Ferroresonance involvingline
. ~~:~~..
, "'
X3Hand connectedtransformerat Cataraqui TransformerStation.
15.8 28 .8
SeveralEMTP simulations were run, with Y-connectedresis-
tive loads of zero, 133kW/phase, and 266 kW/phase attached
to the tertiary ofT2. In each case, the 115-kVbreaker ofT2
was assumed to open last. Two double-circuit 230-kV lines,
an existing500-kVline, and a future 500-kVline were includ-
ed in the corridor, resulting in an 18-phase coupled-circuit
transmission equivalent (Fig. 5.16).

3-22
 Fig. 5.17 shows the circuit breaker recovery voltage
for one of the cases.
It is interesting to note that a I33-kW/phase load did an ! ! .
effective job of damping ferroresonance in T2, but resulted in a 2.oE+S :.. .. ...... '
~
:
.1 CATARAQJI12 FERRORESONANCE I,
EXTERNAL DAMPING = 133 k!N I phas eJ
...:

higher recovery voltage than no damping at all. The circuit

1.oE+S ............. j ·i· ·······...:
breaker was marginally able to handle the recovery voltage

.
when the load was doubled to 267 kW/phase . Simulations were MIV\~ --j -
also performed for deenergization ofTl, with similar but less
severe behaviors noted. Recommendations were made to add
-ine-s
.
v.y...... ..r~ ·······~···~·~·~····~
..
267 kW/phase loads to both transformers, and add surge arrest- -2.oE+S ...~ ~ '1' .:
ers to the high and low voltage terminals of both transformers . -3.oE+S _ . ...: : : ...;
~ 402kV peak : :
-4.oE+S 1- ......... ~·I······ ··········i················i········ ·· · · · ·..;
O.os 100.oms zoonms 300.oms 400.om,
liME

Fig. 5.17. Cataraqui(T2) Autotransformer Ferroresonance. HV terminal

voltageon PhaseC is 2.0 per unit, with 133 kW/phase of damping.

5.8 RECOMMENDATIONS

Is seen that many different types of ferroresonance can and

do occur. Because of the nonlinear nature of ferroresonance,
it is difficult to predict if and where it might next occur. The
power system engineer should be aware, however, that it is
possible for lightly-loaded transformers operating in the pres-
ence of source or shunt capacitance to experience ferroreso-
nance. Capacitance can be present in the form of cables, series
or shunt capacitor banks, or even stray capacitances in inade-
quately-grounded portions of the system.

Transient simulations are helpful in confirming or predict-

Fig. 5.16. Sequenceof development of the transmission right-of-way
It is interesting to note that a I 33-kW/phase load did an
effective job of damping ferroresonance in T2, but resulted in a
higher recovery voltage than no damping at all. The circuit
breaker was marginally able to handle the recovery voltage
when the load was doubled to 267 kW/phase. Simulations were
also performed for deenergization ofTl, with similar but less
severe behaviors noted . Recommendations were made to add
267 kW/phase loads to both transformers, and add surge arrest-
ers to the high and low voltage terminals of both transformers .
ing the likelihood of ferroresonance, but only if a correct mod-
el is used. Per phase simulations of three phase systems will
not give correct results, due to various possible transformer
core configurations and winding connections. A complete
three phase model must be used. Therefore, the key to tran-
sient modeling is use of the proper transformer model. Devel-
opment and use of acceptable transformer models should be a
priority task.
The development of improved topologically correct models is
a significant advancement, but model performance still de-
pends on improving the way in which the cores are represent-
ed. Transformer core configuration must be considered and
saturation characteristics must be accurately known to operat-
ing levels well above rated voltage.

At this time, it is seen that modeling of ferroresonance is as

much an art as a science. As such, it is important if possible to
verify the results by checking the simulations against system
measurements. It is highly recommended that anyone active
in this area must continually monitor the literature for im-
provements in modeling techniques.

6. SUMMARY

This document provides a set of general guidelines for digital-

computer time-domain simulation oflow-frequency (approx-
imately 5 to 1000Hz) transients of electric power systems.

3-23
The report is intended for practicing engineers who are in-
volved in analysis, control and system planning issues related
to electronic power systems. It is assumed that the reader has
(1) a fair understanding of the physical phenomena and (2) an
adequate knowledge of digital simulation techniques. The
guidelines are provided for seven transient torsional torques,
(3) turbine-blade vibrations, (4) fast bus transfer, (5) control-
ler interactions, (6) harmonic interactions and resonance, and
(7) ferroresonance. For those phenomena which have exten-
sively discussed in the literature, i.e. (1) to (4), general guide-
lines are provided and the reader is frequently referred to the
technical literature for further in-depth modeling and simula-
tion issues. The emphasis of this document is on phenomena
(5), (6) and particularly (7).
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APPENDIX A
FAST BUS TRANSFER TRANSIENTS
Introduction
Motors and other loads in utility and heavy indus-
trial applications are supplied during normal operation from a
preferred power source. An alternate power source is nor-
mally provided to supply such motors and other loads during
planned shutdowns and upon loss of normal power from the
preferred power source. The process of disconnecting the
motors and other loads from one source and reconnecting to
an alternate source is commonly defined as "bus transfer".
Manual transfer means are normally provided to
allow transferring the motors and other loads from one power
source to the other. However, upon loss of the preferred
power source, the motors and other loads are automatically
transferred to the alternate power source. This automatic
transfer is necessary to allow uninterrupted operation of the
motors and other loads important to personnel safety and pro-
cess operation.
The normal and alternate power source connections
are always selected such that they are in phase. Therefore,
manual transfers can be accomplished in a make-before-
break, i.e., the motors and loads are connected to the second
power source before the first power source is disconnected.
In this overlapping transfer, the power supply is not inter-
rupted and the motors are not subjected to transients. How-
ever, during automatic transfers, the motors may be
disconnected from both power sources for a short duration
depending on the type of transfer and the associated circuit
breakers operating times. The time during which the motors
are disconnected from both power sources is termed the
"dead time". It is commonly longer than two cycles and can
be as long as 12 cycles. While motors are disconnected from
both power sources they decelerate. The deceleration rate
depends on the motor-load inertia and the synchronizing
power flowing between motors due to their differing charac-
teristics. As the motor decelerates, the relative angle
between the motor internal voltage and the power source
voltage changes. Also, the motor residual voltage decays at a
rate which depends on the motor magnetic characteristics,
speed and initial loading. If the relative angle between the
motor residual voltage and the power source voltage
becomes large enough at the time of reconnection with sig-
nificant residual voltage remaining, the resultant voltage
between the power source and the motor will produce an
inrush current. The inrush current may be significantly
larger than the normal full voltage starting current. Such
high inrush currents cause high winding stresses and tran-
sient shaft torques which can damage the motor and/or the
driven equipment.
The most common bus transfer scheme is the fast
bus transfer scheme. In this scheme, opening of the normal
power source breaker initiates closing of the alternate power
source breaker without intentional time delay. The fast bus
transfer operations result in the motors being disconnected
from both power sources for a duration of as short as 2 cycles
to as long as 12 or more cycles.
Presently, there are no generic criteria to ensure
acceptable fast bus transfer operations. Therefore, it is nec-
essary to analyze the transient behavior of motors during fast
bus transfer operations. The analysis should be on a case by
case basis to ensure that the motors will not be subjected to
excessive inrush currents and!or shaft transient torques.
A.2Modeling and Analysis
A three-phase model of the motors and the power
distribution system is required. This is to permit simulating
the breaker individual pole interruption at separate current
zeros and analyzing the effect of unbalanced faults on the
motor behavior. The model must simulate the motor stator
and rotor dynamics, the load dynamics, and the power source
dynamics when available. The larger motors should be indi-
vidually modeled; smaller motors unless for the motor being
studied, if any, may be lumped together and modeled by one
3-28
equivalent motor with typical characteristics. The distinction
between large and small motors should be made on a case by
case basis.
A.2.i Motor Electrical System
The motor electrical system may be modeled by the
differential equations describing the stator and rotor quanti-
ties and flux linkages [2.20] or by the two-axis model [2.21].
A single rotor motor model may be adequate since the motor
speed usually does not drop significantly during the time a
fast transfer is accomplished. The model should account for
saturation in the magnetizing, stator and rotor leakage reac-
tances.
A.2.2Loads
The mechanical load should be modeled by its
torque-speed characteristics and moment of inertia. Com-
mon centrifugal and axial pumps and fans may be modeled
by a quadratic torque-speed characteristic.
Non-motor loads may be lumped together and mod-
eled by an equivalent resistance-inductance circuit. Non-
motor loads would be included in the model to account for
their damping effects on the motors during the dead time.
A.2.3Motor-Load Shaft Torsional Model
The shaft system should be modeled by the motor
rotor mass connected to the load rotor mass by a flexible
spring representing the shaft [2.22]. The motor air gap
torque excites the mass representing the motor rotor while
the load torque excites the mass representing the load rotor.
The shaft torsional model should include the effect of damp-
ing and shaft flexibility. The effect of shaft flexibility is par-
ticularly important in applications where loads have a large
inertia relative to that of the motor. An example of this appli-
cation is torsional study of a large boiler fan. Under such
conditions, the shaft flexibility may cause the shaft torque to
be higher than the motor air gap torque [2.22].
A.2.4Circuit Breakers
The circuit breakers should be modeled as a three
pole switch which can be opened or closed at a preset time.
The three poles of the circuit breaker connecting the alternate
source must be modeled to close simultaneously. the individ-
ual poles of the circuit breaker disconnecting the normal
source must be modeled to open only at the respective cur-
rent zero. In analysis involving transfers caused by high
level electrical faults, the individual poles may be modeled to
open at the respective first current zero following the end of
the breaker arcing time. This is a conservative approach
which, in effect, models a zero resistance arc.
A.2.5Power Sources

Generally, events which initiate bus transfers such
as the loss of the generator in a generating station also initiate
disturbances to the connected power system. The dynamic
variations of the power system voltage magnitude and phase
angle are normally determined as part of system stability
studies.
Ideally, the normal and alternate power source mod-
els should reflect the dynamic variations in the voltage mag-
nitude and phase angle following the initiating event. This
can be accomplished by a point to point representation of the
system voltage magnitude and phase angle profiles. Alter-
nately, the system voltage magnitude and phase angle may be
modeled by polynomials fitting their profiles for the short
duration of interest. However, in the event that data on the
dynamic behavior of the power system is not available, the
normal and alternate power sources may be modeled as ideal
sources in phase.
A.2.6TransforDlers
Transformer dynamics have a little or no effect on
bus transfer operations. Therefore, a transformer may be
modeled as an ideal transformer in series with a lumped
resistance in series with a lumped inductance representing
the transformer equivalent impedance.
A.2.7 Cables/Lines
Cable and Lines may be modelled by their -equiva-
lents.
A.2.8Simulation and Analysis
In selecting conditions to be analyzed, the following
should be taken into consideration:
The motor initial loading (prior to the transfer) has a
significant effect on the rate of change of the motor internal
voltage phase angle. Higher loads cause faster drop in rotor
speed and faster rates of change in the phase angle. There-
fore, the worst case transfer results when the motors are oper-
ating at their highest loading.
The motor-load inertia also has a significant effect
on the internal voltage phase angle rate of change. Motors
with a high inertia have a slower rate of change than motors
with low inertia. Therefore, the effect of fast bus transfer
operation with and without such high inertia motors should
be evaluated.
Bus transfers are initiated by low and high level
electrical faults. The motor residual voltage decays at a high
rate until the fault is cleared by opening the source breaker.
This causes the transient shaft torque produced upon closing
the alternate source breaker to be relatively low. However,
faults such as line to ground faults cause the motor to experi-
ence a high oscillatory torque before the fault is cleared. The
effect of the torsional stress caused by such high oscillatory
3-29
torques should be investigated.
The motor air gap torque at the instant of closing the
alternate source breaker is determined by the motor residual
voltage magnitude and phase angle. The magnitude of the
motor residual voltage decreases with time while the phase
angle increased with time. This causes the magnitude of the
air gap torque to be cyclic. It has a minimum value at some
short bus dead time, peaks as the dead time increases and
then decreases as the dead time increases further. The dura-
tion of the dead time at which the air gap torque attains mini-
mum and maximum values are system specific and depends
on the connected motors characteristics and load levels.
The account for the above considerations, the fol-
lowing fast bus transfer operations should be simulated and
analyzed.
Transfers caused without high level electrical faults
with motors operating at their highest loadings when the
alternate source voltage is at its maximum level.
Transfers caused without high level electrical faults
as in 1) above except without the largest high inertia motor
running.
Transfers caused by high level electrical faults (line
to ground and three line to ground faults).
The following parameters should be monitored dur-
ing the simulations:
bus instantaneous voltages
bus voltage phase angle
individual motors instantaneous currents
individual motor air gap torques
individual motors shaft torques (when modeled)
individual motors speed
A.3 Model Validation
Ideally, validating a model of a fast bus transfer
operation should include validating the individual motor
models and the circuit breakers operating times. Individual
motor models can be validated by simulating motor starting
and running conditions and comparison of the simulation
results to data recorded during an actual motor starting test.
Parameters be compared include motor instantaneous cur-
rent, power, apparent power (VA), and speed. However,
since a typical bus transfer model may include 15 or more
motors, it may not be practical to validate individual motor
models. As an alternative, the bus transfer model can be
based on modeling motors using unadjusted manufacturers
supplied data and establishing a range of the expected accu-
racy.
 Modeling Guidelines for Switching Transients
Report Prepared by the Switching Transients Task Force
of the IEEE Modeling and Analysis of System Transients Working Group
Contributing Members: D.W. Durbak(Co-Chairman), A.M. Gole (Co-Chairman),E.H. Camm, M.Marz,
R.C. Degeneff, R.P. O'Leary, R. Natarajan, J.A. Martinez-Velasco, Kai-Chung Lee, A. Morched, R. Sha-
nahan, E.R. Pratico, G.C. Thomann, B. Shperling, A. J. F. Keri, D.A. Woodford, L. Rugeles, V.Rashkes,
A. Sarshar
Abstract- Power Systems Switching Transients are
initiated by the action of circuit breakers and switches and by
faults. These actions include energization, de-energization,
reclosing and fault clearing. The range of frequencies of pri-
mary interest in a switching transients study vary from the fun-
damental power frequency up to about 10 kHz. Therefore the
proper representation must be chosen for the various compo-
nents such as transmission lines and cables, transformers,
source equivalents, loads and circuit breakers. Equipment mod-
eling aspects for the analysis of switching overvoltages are the
principal subject of this paper.
Keywords: Electromagnetic Transients Simulation, emtp,
Switching Transients, Transient Recovery Voltage.
1. INTRODUCTION
Switching transients are causedby the operation of
breakers and switches in a power system. The switching
operations represent two main categories: i) energization
phenomena and ii) de-energization of the system elements.
The former category include energization of transmission
lines or cables, transformers, reactors, capacitor banks etc.
The latter categoryincludes fault clearing and load rejections
and so on.
Due to the complexity of the mathematical repre-
sentation of the equipment involved, digital simulation using
an electromagnetic transients simulation program plays an
important role in the study of switching transients.
The resultsfrom such studiesare useful for:
i) insulation co-ordination to determine overvoltages
stresses on equipment
ii ) determining the arrestercharacteristics
iii) determining the transientrecovery voltage acrosscircuit
breakers.
iv) determining the effectiveness of transient mitigating
devices, e.g., pre-insertion resistors, inductors and con-
trolledclosingdevices.
The level of detail requiredin the modelvaries with
the study. For example, a line may be represented by a pi-
sectionequivalent in some line energization studies. In other
situations a distributed parameter model with frequency
dependence may be necessary.
In some instances the results are highly sensitive to
the value of a certain parameter. For example, the maximum
4-1
overvoltage for a line energization depends on the exact
point on the wave at which the switchcontactsclose. Thus
a numberof runs for the same systemhave to be made with
the time of energization being different in each run either
in a predictable manner (i.e., for determining the peak
overvoltage) or statistically (for obtaining an overvoltage
probability distribution).
2. MODELING REQUIREMENTS
This sectiondiscusses general and specificmodel-
ing requirements. General requirements include a discus-
sion of the extent of the system to be modeled, frequency
ranges and simulation time-steps. Specific requirements
include the equipment models typically used for switching
transients simulation.
2.1lRANSMISSION LINES AND CABLES
The most efficientand accurate transmission line
modelsare distributed parametermodelsbased on the trav-
elling time t and characteristic impedance Zc of the
line[I,2]. Lumped parametermodels (pi-circuits) are com-
putationally more expensive (a number of cascaded short-
sections are needed to approximate the distributed nature
of the physical line) and less accurate.
In the phase domain, the current in one phase will
cause a voltage in another phase, because of the mutual
impedance. In the modal domain, the modes are uncou-
pled, and calculations are easier. The transformation
between the domains for currentsis given by the equation:
(1)
where [Iphase] is the phase current vector, [Ij] is the trans-
formation matrix, and [Imode] is the modal current vector.
There is a similar expression for voltage, with transforma-
tion matrix [Tv]. Digital programs only work with real
matrices, so it is helpful if the components of the transfor-
mation matrices do not have large imaginary parts. The
transformation matrix for overhead lines is nearly real, but
for cables it may have a significant imaginary part. It is
also simplest if the transformation matricesare assumed to
be frequency independent over the range of frequencies
found in switching surges. For overheadlines, the assump-
tion of frequency independence can usually be made; for
cables the matrices are often frequency dependent. In addi- Voltage 230kV 345kV 500 kV 765kV
tion, for pipe-type cables, the cable impedance can be a func- Level
tion of the cable current, if pipe saturation occurs. The Com- No. of ccts=2 No. of ccts= 1 No. of ccts= 1 No. of ccts=1
saturation is difficult to model. ments: Cond/phase= 1 Cond/phase=2 Cond/phase=3 Cond/phase=4
The distributed parameter model consists of a Gnd. wires= 1 Gnd. wires=2 Gnd. wires=2 Gnd. wires=2
description of each mode, and the transformation matrices to p-l00 n-m p=100 n-m p=100 Q-m p=100 Q-m
return to the phase domain. The description of each mode Xl,Q!km 0.50 0.38 0.38 0.34
will probably consist of the surge impedance, resistance, RI,Q!km 0.05 0.032 0.018 0.017
velocity and length. More sophisticated frequency depen-
XO,Q!km 2.5 1.3 1.2 1.00
dent models will include information on the variation of the
parameters with frequency. This may be an important consid- RO,Q!km 0.49 0.34 0.33 0.33

eration when the ground return mode (zero sequence) is
involved (e.g., during a line to ground fault). In these cases, a
frequency dependent distributed parameter line model gives
a very accurate representation for a wide range of frequen-
cies in the transients phenomenon.The parameters for the dis-
tributed parameter model (either frequency-dependent or
constant) are obtained from geometrical and physical infor-
mation (line/cable dimensions, height above ground, conduc-
tor and soil resistivity) by using a line/cable constants
program usually included with the EMTP-type programs
For secondary lines (not directly feeding the phe-
nomenon under study), and for those studies where mostly
positive sequence conditions are involved (e.g., three-phase
energization), a simple distributed constant parameters mod-
els can gives satisfactory results.
Cl, ~F/km 0.0088 0.012 0.013 0.013
CO, ~F/km 0.0041 0.0083 0.0075 0.0093
Table 1: Typical Transmission Line Parameters at 60 Hz
In many cable studies, such as disconnect switch
operation, the constant parameter assumption can be too lim-
iting. Here a frequency dependent parameter model must be
used, because the frequencies span a large bandwidth and the
cable parameters significantly vary within this range. How-
ever for solid dielectric cables, the constant parameter model
is often adequate. The calculations shown below are useful in
determining the maximum allowable pi-section length and in
estimating errors.
Consider as an example a single phase cable with an
impedance of Z per unit length and an admittance Y per unit
length. Then the propagation constant is given by

The use of nominal pi-circuits [1,3] is usually

restricted to the case of very short lines when the line's trav- (3)
elling time t is smaller than the integration step ~t of the sim-
ulation. However, in many instances, cascaded pi-sections and the surge impedance is given by
can be used without excessive loss of accuracy, for studies
such as line energization [4,5]. The number of pi-circuits
used depends on the desired accuracy, and selecting an
zo = Vy rz
(4)
appropriate number is important.For overhead lines, the
parameters for the pi-section can readily be obtained from
positive and zero sequence fundamental frequency imped- Suppose the cable is lossless, and has a total length
ance values that are used in load flow studies. Typical posi- L. Assume each pi-section is used to represent a length Ax,
tive and zero sequence parameters of the overhead lines are The surge impedance for the pi-section is Z01t, given by
presented in Table 1. The self and mutual impedances to be
used in the pi-representation can be obtained using Eqn. 2

1
x, = 3(XO + 2X t ) (5)
1
Xm = 3(XO-Xt ) From this expression it is easy to see how small x
(2) has to be for any desired matching of the surge impedance.
1
c, = 3(CO + 2C t )
Next consider the phase error across the length of the cable
for any frequency f. If Yn is the phase shift at any frequency
1
c; = 3(CO-C t )
across one pi-section, then YnN is the phase shift across all
N sections. It can be shown that

4-2

(6)
Since the correct phase shift is yL , the error in the
phase shift can be easily found.
2.2 TRANSFORMERS
For switching surge transient studies, the trans-
former model used is a reduced order representation with less
detail (i.e., as in the example in Fig. 21) in comparison with a
model used for insulation studies. Usually a lumped parame-
ter coupled-winding model with a sufficient number ofR-L-
C elements gives the appropriate impedance characteristics at
the terminal within the frequency range of interest. The non-
linear characteristic of the core should usually be included,
although the frequency characteristic of the core is often
ignored. This may be an oversimplification as the eddy cur-
rent effect prevents the flux from entering the core steel at
high frequencies thereby making the transformer appear to be
air-cored. This effect begins to be significant even at frequen-
cies in the order of 3-5 kHz.
For switching surge studies, the following
approaches may be used:
i ) The model may directly be developed from the trans-
former characteristic e.g., nameplate information or
Doble measurements. The standard EMTP models fall
into this category. Examples are described in [6,7]
ii) A model synthesized from measured impedance vis fre-
quency response of the transformer as described in [8,9].
This approach is used in the Case Study of section 3.3.5
iii) A very detailed model obtained from the transformer
geometry and material characteristics may be developed.
The model is then reduced to one that is usable in the
time domain solution. Examples of this method are
described in [7,10,11].
When possible, the following techniques can be
used to validate the model. A frequency response obtained by
simulation can be compared within the desired bandwidth
with the actual characteristic if available. This should be
done for all possible open and short circuit conditions on the
~indings. Determining the fundamental frequency response
m the form of open and short circuit impedances is a standard
check. The turns ratio or induced winding voltages at funda-
ment~l fre~uency are of interest. Comparison with factory
tests If available also validates the model. If terminal capaci-
tance measurements are available a comparison between
measured and computed responses is useful.
2.3 SWITCHGEAR
Switchgear includes circuit breakers circuit-
switchers, vacuum switches and other devices which make or
4-3
break circuits. In switching surge studies, the switch is often
modeled as an ideal conductor (zero impedance) when
closed, and an open circuit (infinite impedance) when open.
Transient programs allow various options to vary the closing
time ranging from one-shot deterministic closings to multi-
shot statistical or systematic closings.
Statistical Switching: Transient voltage and current magni-
tudes depend upon the instant on the voltage waveform at
which the circuit breaker contacts close electrically [12]. A
statistical switching case typically consists of 100 or more
separate simulations, each using a different set of circuit
breaker closing times. Statistical methods can be used to pro-
cess the peak overvoltages from each simulation. Fig. 1 is a
plot derived from 100 peak overvoltage magnitudes from the
line energization case study presented in section III A. This
plot shows a 10% probability (Y axis) of exceeding 2 pu volt-
age (X axis).
Circuit breakers can close at any time (angle) on the
power frequency wave. For a single phase circuit, the set of
circuit breaker closing times can be represented as a uniform
distribution from 0 to 360 degrees with reference to the
power frequency. The standard deviation for a uniform distri-
bution over 1 cycle is 1/(2)31) ,where fis the frequency of
the waveform.
A three phase (pole) circuit breaker can be modeled
as three single phase circuit breakers, each with independent
uniform distributions covering 360 degrees. However, an
alternative (dependent) model can be used if the three poles
are mechanically linked and adjusted so that each pole
attempts to close at the same instant. In reality, there will be a
finite time or pole span between the closing instants of the
three poles. The pole span can be modeled with an additional
statistical parameter, typically from a Gaussian (normal) dis-
tribution. For a mechanically linked three pole circuit
breaker, the closing times use both uniform distribution
parameters and Gaussian distribution parameters. All three
dependent poles use the same parameter from the uniform
distribution, which varies from 0 to 360 degrees. Each pole
uses a unique parameter from the Gaussian distribution. The
standard deviation of the maximum pole span is typically 17
~o 25 ~ercent of the maximum pole span. For the case study
in section III A, a maximum pole span of 5 ms was assumed.
Statistical cases with pre-insertion resistors or reac-
tors require a second set of three phase switches. The first set
is modeled as described above. The closing times of the sec-
ond set (which shorts the resistors or reactors) are dependent
upon the first set plus a fixed time delay, typically one-half to
one cycle for pre-insertion resistors used with circuit break-
ers, and 7 to 12 cycles (depending on application voltage
class) for pre-insertion reactors used with circuit-switchers
closing in air through high-speed disconnect blades.

100
90
80
70
~ 60
~ sophisticated models include a volt-time characteristic.
~. 50
'"2
"" 40
30
20
10
0 function
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Voll~g •• P.U.
Fig. I. Overvoltage Distribution Probability
pre-Strikjng' In the model described above, a normal distri-
bution was assumed for the closing of the phase switches. In
reality, the withstand strength of the contacts decreases as the
contacts come closer. When the field stress across the con-
tacts exceeds this withstand strength, pre-strike occurs. If this
is taken into account, the distribution of closing angles is
confmed to the rising and peak portions of the voltage wave-
shapes [13].
Some modem devices can control the closing angle
of the poles to close at or near the voltage zero between the
contacts. Such devices are being applied to capacitor bank
switching and can reduce overvoltages and inrush currents.
For such devices, the maximum angle in the tolerance of the
voltage zero closing control should be used. Alternatively, a
statistical switching method can be applied to the breaker
poles over the time span around the voltage zero, within the
tolerance of the closing time [13].
Openjng: Typical transient studies require the switch to open
at a current zero. The dynamic characteristic of the arc is usu-
ally not important and is not modeled in most cases. How-
ever in certain instances where small inductive currents are
being interrupted, the current in the switch can extinguish
prior to its natural zero crossing. Severe voltage oscillations
can result due to this current-chopping that can stress the cir-
cuit breaker. Modeling of this phenomenon is described in
additional detail in available literature [14,15] and is not cov-
ered here
In cases of current chopping, an arc model may be
necessary. A good description of the methodology is avail-
able in [16].
Eaults: Faults are usually modeled as ideal switches in series
with other series elements if necessary. The switch can be
closed during the steady state solution or closed at a specific
time or voltage. Several runs with variations in the closing
instant should be carried out as the point on wave of switch-
ing can affect the transient.
Sometimes faults are modeled with flashover con-
trolled switches to represent a gap. The switch is operated
typically, when the gap voltage exceeds a fixed value. More
Faults generally involve arcs. Arcs can be modeled
by various approximations such as:
i) Ideal Switch (R= 0, V =0)
ii) Linear resistance R or constant voltage V
iii) Constant V and series R
iv) Series V and R that vary according to some assumed
2 2.• v) V and/or R that vary according to some differential
equation [17].
The most commonly used option is i) above as the
arc voltage is usually small compared with voltage drops
elsewhere (i.e., along the transmission line) . Arc modeling
can be important when studying secondary arc phenomena,
such as single pole reclosing . Discussion on the modeling of
this phenomenon is available in the literature[18].
2.4 CAPACITORS AND REACTORS
Capacitor banks are usually modeled as a single
lumped element. However, some switching transient simula-
tions require the modeling of secondary parameters such as
series inductance and loss resistance. The inductance of the
buswork is sometimes important when studying the back to
back switching of capacitor banks, or in the study of faults on
the capacitance bus . The damping resistance of this induc-
tance should be estimated for the natural frequency of oscil-
lations.
Reactors are modeled in many studies by a simple
lumped inductor with a series resistance. A parallel resis-
tance may be added for realistic high frequency damping.
Core saturation characteristic may also have to be modeled.
A parallel capacitance across the reactor should be included
for reactor opening studies (chopping of small currents). The
total capacitance includes the bushing capacitance and the
equivalent winding to ground capacitance. For series reac-
tors, there is a capacitance from the terminal to ground and
from terminal to terminal.
2.5 SURGEARRESTERS
Gapless metal oxide surge arresters are character-
ized with a nonlinear voltage versus resistance characteristic.
Two model types are used frequently in EMTP-type studies
[19]. The pseudo non-linear model, while easy to set up, can
cause computational problems with the solution as the char-
4-4
acteristic can only change at the end of every time-step. The
preferred model is a true non-linear element which iterates at
each time-step to a convergent solution and is thus numeri-
cally robust. The V-I characteristic, usually determined from
the 36 x 90 fJ.S surge should be modeled with 5-10 (preferably
exponential as opposed to linear) segments.
Waveshape dependent characteristics are usually not
required for most switching transient simulations. Likewise,
the surge arrester lead lengths and separation effects can also
be ignored for such studies. Modeling of the older series
gapped SiC arresters is not discussed in this paper.
2.6 LOADS
Power system loads are mostly resistive, indicative
of heating and lighting loads, and the active component of
motor loads. The reactive components of motor and fluores-
cent lighting loads are the other major contributors to power
system loads. In general, the power system load is repre-
sented using an equivalent circuit with parallel-connected
resistive and inductive elements. The power factor of the
load determines the relative impedance of the resistive and
inductive elements. Shunt capacitance is represented with the
resistive and inductive elements of the load if power-factor
correction capacitors are used. Whenever loads are lumped at
a load bus, the effects of lines, cables, and any transformers
downstream from the load bus need to be considered [5].
This is particularly important for the modeling of high- fre-
quency transient phenomena. In such cases, an impedance Zs
in series with the parallel R-L-C load equivalent circuit is
appropriate as shown in Fig. 2. The series impedance, com-
bined with the equivalent source impedance at the load bus,
is typically in the range of 10 to 20 percent of the load imped-
ance.
Certain types of load, e.g., large motor loads, elec-
tronic loads, or fluorescent lighting loads, may require spe-
cific representation of certain load components (e.g.
induction motors, adjustable-speed drives, power supplies,
etc.). The need for such detailed representation will be deter-
mined by the phenomenon being investigated.
Actual power system loads are distributed through-
out the system. Some concentration of loads occur in certain
areas. Loads close to the substation can be lumped. Distant
loads can be lumped based on load concentration and repre-
sented along lines or distribution feeders described by suit-
able line or cable models.
4-5
Load bus
IL 1r -I
I
I
(ZS
_I
-I
---L
....,.....Xc
_-.J
Fig. 2. Equivalent circuit representation of power system loads
for simulatingswitchingtransients
2.7 SOURCES AND NETWORK EQUIVALENTS
In switching transient studies, the source is modeled
as an ideal sine-wave source. Generators are modeled as a
voltage behind a (subtransient) Thevenin impedance. Often a
network equivalent is used in order to simplify the represen-
tation of the portion of the power network not under study.
Some typical network equivalents are shown in Fig. 3
a) Short Circuit Impedance
b) Surge Impedance
c) Short Circuit Impedance + Surge Impedance
Zsc
Fig. 3. Conventional Network Equivalents
The first type a) represents the short circuit imped-
ance (Thevenin equivalent) of the connected system. The XI
R ratio is selected to represent the damping (the damping
angle is usually in the range 75°-85°). The second type b)
represents the surge impedance of connected lines. This
equivalent may be used to reduce connected lines to a simple
equivalent surge impedance and where the lines are long
enough so that reflections are not of concern in the system
under study. If the connected system consists of a known
Thevenin equivalent and additional transmission lines, the
two impedances may be combined in parallel in the manner
of Fig. 3c. It should be noted however, that this approach
may yield an incorrect steady-state solution if the equivalent
impedance of the parallel connected lines is of comparable
magnitude to the source impedance. In such a case it may not 3.1.2 Model
be possible to lump the source and lines into one equivalent
impedance. The source, transformer, overhead lines, circuit breaker and
More complex equivalentswhich properly represent the trapped charges (if any) on the line are to be modeled in
the frequency response characteristic(as opposed to the ones order to study the line energizationtransients. In this study a
above that are most accurate near fundamental frequency) are simple power system is used to demonstrate the simulation
also possible [20,21]. Mutually-coupled sources are often results.
typical for line-fed substations. The network configuration of a 345 kV circuit is
shown in Fig. 4. The 345 kV source (1 pu) is connected
2.8 TIME-STEP AND SIMULATION LENGTHS through a transformer to the 203 Ian overhead line. The line
was modeled with several pi-sections in the manner
The time step to be chosen should be small enough described in section 2.2.1.The parameters are given at 60 Hz
to properly represent the smallest time constant in the mod- as:
eled system. It should also be significantlysmaller (typically
1/20 th) than the period of the highest frequency oscillatory Source and transformer impedance,
component. Additional factors that affect the time-step are Zl = Zo = (6.75 + j127)Q
the presence of non-linear characteristics such as arrester Line impedance,Zl = (0.04+jO.318) Q/km
characteristics, and the minimum travel time of travelling Line impedance,Zo = (0.26+jl.015) Q/km
wave cable and transmission line models. Time-steps in the
Charging capacitance, C 1 = 11.86 nF/km
range of 5 J..1S to 50 J..1S (typically 20 J..1s) are used. The simula-
Chargingcapacitance,Co =7.66 nF/km
tion time in typical switching surge studies ranges from 20
ms to 200 ms (typically 50 ms). Slightlylarger time-steps(20
J..1s-50 J..1s) can be used with programs that use interpola-
tion[22], because the linear interpolation method calls for
less iteration of surge arrester characteristics and also does Source (1 pU,60Hz)
203 km transmission line
not introduce spurious current chopping.
~---
One simple method for checking the suitable time- TR CB TR - Transformer
CB- Circuit breaker
step is to check if no further gains in accuracy accrue from
any further time-step reduction.
Fig. 4. One Line Diagramof System Used for Energization Study

3. CASE STUDIES
3.1.3 Simulation Results
Typical case studies are now presented for a practi-
First a statistical overvoltage study is conducted in order to
cal demonstrationof the modeling guidelines. Several differ-
evaluatethe switching time at which maximum transients are
ent examples are considered: Line energization, transient
produced. The results of the statistical energization study
recovery voltage determination for line and transformer
were presented in Fig. 1. Then the effect of various parame-
faults and the switching of shunt as well as series capacitor
ters and related issues on the energization transients are stud-
banks.
ied.
Four, eight or sixteen pi-sections gave similar
3.1 LINE ENERGIZATION
results although the maximum overvoltage was slightly
higher with eight pi-sections. No significant improvement
Aim: The aim of such a study is to determine the overvoltage
was obtained by reducing the time-step below 50 us,
stresses and choose the insulation strength in order to achieve
an outage rate criterion [23].
The overvoltages produced in the presence of
trapped charge on the line depend on the polarity and the
3.1.1 Phenomena:
magnitude of the trapped charges. Therefore additional stud-
ies were carried out to see the effect of trapped charge on the
The energization of overhead transmission lines by closing
line. For reclosure operations, it is assumed that trapped
the circuit breaker produces significant transients. It is
charges on phases A, B, and Care -0.9, -0.8, and 0.8 per unit
important to distinguish between two closely related phe-
respectively.
nomena: energizationand reclosing. In the former case, there
is no trapped charge. In the latter case of reclosing, the line
may have been left with a trapped charge after the initial
breaker opening. In this case, the transient overvoltages can
reach higher values (up to 4.0 pu).

4-6
 the switching instant. The peak overvoltages are then deter-
Location Phase A Phase B Phase C mined using statistical switching.
pu pu pu
3.2.2 Model
Source end 1.272 2.164 2.413
Open end 1.442 2.839 2.784 The first example that was done was a 345 kV pipe-type
(HPFF or high pressure fluid filled) cable. A drawing of the
Table 2: Overvoltages in the Presence of Trapped Charge cable is shown in Fig. 6. The 345 kV cable has 2500 kcmil
segmented conductors with a 1.824 inch diameter, 1.035 inch
From Table 2 it can be seen that the highest over- of paper insulation with a dielectric constant c = 3.5. The
voltage magnitude due to the presence of trapped charges is sheath is 0.01 inch.
2.839 pu. The corresponding overvoltage magnitude in the
absence of trapped charges are 2.2 pu (Fig. 1). Typical ener-
Corr osive Protective
gization waveforms are shown in Fig. 5. Coatl"9 . .07 Inch Th;cJ(
,, ~~~ ......
Additional studies (not shown) that can be con -
ducted on this model include the comparison of simultaneous
Impregna t ed Paper
and non-simultaneous closing of breaker contacts, the effect Insulation 1.035 inch
Thickness
of including a closing resistance and including the effect on c - 3.5

surge arrester ratings.

2.0

~ 1.0

10.75 inch 0 0 Stoel Pipe

.I.or------I .25 inch Wall Th lckne .s,~ - 300

·2.0 Fig. 6. Geometry of 345 kV HPFFcable example.

2.0
i thick, and the sheath resistivity was set to p = 1.0xlO·5 Om to
::i 1.0 account for the wrapping pitch. A 10.5 inch pipe with a 0.25
..:
• 0.0 •..•._..._ .._ . .....
inch wall thickness was used; for the pipe a p = 14xlO·8 Om
~ was used. It was assumed that all shields and the pipe were
.1.01------1
continuously grounded.
-2.0
The cable was energized using the simple power
system, shown in Fig. 7. The energizing was done with a
2.0
variety of cable models, including traveling wave and pi-cir-
::i 1.0 1 -_ _---, cuit models. A decision must be made about the number of
..: pi-sections to be used in the model, and the equations from
• 0.0 --.----.
j the preceding section can assist in making the choice. For
·1.0 the pipe-type cable, the positive sequence propagation con-
stant is Y1- 3.75xlO·3/km, and the zero sequence propagation

o 10 20 30
constant is Yo -7.28xlO-3/km . Based on these values, for the
Timc, l'hS
surge impedance of the pi-circuit to be within 10% of the cor-
Fig. 5. Voltage At OpenEndOf Line on Energization withTrapped Charge rect value, the pi-circuit section lengths must be less than 239
km based on positive sequence parameters and less than 123
3.2 ENERGIZATION OF PIPE-TYPE CABLE km based on zero sequence. Therefore, the surge impedance
requirements have little impact on the pi-section length for
Aim.:. To determine the maximum overvoltages in the cable. this short cable . Next, suppose it was desired that the one
way phase shift error be less than one radian at a frequency of
3.2.1 Phenomena 900 Hz. Then, based on the positive sequence parameters 14
pi-sections would be required for the 20 km cable . For the
As in the case of overhead transmission line energization, the zero sequence parameters, 38 pi-sections would be required
overvoltage in the cable is a function of the point on wave of for this same phase error! A 15 section model was actually

4-7
used. In addition, a 3 section model was used to see the
effect of using only a small number of sections. tr'8.vellins we-ve
83454 83451
3.
HIN 1
20 km Hour 1
Cable
Q2
~
c- o.

-3.

Fig. 7. Systemfor 345 kV HPFF cable energizing. 15 pi-sections

3.

Cable Model HIN

~
ea, o.
HOUT

Traveling wave model with 60 2.30 2.35 -3.

Hz parameters
3 pi-sections
3.
15 section pi-circuit model 2.30 2.40
with 60 Hz parameters
=-
c- 0.
3 section pi-circuit model with 2.25 2.35
60 Hz parameters
-3
0. 50.
milliseconds
Traveling wave model with 2.05 2.10
1000 Hz parameters Fig. 8. Switching surgeovervoltage for 345 kV cable using various 60 Hz
models.
15 section pi-circuit model 2.05 2.10
with 1000 Hz parameters
3.
tr'ave 1 Ii o s wave
Table 3: Maximum switching surges in pu at each end of the cable.

3.2.3 Simulation Results =-

0-
0.

The cable was energized with no reactors installed, -3.

to eliminate the influence of other equipment. A statistical 15 pi-sections
simulation was conducted, consisting of 100 energizations, 3.
using a breaker with a 6 ms pole span and no insertion resis-
tors. The maximum overvoltages obtained are shown in =- 0.
0-
Table 3 for several cable models. The breaker pole closing
times that gave the maximum voltage at the open end of the
cable for the 60 Hz traveling wave model were then selected, -3.
and deterministic simulations were run using these closing 3 pi-sections
3.
times. Three simulations were done, using the 60 Hz travel-
ing wave model, the 15 section 60 Hz pi model, and the 3
section 60 Hz pi model. Plots of the voltage at the open cable =-
0-
0.
end are shown in Fig. 8.
-3 0 . 50.
The deterministic simulations were then repeated
milliseconds
using cable models evaluated at 1000 Hz. The results are
Fig. 9. Switching surgefor345 kV cable overvoltageusing various 1000Hz
shown in Fig. 9. As can be seen from the table, there is little
models.
difference in the maximum switching surge for any of the 60
Hz models. It appears that either the traveling wave model or
3.3 ENERGIZATION OF A SOLID DIELECTRIC CABLE
pi- circuit model can be used to obtain a switching surge dis-
tribution when the cable is energized. The results for the Aim:. As in the previous section, the aim of this study is to
1000 Hz model are also consistent, but the values obtained determine the maximum overvoltages in the cable resulting
with the 1000 Hz models are considerably smaller than those from energization. The effect of using different cable model-
obtained with the 60 Hz models. Therefore, it would appear ling options such as various numbers of pi-section or distrib-
to be advisable to use a frequency dependent cable model if it
uted parameters is also presented.
is available.

4-8
3.3.1 Phenomena
8 1384 8 1381

Eddy current losses in the iron pipe around the HIN 1

20 km
cables in an HPFF system discussed above would have con- Ca ble
01 Q2
siderable effect on the switching surges, resulting in lower
overvoltages as compared to those for the solid dielectric
cables. Therefore, another example was done using a 138 kV
solid dielectric (SD) cable. Fig. II. Systemfor 138kV SO cableenergizin

3.3.2 Model
Cable Model HIN HOUT
A 138 kV solid dielectric cable with the geometry
shown in Fig. 10 was modelled.The three cables were Traveling wave model with 60 2.05 2.20
installed 1.2 m underground with a 25 cm horizontal spacing Hz parameters
between the conductors. The lead sheath was grounded at 15 section pi-circuit model with 2.00 2.15
only one end, and the sheaths were crossbonded at 1000 m 60 Hz parameters
intervals.
3 section pi-circuit model with 2.00 2.15
60 Hz parameters
Ground Surface
Traveling wave model with 1.95 2.10
1000 Hz parameters

G
0 .85 inch
insulati on 15 section pi-circuit model with 2.00 2.15
~ = 2 .3

500 mm 2 conductor
1000 Hz parameters
1.031 inc h diameter 1.2 m
Table 4: Overvoltages when 138 kV cross bonded cable is energized.
0palyethe
. 11 inch
lene
Jacket 0 0 0
The breaker pole closing times were recorded that

-i
0 .11 inch lead resulted in the largest overvoltages at the open end of the
cable when the 60 Hz traveling wave model was used. Then,
~
h eath
25 em
138SD.GCD deterministic simulations were run with several cable models
using these closing times . The resulting waveforms for the
Fig. 10. 138kV SO cable. 60 Hz models is shown in Fig . 12. As can be seen, all the
waveforms are very similar, probably because there is little
The circuit for energizing the 138 kV cable was high frequency content in the switching surge waveform.
approximately the same as used for the 345 kV HPFF cable,
t r av el l i n g wave
except of course the voltage levels had to be changed, and 2.
some changes had to be made in the equipment. A typical
138 kV compact design overhead line was used, and the ~ 0 .
autotransformer was turned around, with 230 kV used for the
high side transformer voltage . The transformer size was also
reduced to 100 MVA A sketch of the energizing circuit is -2 .
shown in Fig. 11. In the several cases simulated, various dif- 2 .
15 p i - s e c t i ons
ferent models, pi-section as well as distributed parameter
models were used for the cable.
~ o.
3.3.3 Simulation Results
-2.
A series of statistical energizing simulations were
:3 p i - se c t i o n s
done, and the maximum overvoltages are shown in Table 4. 2 .
As can be seen, the values obtained with the 60 Hz models
are very close to each other. The 1000 Hz values are also o.
consistent, and, unlike the HPFF cable, the 1000 Hz values
are very close to those obtained at 60 Hz. Therefore, the fre-
quency dependent model may not be necessary for the SD so.
cable. mi l l i sec o n ds
Fig. 12. Overvoltages whenenergizing 138kV SO cable with various60 Hz
models.

4-9
 The deterministic simulations were then rerun using
the 1000 Hz cable models. The results are shown in Fig. 13. HIN 1 HOUT 1
As can be seen, for the SD cable there is not as much differ- o-e-e-------'-.;....;;;.,)-c
ence between the 60 Hz and 1000 Hz results as there was for J
HIN 2 HOUT 2
the pipe-type cable. Again, this would seem to indicate that o-e-e---------)-c
the frequency dependent model is not as important for the SD J
cable as it is for the pipe-type.

2.

:::::::I
c- o. Fig. 14. Circuit used to apply pulse to one cable phase.

-2.
travelling wave
15 pi-sections 3.
2.

:::::::I 1 •
0..
:::::::I
c- o.
- 1 •
-2.
100 pi-sections
3 pI-sectIons 3.
2.

:::::::I 1 •
0..
:::::::I
c- o.

- 1 •
-2 0 . 50. 15 pi-sections
milliseconds 3.

Fig. 13. Results of energizing 138 SD cable with various 1000 Hz models.
:::::"
0.. 1.
3.3.4 Simulations for a High Frequency UnitStep

The simulations that were done with the simple - 1.

power systems did not result in much high frequency content 3 pi-sections
3.
in the cable voltage waveform. In order to produce a wave
with more high frequency content, one phase of the 138 kV
:::::::I 1 •
SD cable was energized with a 1 pu unit step function. The 0..

circuit used to do the energizing is shown in Fig. 14. Both 60

and 1000 Hz cable models were used.
Fig. 15 shows the result when 60 Hz models were
used. The top curve in the figure is when the constant param-
eter model is used, the second curve is with the 15 pi-section
model, the third with the 3 pi-section model, and the bottom
with a 100 pi-section model. Because of the high frequency
content in the wave, the limitations of the 3 and 15 section pi
models are now seen. The 100 section pi model seems to be
able to reproduce the high frequencies, but the voltage wave-
form from this pi-circuit model looks considerably damped
than does the one obtained when the constant parameter
model is used. This leads to some uncertainty about which of
the two models would be preferable.
-1 0. 2.
milliseconds
Fig. 15. Results from pulse energizing for 138 kV SD cable with various 60
Hz models
The results from the 1000 Hz models are shown in
Fig. 16. The limitations of the 3 and 15 section pi models are
again evident, although the 15 section model appears to give
reasonably good results. Now, however, the constant param-
eter and 100 section pi-circuit models give results that are
very close to each other. In the front edge of the first pulse, a
stair step effect can be seen. This is caused by voltages
induced in the other two cables. Some oscillation can also be
seen in these stair steps when the 100 section pi model is
used. These oscillations are probably similar to the Gibb's
phenomenon encountered with Fourier Transforms,

4-10
 receiving end circuit breaker after clearing a fault.
travelling wave
3.
3.4.1 Phenomena

:=1
c.. 1 • Consider the circuit in Fig. 17 which shows a fault
fed from a single line "L", which in turn is fed by a bus with
substantial capacity and seven connected long transmission
- 1 •
lines.When a fault at the remote end of a transmission line is
100 pi-sections cleared, the receiving end voltage at the remote end oscillates
3.
with a half period equal to the travel time of the line. The
peak magnitude in the lossless case, can be up to twice the
::::s 1 •
c.. sending end voltage at the instant of fault clearing. This volt-
age now appears as the TRV across the open breaker. In the
- 1 • actual case, the slope and magnitude of the TRV is dependent
pi-sections
on the damping present in the system.
15
3 .
3.4.2 Model
:=1
c.. 1 •
The network equivalent (Fig. 18) is of type c) pre-
sented in section 2 2.7. The inductance value is obtained
- 1 • from the short circuit current (30 kA) at the bus. The parallel
3.
3 pi-sections resistance is the combined surge impedance (parallel combi-
nation) of the 7 unfaulted lines. This representation is appro-
priate because the lines are long and no reflections affect the
::::s 1 • protective device during the transient period under consider-
c..
ation. Note that as the fundamental frequency impedance of
the source (7.04 mH x 377 rad/s) is much smaller than the
-1 0. 2. equivalent parallel impedance of the transmission lines
milliseconds
(51.57 Q), the warning in section 2 2.7 does not apply. How-
Fig. 16. Results from pulse energizing for 138 kV SO cable with various
ever, when considering unbalanced faults, a full model may
1000 Hz models.
be necessary.
The following general conclusions can be drawn
from the switching studies presented in subsections 3.2 Line"L"
F
(HPFF cable) and 3.3 (SD cable):
For both the HPFF and SD cable, when statistical
energizings are done, it appears that either a constant parame-
ter traveling wave or a pi-circuit model can be used. The
overvoltage results are similar with either model. In addi- Multiple Lines
tion, the overvoltage waveform does not appear to have
much frequency content at 1000 Hz or above, so the number
of pi-sections used for modeling can be evaluated at 1000 Hz
or below. Fig. 17. System for Simulating Single-line Fed Bus Fault

For the HPFF cable, there was considerable differ-

ence in the switching surge results obtained with the 60 Hz 51.570 Line
and 1000 Hz model. Therefore, if a frequency dependent
360 0 SUrge Impedance
model is available, it should be used with the HPFF cable.

However, the SD cable results did not change appre-

l T
600 PF
1 pF
ciably from 60 to 1000 Hz. Therefore, it is probably accept- °OOO

able to model the SD cable with a single frequency 60 Hz -=- F

model for switching surge simulations Fig. 18. Equivalent Circuit for System in Fig. 17

3.4 SINGLELINE BUS FED TRANSIENT RECOVERY The line "L" is represented as a low-frequency loss-
VOLTAGE (TRV) less line with lumped resistance at the midpoint and at the
end of the line. For a 138 kV substation, the available fault
Aim.:. To fmd the Transient Recovery Voltage (TRY) across a current at the main bus is 30 kA and 3.7 kA at the fault loca-

4-11
tion. Circuit parameters were selected for a 795 MCM line of
length 40 km to the fault location with a surge impedance of
360 ohms.
Lumped bus capacitance of 10000 pF is represented
at the supply station while 600 pF, which is typical for a
small substation, is represented at the station at the end of the
line
3.4.3 Simulation Results
Fig. 19 shows the resultant bus voltage, fault cur-
rent, and protective device transient recovery voltage. The
protective device recovery voltage is a ramp whose magni-
tude, neglecting damping, would be 2 times 0.88 per unit
(since about 12% of the voltage is dropped across the source
impedance during the fault), or 1.76 per unit; circuit damping
would reduce this by about 5 to 10%. The time-to-peak of the
recovery voltage is the round-trip travel time of a voltage
wave on a single line supplying the fault. The rate-of-rise of
the voltage ramp is determined by the product of the surge
impedance of the line and the rate-of-change of the fault cur-
rent. Since the first peak is typically reached in only a few
hundred microseconds, the rate-of-change of a symmetrical
fault current can be considered constant and equal to
Jilt» .It should be noted that the TRV for a three phase to
ground fault would vary significantly from that for a three
mined by the leakage inductance of the transformer and the
effective source impedance as shown in Fig. 20. At the same
time, the transformer secondary-side voltage collapses to
zero, dropping the bus voltage (reduced from its pre-fault
value due to the fault) across the leakage inductance of the
transformer. When the fault is cleared, the source-side bus
voltage recovers in an oscillatory fashion with a frequency
determined by the source inductance and its equivalent
capacitance. If the transformer is located at the end of a line,
the source-side bus voltage will attempt to recover to the pre-
fault voltage level through a ramp, and overshoot. This sets
up a damped "oscillation" on the source side of the protective
device with a period determined by the positive- and zero-
sequence travel times of the line. For short lines the source
inductance dominates, reducing the magnitude of oscillations
that occur at a higher frequency. The voltage on the trans-
former side of the switch collapses to zero in an oscillatory
fashion with a frequency determined by the leakage reac-
tance of the transformer and its equivalent terminal capaci-
tance. The resulting switch transient recovery voltage rate-
of-rise is very steep with a substantial peak value (see Fig.
22).
138 kV/13.8 kV
80MVA
10.7°k Z

phase ungrounded fault.

Fig. 20. System for Study of Secondary Fault TRV

Faultcurrent
20
:;-
l:!!-

Ie
eD -20

~~ -60
~§
¥ (J -100
11:=
~::s

l~ -140 Fault
-gal
Switchtransientrecoveryvoltage
: -180
::s Fig. 21. The Equivalent Circuit for the Case in Fig. 20
£D
-220

3.5.2 Model
Fig. 19. Bus Voltage, Switch Recovery Voltage and Fault Cur-
rent for a Single-line Fed Bus Fault.
To illustrate the transient recovery voltage that
occurs across the primary-side protective device when a
3.5 TRANSFORMER SECONDARY-FAULT TRV (WITH
transformer secondary fault is cleared, consider the system in
PRIMARY-SIDE PROTECTIVE DEVICE)
Fig. 27 (Case D). Assume that a fault occurs on the second-
ary side of the 80 MVA 138 kV/13.8 kV radially fed trans-
Aim.:. To fmd the TRV on the circuit breaker on the primary
former. Based on the 10.7% transformer impedance, the
side of a transformer after it clears a secondary side fault.
inherent 3-phase fault current of the transformer is approxi-
mately 3.1 kA. Because of the source and line impedances,
3.5.1 Phenomena
the 3-phase secondary-fault current magnitude is further lim-
ited to about 1.0 kA. To simulate the protective device tran-
When a fault occurs on the secondary-side of a
sient recovery voltage, the transformer can be represented as
transformer, the relatively large leakage inductance of the
shown in Fig. 21. Transformer terminal capacitances are cal-
transformer will limit the magnitude of the fault current
culated from the transformer oscillation frequency when a
through the primary-side protective device. When the fault
fault on the one side of the transformer is cleared from the
occurs, the source-side bus voltage drops to a level deter-

4-12
other side. Representative frequencies for power transform-
ers are reported by Hamer and Rodriguez [24]. For the 138-
kV winding, the frequency of oscillation is approximately 9.6
kHz, while that of the 13.8-kV winding is approximately
72 .3 kHz. The high-frequency capacitive coupling ratio
(i.e., Ch t / ( Chi + CI) ) is generally lower than 0.4 and was
selected to be equal to 0.2 for the simulation. As described in
section 2.2.2, the capacitance is calculated from the known
winding frequencies.
The effective terminal capacitances can be deter-
mined based on the frequency of oscillation of each winding
by using the equation C = 1/[(21tj)2 LT] ,wherefis the
frequency of oscillation of each of the windings in Hz, L T
(Henries) is the transformer leakage inductance (referred to
the winding of interest) and C (Farads) is the effective capac-
itance. For the high-voltage winding:
C=Ch+Ch/
and, for the low-voltage winding :
C = C l+ Chi
Based on the winding frequencies, and the trans-
former leakage inductance of 67.48 mH (referred to the high-
voltage winding), the winding terminal capacitances are:
Ch = 2.64nF
Chi = 1.44 nF
C l = 5.75 nF
Due to high-frequency winding resistance and eddy
current losses, the oscillations are damped . This damping is
represented by the resistance to ground in the equivalent cir-
cuit shown in Fig. 21. For most transformers the damping is
usually such that the damping factor (i.e., the ratio of succes-
sive peaks of opposite polarity in the oscillation) is on the
order of 0.6 to 0.8. A conservative value of 0.8 was selected
for this simulation. The time between peaks (of the same
polarity) of the oscillation is: 1/f = 21tJLC ,hence, for an
assumed damping factor, DF, the high-frequency damping
resistance, RD ' can be calculated using the equation:
-1t~
RD = InDF
where L is the effective leakage inductance of the trans-
former (referred to the winding of interest) and C is the effec-
tive capacitance of the winding of interest.
Based on the transformer leakage inductance of
67.48 mH and the terminal capacitances, the high-voltage
winding damping resistance is equal to 57.3 kO and that of
the low-voltage winding is 7.48 kU
4-13
3.5.3 Simulation Results
Fig. 22 shows the transient recovery voltage for the
switching device, the source-side and transformer-side volt-
ages, and the 138 kV substation bus voltage for interrupting a
fault on the secondary side of the transformer.
0.5
~
/1
"e -D.5
:r
1
:I -1
a
"E
: -1.5
8:
Protective device transient
-2 recovery voltage
Fig. 22. Source, Transformer Side and 138kV substationBus Voltages for a
Secondary Side Fault on a 80 MVA 138kV/213.8 kV Transformer
3.6 SHUNT CAPACITOR SWITCHING
Aim:. To present by example, modeling guidelines that should
be observed when simulating capacitor switching transients .
A brief discussion of the transient phenomena associate with
capacitor switching is presented as background to the case
study used to illustrate modeling guidelines. Understanding
the transient phenomena associated with any simulated event
will allow a model of sufficient accuracy to be created while
avoiding needlessly complicated models that waste computer
and engineering time.
3.6.1 Phenomena
Capacitor switching can cause significant transients
at both the switched capacitor and remote locations. The
most common transient problems when switching capacitors
are (1) overvoltages at the switched capacitor during energi-
zation, (2) voltage magnification at lower voltage capacitors
during capacitor energization, (3) transformer phase-to-phase
overvoltages at a line termination during capacitor energiza-
tion, (4) arrester energy duty during capacitor breaker
restrike, (5) breaker current due to inrush from capacitors at
the same bus as a capacitor being energized and (6) breaker
current due to outrush from a capacitor into a nearby fault.
Although all of these phenomena can be initiated by capaci-
tor switching or fault initiation near a capacitor, they each
produce different types of transients that can adversely affect
different power system apparatus. Some of the phenomena
also have different modeling requirements. Each phenomena
is briefly discussed before being illustrating by example.
3.6.2 Switched Capacitor Overvoltages During Energization
Energizing a shunt capacitor from a predominately
inductive source results in an oscillatory transient voltage at
the capacitor bus with a magnitude that can approach twice
the peak bus voltage prior to energization. The characteristic
frequency of the energization transient is:
j= 1 greater than that of C2 and (2) the natural frequencies fi and h
2rcJLsC
where: L s = source inductance (Henries)
C = capacitor bank capacitance (Farads)
This energization transient can excite system resonances or
cause high frequency overvoltages at transformer tennina-
tions. The magnitude and duration of the energizing voltage
transient is dependent upon a number of factors including sys-
tem strength, local transmission lines, system capacitances,
and switching device characteristics. Voltage transient magni-
tudes increase as system strength is reduced, relative to capac-
itor size. In addition to reducing system surge impedance and
increasing system strength, transmission lines provide damp-
ing. These three characteristics of transmission lines help re-
duce capacitor energizing transients. Other capacitors in the
vicinity of a switched bank help reduce capacitor energizing
transients because they reduce system surge impedance.
Switching devices can be designed to reduce transients by us-
ing closing control, pre-insertion resistors, or pre-insertion in-
ductors. The closer to zero voltage at which a capacitor is
energized, the lower the resulting transients. The optimum
closing resistor size is approximately equal to the surge imped-
ance of the source inductance and capacitor bank capacitance
as calculated below:
R
optimum
= h
~C
where: L s = source inductance (H)
C = capacitor bank capacitance (F)
3.6.3 Voltage Magnification at Lower Voltage Capacitors
Normal capacitor bank energizing transients, which
are limited to twice the pre-switch capacitor bus voltage, are
not a concern at the switched capacitor location. Significant
transient voltages can occur at remote capacitors or cables
when magnification of the capacitor energizing transient
occurs. The simple circuit in Fig. 23 illustrates the voltage
magnification phenomena.
Fig. 23. CircuitIllustrating VoltageMagnification
4-14
The highest transient voltages, on a per unit basis, occur at the
lower voltage capacitance (C2) during capacitor C1 energiza-
tion when (1) the capacitive Mvar rating of C 1 is significantly
(as defined below) are nearly equal.
The magnitude of the voltage magnification transient at C2 is
dependent on switched capacitor size, source impedance, the
impedance between the two capacitances, system loading, and
the existence of other nearby low voltage capacitors. Moderate
increases in distribution system loading can significantly re-
duce voltage magnification transients. Because transformer
losses increase significantly at higher frequencies, modeling
the frequency dependence of transformer losses, or simply
modeling the transformer X/R ratio at the capacitor's natural
frequency, can improve model accuracy and reduce the sever-
ity of the voltage magnification simulated. Controlled breaker
closing, pre-insertion resistors, or pre-insertion inductors can
be used to reduce voltage magnification related transients.
Voltage magnification can also cause excessive
energy duty at arresters protecting distribution capacitors.
High energy arresters may be necessary if other methods of
reducing voltage magnification are not implemented.
3.6.4 Transformer Termination Phase-to-Phase Overvoltages
Capacitor energization can initiate traveling waves
that will increase in magnitude when reflected at transformer
terminations, These reflected surges will be limited to approx-
imately two per unit by the transformer line-to-ground arrest-
ers. Four per unit phase-to-phase voltage transients can be
caused by 2 pu surges of opposite polarity appearing simulta-
neously on different phases. This four per unit switching tran-
sient may exceed a transformer's switching surge withstand
capability. IEEE standards do not specify transformer phase-
to-phase switching surge withstand capability. As a worst case
assumption, the phase-to-ground withstand could be used, but
a value closer to 3.4 pu is probably more realistic. The trans-
former manufacturer should be consulted to determine the
phase-to-phase switching surge withstand voltage of a spe-
cific transformer,
System short circuit capability and the number of
lines at the switched capacitor location do not significantly
affect this phenomena. Switched capacitor size affects the fre-
quency of oscillation that occurs when a capacitor is ener-
gized, and thus the voltage that the traveling wave component
of the transient rides on, but no generalization relating capaci-
tor bank size and reflected phase-to-phase transient can be
made. Radial line length may have a more predicable effect.
Higher phase-to-phase transients often occur on longer lines
as the traveling wave oscillation peak begins to match up with
the natural frequency of the capacitor energization transient.
Oscillations that occur on very short lines may also be impor-
tant, as they have the potential for exciting transformer inter-
nal resonances.
As with other capacitor switching related transients,
these transients can be reduced by the use of synchronous
closing control, pre-insertion resistors, or pre-insertion
inductors.
3.6.5 Capacitor Breaker Restrike Arrester Energy Duty
Arresters applied at large shunt capacitors should be evaluat-
ed for their energy duty during capacitor breaker restrike. This
is true even when the capacitor breakers are designed to be
"restrike free."
There are several methods of determining arrester
energy requirements during the first capacitor breaker
restrike. The energy during subsequent restrikes can be much
higher, but is usually not considered when sizing arresters.
The chart shown in Fig. 24 [25] can be used to determine
arrester energy duty based on arrester protective level and
capacitor size. Hand calculations which include the effects of
capacitor size, can be used to more accurately determine
arrester energy requirements. The equations for hand calcu-
lating arrester energy during restrike of a grounded capacitor
is shown below. The details of the hand calculation for both
grounded and ungrounded capacitor can be found in [25].
(joules)
where: C = Capacitor Capacitance (farads)
Vp = Arrester Protective Level (volts)
Vs = Peak Line-to-Ground Voltage (volts)
10.0
DUTY
1.5
[
Mvar
p~r ]
Cap
5.0
2.5
O.O--_""'--_ _...a-._ _~ - -........--..;;:I~
1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.1
ARRESTER PROTECTIVE LEVEL(PU)
Fig. 24. MOV Arrester Duty for Capacitor Switch Restrike
Because both the chart and hand calculation methods do not
include the effects of system losses, loads, or transmission
lines, the arrester energy requirements determined by them
will be conservatively, but not excessively, high. The most ac-
curate method of determining arrester energy requirements
during capacitor breaker restrike is to simulate the restrike
event using a detailed transient model. The transient simula-
tion should model the system in detail at least two busses in
each direction from the capacitor.
It has been reported that the energy handling capa-
bility of an arrester during capacitor restrike is significantly
less than the published arrester energy handling capability.
Some derating of arrester energy ratings may be required
because of the high magnitude currents which may be associ-
ated with capacitor restrike transients. The arrester manufac-
turer should be consulted to determine the level of arrester
energy derating, if any, is necessary.
3.6.6 Inrushfrom Another Capacitor During Energization
The inrush currents associated with back-to-back
capacitor switching must be evaluated with respect to the
capacitor switch capabilities and overvoltages on CT second-
aries. A circuit illustrating back-to-back switching is shown
in Fig. 25.
The equations for calculating current magnitude and
frequency are shown below.
I = Vel f = I x f =~
z ' 2n~Leq x Ceq' 2nL eq
where: VCl=Voltage across Cl as switch closes
Ll, L2 = Self Inductances of Capacitor Banks
L3 = Inductance between Capacitor Banks
Z =Surge Impedance = J~eq, L eq =L1 + L2 + L3,
eq
ANSI Circuit Breaker Standard C37.06 contains
specific inrush current magnitude and frequency limits for
general and definite purpose breakers. Although hand calcu-
lations are very accurate in determining inrush currents, a
simple model that includes all impedances between the ener-
3.0 gized and switched capacitors is all that is necessary to simu-
late back-to-back switching inrush currents. If the inrush
currents calculated are excessive current limiting reactors can
be used to bring them within acceptable limits. The size of
the current limiting reactor necessary to limit the inrush cur-
rent to an acceptable level can be estimated by rearranging
4-15
the equation for Ixfabove as shown below and using peak
pre-switch current and voltage values:
S~stem Breaker
L = Vel
eq 2JZ(Ixf)

3.6.7 Current Outrush into a Nearby Fault

Current outrush from a capacitor can be a concern

when a breaker closes into a fault. For general purpose break-
ers, ANSI standards indicate that the product of the outrush
current peak magnitude and frequency is limited to less than L3 Breaker
2 x 107. The limitation for definite purpose breakers is less
severe, generally 6.8 x 107 . Fig. 26 illustrates the capacitor I
current outrush phenomena ~
Ll L2
The equations necessary to calculate peak current
and frequency are shown below. Vel

CiT JC2
VCl 1 VCl
1= Z ,f= 21t rrc-' Ixf= -
Aj~eq'-'eq 21tL
-
eq

where: VCl = Voltage across C 1 when Switch Closes

L1 = Self Inductance of Capacitor Bank
L3 =Inductance between Capacitor Banks Fig. 25. Circuit Illustrating Back-to-Back Switching

Z= SurgeImpedance = ~,
~~ S~5tem
Leq = L1 + L3, Ceq = C1

If outrush currents are a concern, they can be

brought within limits by the use of outrush reactors. The
reactor size can be quite accurately determined by the fol-
lowing equation when peak pre-switch voltage and current
values are used:

L = Vel
eq 2 JZ(Ix f)
faul t
3.6.8 Additional Concerns
L3
In addition to the capacitor switching phenomena
listed above, which will be illustrated in the example later in
this paper, there are two other capacitor switching phenom-
ena that should be considered. The fITst is dynamic overvolt- Ll

I~
age. Dynamic overvoltage may occur when energizing a
capacitor and transformer simultaneously during fault clear-
ing and line re-energization. During line faults, even if the
capacitors are normally switched separately, the bus trans- Cl
former and capacitor bank may be de-energized and subse-
quently reenergized together with the line. The resulting long
term, low magnitude, but high energy, overvoltage cannot be
effectively limited by surge arresters. It must be controlled
Fig. 26. CircuitIllustratingOutrush Switching
by using an acceptable switching scheme.

4-16
 Another concern when switching shunt capacitor
banks is internal overvoltages at remote transformers. These
overvoltages are a function of the switching transient and
transformer internal resonance characteristics. Transformer
terminal arresters may not adequately protect for this condi-
tion. Possible solutions include (1) capacitor switch pre-
insertion resistors or reactors and (2) capacitor bank reactors.
3.6.9 The Model
A one line diagram of a three-phase transient model
assembled to illustrate capacitor switching phenomena is
shown in Fig. 27. The individual components of the model
are discussed below.
Source: The system source is modeled as an ideal voltage
source behind a system equivalent impedance. The equivalent
impedance consists of both positive and zero sequence induc-
tance and resistance. The ideal voltage source magnitude is
set so that the 138 kV bus voltage prior to capacitor energiza-
tion will be 1.025 pu. The actual magnitude can vary depend-
ing upon system loading and capacitor operating procedures.
In this case the positive sequence equivalent impedance is 5.8
ohms reactive and 0.58 ohms resistive and the zero sequence
system equivalent impedance is 5.0 ohms reactive and 0.50
ohms resistive. This results in a 138 kV bus three phase fault
current of approximately 13.7 kA and a single line-to-ground
fault current of approximately 14.3 kA.
_-+-_SOURC
EQ138
LOAD
TRTER
~ ~ TR138
40 MVar 40 MVar
13.8 kV
Fig. 27. One Line Diagram of Transient Model
Capacitors: Three capacitors are modeled. There are two 40
Mvar (5.571 microfarad) capacitors located at the 138 kV
equivalent source bus. These capacitors are each equipped
with 0.15 mH reactors to limit back-to-back switching cur-
rents and a common 1 mH reactor to limit outrush currents.
How these reactor sizes were determined is presented in sub-
section 3.6.10. The third capacitor (3.6 Mvars or 50.10
microfarads) is located on the low voltage side of the 138/
4-17
13.8 kV transformer located at the 138 kV equivalent bus.
All three capacitors are grounded.
Loads: Two loads are modeled, each half the peak system
load. Both are modeled as parallel resistance and inductance
elements. The first load (90 +j40 MYA) is modeled at the 138
kV equivalent source bus. This load contains series as well as
parallel components to represent the impedances of trans-
formers not explicitly modeled. The load fed from this bus is
assumed to have a uncorrected power factor of about 90% and
a corrected power factor of 100% when both 40 Mvar capac-
itors are in service. This full load condition is represented by
parallel resistive and reactive loads of 180 Mvars (105.8
ohms) and 80 Mvars (238.05 ohms) respectively. Full load is
represented by half this load when one 40 Mvar capacitor is in
service or to be switched into service.
The second load (1.8 + jl.8 MYA) is modeled on the
low side of the 138/13.8 kV transformer located at the same
equivalent source bus. This load has an uncorrected power
factor of 70.7% and a corrected power factor of unity. With a
3.6 Mvar capacitor placed at this bus, this means that the
resistive and reactive components of the load at this bus are
both equal to 3.6 Mvars (52.9 ohms).
Load modeling is very important because loads help
attenuate and damp out capacitor switching transients. Simu-
lations with no loads modeled will produce transients that are
much higher than those found on the actual system. Simi-
larly, models with the entire load modeled at higher voltage
busses rather than dispersed at lower voltage busses will sim-
ulate transients lower than those on the actual system.
Because of the limited size of the model used to illustrate
capacitor switching phenomena, accurate load modeling is
not possible. The model would have to be expanded about
two busses out in all directions to model loads with reason-
able accuracy. To help compensate for this, loads half the size
ofthose described above are placed at the appropriate busses.
In a real study the effect of load modeling and
model size must be analyzed. The best way to optimize the
size and detail of a model is to keep adding to the modeled
area until the transients are no longer affected by additional
components. Because this can be time consuming, rules of
thumb, such as modeling the system one or two busses from
all locations of interest, are often used when assembling tran-
sient model.
TransfQnners: Two transformers are modeled. They both in-
clude 138/13.8 kV transformations, but their locations and
winding configurations are different. The transformer at the
equivalent source bus is an 18 MYA rated three winding
transformer with primary (138 kV) and secondary (13.8 kV)
grounded wye windings and a delta tertiary (4.8 kV). The
high, low, and tertiary impedances are represented as 39.44%,
0.01%, and 17.78% on a 100 MYA base. The transformer XI
R ratio was assumed to be 20. Saturation was modeled with a
knee point of approximately 1.15 pu. The remote transformer
is an 80 MYA rated two winding transformer with grounded
wye primary (138 kV) and delta secondary (13.8 kV) wind-
ings. The transformer impedances is 10.7% on its 80 MYA
base. Half this impedance is modeled on each winding . The
transformer X/R ratio was assumed to be 20. Saturation was
200 kV
modeled with an approximately 1.2 pu knee.

Lioe Mode)' The line modeled is a 40 km long 138 kV line

connecting the equivalent source bus with the remote bus
labeled "TRTER". The line uses 477 ACSR "Hawk" conduc-
tor in a horizontal configuration. The conductor has 27 alu-
minum strands and 6 steel strands, a DC resistance of 0.1221
ohms per km at 25 degrees C, and a geometric mean radius of
0.884 em. Because of the need to accurately model voltage
reflections at transformer terminated lines, this line was mod-
eled using a frequency dependent distributed parameter
transmission line model. -200 kV
Fig. 28. Maximum 138 kV Cap Bus Voltage (HalfLoad)
Surge Arrester Mode)' Following normal practices on solidly
grounded 138 kV systems, a 108 kV station class gapless The voltage at the 13.8 kV bus was 3.06 pu in the
MOV surge arrester was included at the capacitor location. half load case (Fig . 29), indicating a voltage magnification
The non-linear arrester characteristic is modeled by a number condition . This voltage was 4.202 pu in the no load case and
of exponential segments based on the arrester's 36/90 usee 2.364 pu in the full load case. These three cases demonstrate
current/voltage characteristics. Arrester energy was moni- the effect of system load modeling.
tored during capacitor breaker restrike. 40 kV

Fault Model ' The fault model used in the outrush simula-
tions is a 0.1 milliohm resistance in series with an ideal 20 kV
switch. When the fault is initiated, the switch is closed and
when the fault is cleared the switch is opened.

3.6.10 Simulation Results:

Simulations were run to illustrate four different

capacitor switching events: capacitor energizing, capacitor
breaker restrike during de-energization, back-to-back capaci-
tor inrush, and capacitor outrush into a fault. Each of these -40 kV
events are discussed below.
Fig. 29. Voltage Magnification (Half Load Model)

Capacitor Energization: Capacitor energization was simu -
lated to demonstrate three different phenomena. The first is
the transient overvoltage at the switched capacitor location.
The second is voltage magnification at a lower voltage
capacitor. The third is phase-to-phase overvoltage at a trans-
former terminated line.
The capacitor energizing simulation used 100 statis-
tical switching events to determine the worst case overvolt-
age . With the half load model, the worst overvoltage
simulated at the 138 kV capacitor location was 1.805 pu (Fig.
28). This transient's peak value was 2.032 pu in the no load
case and 1.695 pu in the full load case.
As discussed before, for voltage magnification to
occur, there must be two circuits resonant at about the same
resonant frequency. The first circuit is usually the source
impedance and switched capacitor and the second is usually
a low voltage capacitor and a transformer. The resonant fre-
quency of the first circuit in this example is 544 .1 Hz as
shown below . The 138 kV 40 Mvar capacitor has a capaci-
tance of 5.571 j.l.F and the system equivalent positive
sequence impedance has a inductance of 15.39 mH (5.800
Q) .
f, - 1 _ 1 = 544.IHz
1 - 2fffLC - 2~15.36mHx5 .571,tF

The resonant frequency for the second circuit, the

low voltage capacitor and the capacitor connecting it to the
switched capacitor bus is 543.6 Hz as calculated below. The
13.8 kV 3.6 Mvar capacitor has a capacitance of 50.1 j.l.F and
the transformer has an impedance of 1.711 mH (0.6452 Q).

4-18
 1 1 Juu kV
f = = = 5416Hz
2 2tNLC 2;r,j1.71lmH x50.l,tF

Voltage magnification results from the fact that the

two resonance frequencies are so close together.
The third phenomena of concern during capacitor
energization is excessive phase-to-phase voltages at the end
of a transformer terminated line . As previously discussed, if
this value exceeds 3.4 pu there should be some concern for
the transformer insulation. In the half load case, the maxi- -200 kV
mum phase-to-phase voltage simulated at the remote trans-
former 's 138 kV terminals was 4.895 pu (Fig. 30). Phase-to- -JOO kV
phase overvoltages of 5.286 and 4.673 were simulated under
no load and full load conditions. All of these voltages were Fig. 31. Restrike Breaker TRV (HalfLoad Model)
simulated without arresters modeled. If arresters were mod-
The 108 kV Station Class arrester modeled has a switching
eled at the transformer terminals, the phase to phase over-
surge protective level of 200 kV line-to-ground, 1.775 pu on
voltage would be limited to twice the arrester discharge
the 138 kV system. According to Figure 2, this arrester would
voltage, appro ximately 4 pu.
have to be able to dissipate about 6 kJ/kV of arrester rating.
Breaker Restrike: The most severe energy duty for arresters This may be excessive after derating the normal 7.2 kJ/kV of
applied at capacitor bank locations is often when a breaker re- rated voltage (8.9 kJ/kV ofMCOY) of a station class arrester
strikes as a capacitor is taken out of service. For capacitor energy used for capacitor protection. Under this condition
switching transients, an arrester's kJ/kV rating may be have to transient simulation is necessary.
be derated. The arrester manufacturer should be consulted to Simulated arrester voltages during capacitor breaker
determine the derating for a specific arrester. Since a properly restrike are shown in Fig. 32.
functioning breaker will always open at a current zero, statis-
tical simulations are not required when simulating capacitor
The simulated energy duty of the capacitor arrester,
restrike. Generally only one phase of a breaker will restrike
263 kJ, is shown in Fig . 33 . A 108 kV station class arrester
and, while the phase may reopen soon after the restrike , re-
can be expected to be able to dis sipate about 778 kJ under
strikes are often simulated as being permanent. Restrike is
normal conditions. Derating the arrester energy handing
most severe when it occurs at the time of peak breaker tran-
capability by half for capacitor breaker restrike still gives 389
sient recovery voltage (TRY). The breaker TRVs simulated
kJ of capability, well above the 263 kJ required. Although
when a restrike occurs as both 40 Mvar capacitors in the half
not examined in this case, arrester energies at remote capaci-
load model are opened is shown in Fig. 31.
tors where voltage magnification may occurred should also
be monitored.
300 leV
600 kV

200 leV
400 kV

200 kV

o kV-f---'<---+f-t-

-300 leV

Fig. 32. ArresterBus Voltages DuringCapacitorBreakerRestrike

-600 kV

Fig. 30. Ph-to-Ph Voltage at Remote Transfo rmer (HalfLoad)

4-19

300 kJ
200 kJ
100 kJ
okJ .J...-..-t-----+--+-~-_t_-_+__-+_____t-__+_-.....;
.885 .81 .815 .82 .8Z5
Seconds
Fig. 33. ArresterEnergyDuringBreakerRestrike
Capacitor InDlsh During Back-to-Back Switching· The con-
cern during back-to-back switching is that capacitor inrush
currents will exceed breaker ratings. The magnitude and fre-
quency of the inrush current can exceed breaker capabilities
if the impedance between the two capacitors is too low.
Breakers applied between two capacitor banks at a single bus
are usually definite purpose breakers. According to Table 3A
of ANSI/IEEE C37.06, the product of the breaker current
magnitude and frequency must be less than 6.8 x 107 (16 kA
times 4250 Hz) for definite purpose breakers.
An equation for calculating the inductance neces-
sary to limit the I x f product to an acceptable level was given
in subsection 3.6.6. With Vmax equal to the peak line-to-
ground voltage, times a conservative 1.05 pu voltage, the
inductance necessary to meet the 6.8 x 107 breaker rating can
be calculated to be 0.277 mH or 0.139 mH per capacitor as
shown below. Some of this inductance may be supplied by
the buswork between the two capacitors. Buswork rated for
use on 138 kV systems is usually considered to have an
inductance of 0.9 JlH per meter.
L= Vmax = 118.3lkV = 0.277mH
21Z{I x f) 21Z{6.8x 10 7 )
Back-to-back capacitor switching inrush currents are inde-
pendent of load or nearby system components. Inrush currents
were simulated with a with a 0.15 mH reactor in series with
each 40 Mvar 138 kV capacitor. This resulted in a peak cur-
rent of 12 kA at a frequency of5.5 kHz, giving an Ix/product
of 6.6 x 107, below the 6.8 x 107 limit.
Capacitor Outmsh into a Fault The concern during capaci-
tor outrush into a fault is again breaker I x / ratings, but
because the fault current may go through a general purpose
breaker rather than a defmite purpose breaker, the breaker I x
frating will probably be a much lower 2.0 x 107 rather than
6.8 x 107. The equation derived in subsection 3.6.7 can be
used, but the I x f product will be different and the reactor
must placed so that the fault current discharged from both
capacitors will have to flow through the reactor to get to the
main bus, as shown between busses CAP40 and CPOUT in
4-20
Figure 5. In this case the reactor size was calculated to be
0.942 mH, as shown below.
L= Vmax = l18.3lkV = 0.942mH
2 JZ(I x f) 2 JZ(2 X 10 7 )
An outrush reactor value of 1.0 mH was used to simulate this
event. This simulation gave a peak current (first current peak)
of 1,966 amps at a frequency of9,454 Hz. This results in an I
xfproduct of 1.86 x 107, which is below the 2.0 x 107 limit.
3.7 SERIES CAPACITOR SWITCHING
Series capacitors may be installed on transmission
lines to increase power transfer capability. Electromagnetic
transient studies are required to determine the impact of the
series compensation on the existing system to ensure safe
and reliable operation.
~To evaluate several aspects of system performance,
including the following:
Surge Arrester Sjzjng· Establish surge arrester duty and
related protection settings for the capacitor bank.
Line Protection· Investigate relay requirements.
Line Breaker Transient Recoyery Voltage (TRY)· Deter-
mine the transient recovery voltage for the transmission
line breakers of the compensated line.
Line Energization· Investigate system behavior when the
compensated line is energized.
Bank Insertion and Bypass· Investigate system behavior
when the series capacitor is bypassed or inserted.
Single-phase Reclosing· Determine line end arrester
duty for single-phase reclosing operation.
Simulated events include varying size and location
of the series capacitor. However, these are generally deter-
mined by steady-state, transient stability and subsynchronous
resonance studies and by relaying requirements which are
not applicable to this document. Additionally, minimum and
maximum generator conditions may also be considered.
3.7.1 Model
Fig. 34 shows a representative system to be studied.
The system model typically includes lines and transformers
at least one bus back from the switching locations of interest.
Transmission lines are modeled as distributed parameter
lines considering their positive and zero sequence character-
istics. Transformers are modeled using the saturable trans-
former component model which represents each winding of
the transformer as well as its saturation characteristics. One
bus away are equivalent sources modeled as mutually-cou-
pled elements considering their positive and zero sequence
characteristics. Series capacitors and other system compo-
nents are modeled as lumped circuit elements with typical
quality factors represented. Also pertaining to series capaci-
tor modeling are its associated components such as the
bypass breaker with its series reactor and the surge arrester
connected across the series capacitor. The surge arrester
model uses the 36x90 us voltage-current characteristic,
3.7.2 Phenomena and Simulation Results
The worst case fault conditions that keep the capac-
itor bank inserted determine the maximum surge arrester
energy requirements. The case list includes three-phase, dou-
ble-phase and single-phase faults. Also considered are sin-
gle-phase reclosing events under fault conditions: the line
end breakers open on the faulted phase only to clear the fault,
and then one end recloses.
Line protection may be evaluated by monitoring
currents that would flow in the line relays during three-phase
and single-phase faults which are internal or external to the
capacitor bank.
The maximum TRV of line breakers may be evalu-
ated by applying three-phase and single-phase faults at vari-
ous locations along the line and at the series capacitor. In
some cases arresters or pre-insertion devices may be required
to reduce the TRV to acceptable levels.
The effect of energizing the series compensated line
with and without the capacitor bypassed can be evaluated.
The impact of capacitor bank insertion and bypass
BUS 1
115KV
69KV
Fig. 34. SystemModelfor SeriesCapacitorStudy
4-21
should be simulated under varying power flow and other
operating conditions. The bypass switch TRV is evaluated
from the simulation of capacitor bank insertion. The simula-
tion of capacitor bypass determines the inrush currents.
Results are compared to the withstand ratings at the breaker
and its series reactor.
Waveforms of sample results are shown 5 for these
switching transients cases:
i ) Single-Phase Fault, Clearing, and Reclosing (Fig. 35)
ii) Three-Phase Fault at Middle of Line and Clearing (Fig.
36 and Fig. 37)
iii) Series Capacitor Bank Insertion (Fig. 38)
4. CONCLUSIONS
This report presented general rules for the study of
switching surges using electromagnetic transients simulation.
The main goal is to have as simple a model as possible with-
out a significant loss in accuracy. In addition to the modeling
representations, general concerns such as the time-step to be
used and the extent of the system to be studied were also
addressed. The modeling techniques were illustrated with
case studies on line energization, TRV, shunt capacitor bank
switchings and series capacitor bank switchings.
BUS2
115KV
69KV
 :~ :~I
'~ ~~~!A~ 1:] . . : .. ; .. : :
:'1iFiIr-
'~ J :::::.:::.
0Jl0~ o..oor.. . . ·.", "' . . ·.·.. . . . . . . · O.llOJ
~
. : : :~
: .: : : : : ~1 : : : : : : : : : : t:
0..00

.1llO •.••
Bus 2 115 kV [pu]
• • •• ••
ILQDJINII ..,".',\\y.tNItYo ~ ,
-a.IlO • • • ••
Capacitor Current ll'u -Irated]
• • • • • ~
0.00
j~----------
• •• • . • •• .•

: ~ :jW/N'~' , :j~
:~ :] ·······... =]1.--_
:~~]
4.00 I •
0..00
~j i • i i
a2S
• , , '.
OJll 0Jl0
j iii iii
a2S
iii
lI.5O
I~;::=;r=;::=;r=;=r=r=r=;=::;
0..00
I
Q.2S

Time In Seconds Time In Seconds Time In Seconds

Fig. 35. SimulationResults: Single-PhaseFault, Clearing,and Reclosing

j f\ ~ ~ ~ : PdtANIJ./ . .
Bus 1 115 kV [pu] Capacitor Voltage [pu-Vrated]

I~ ~ Af\ i\ i : :.L r e l Ctlen~ lkAl

.
ITVlJVlJ
1\

ITV\Jv \T\ :14MMJ

O~ 1/\JVV\I
·IJO . . " '.. .1.00 . '1.IlO ~
: L_lll
~f
I\Of\Of\ flf\f\ ~'I ..
o.ooVV\TV
. . . 1.IlO~
.
·I~
•1.IlO ' . . • •

:}fA~~~~~AAI\
:
~t-J1MM ~L1llJi ·
V\TV~VV \{\[v
~~

Bus 2 115 kV [pu]

. . :~
:jA~I\~I\~A6Ai
:~:(2~
f
'I~ V. -r~\TV'(V. Q.V.
~ 'I\ ' h h ~ .~ '~ A 11 :LJ1ill:L ." =] .>:
:H¥M--- :1 ·~ .
OJlO\)YtYVv \TV\} VlJ
·I ~ . '1JO~ 0.00

~Jf\fJ"lVVoJIMP
. Ii'
0.0
I • I
0.1
' , iii
lU
I
0.0
I , i i j
0.1
, • , i I
lU
Ii
0.0
. i ii
0.1
. .• I
0.2
Time in Seconds Time in Seconds Tim e in Seconds

Fig. 36. Simulation Results: Three-Phase Fault at Middle of Line and Clearing

4-22
 !J~er ~ [pu].
. . . .
.
"
. . . .

o
,.
·2 . .
B~!=r ~ghtlpu] .

0+---------------- -,-;.
·2

.. ,,--i--T-,;-;,-r---;-';-;'--+--;-i---r-r--r-;;-T--;-"';'-;-;--T-';-;'--i--+-';-;'--+---;-;--;'--+-";-;--;---+-";-i---r-i
i i i I i
a.ooo O.CW O.ll5O cum 0.100 0.12'

Time In Seconds

Fig. 37. SimulationResults: Three-Phase Fault at Middleof Line and Clearing

Bus 1 115 kV [pu) Capa citor Volta ge [pu-Vrated] A.rr.ester C

. ur. re.nt .I ~ ]

:JNvVNrNVV. ::]
1~1 '
f\f\f\/\f\f\f\f\f\/\
::: ] .A~WM~A o.33::'J
'1.00 ] . V. . . . . . . .o.~
i\~i\~A~AA/»:J
]
.
A 1\/\ 1\ /\ 1\ 1\ /\ 1\
\fIrV\TVVV . V
AI\I\I\I\/\/\/\/
.: VlJ VVV V\TV ~ J VV V V V vVvlJ ] \JVV\J\) V \TV\)

'$p
.\ .00

A
o.»~

CUlO f\f\f\f\/\f\/\/\f\/\ 1.00 ] . '1\ '1\ '1\ . o.»~ ]

1\ ' /\ ' /\ ' /\ f\ rd\ /\ 1\ /\ 1\ 1\
'I~O V VYV\f\TV'! V. 0.00 ] \T\T~V V VlJ V. \. 0.00 ] V \Tv V \TVlJlJ \.
·1.00 0.3'~

Capacitor Current [pu-Irated] Ar res ter [M.lJ .

A'/\.A A' A'/\ ' 0.4$~
Bus 2 115 kV [pu] En~ rg,v

: j"A"AA""AAj
.:J lfVVITVVVV\",,: J ~
VV VVlJ \[\{\TVlJ
0.730 ] . f\ . f\ ' f\ ' ] . .

J .Ar\ At\ t\ t\ t\ r\ f :: ] :'. . . . z

· 1.50 .

:N\AAAAfNVt VV VlllJ \[VV ] .0.:

:YII
] V ~
=====
~1~ 0.00

/I /I /I /Iii Ii /I /I J . AAi\ Ai\ i\ i\ i\ ;::: J ' . : . :

L
0.:
\T\fV \TV \[\{VlJ . ] V VlJV'if\)\[V Vi ~
·u o I i i i ; i i ; i ii .o.7S0 I j j iii j i ii 0.00 I I • i I Ii i i 0 " I
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.0 ~ ~ 0.0 ~ ~

Time In Seconds Time In Seconds Time In Seconds

Fig. 38. SimulationResults: SeriesCapacitorBank Insertion

4-23