International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 51 (2012) 81–90

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International Journal of
Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijrmms

Bit/rock interface laws in directional drilling

Luc Perneder a, Emmanuel Detournay a,b,n, Geoff Downton c
a
University of Minnesota, USA
b
CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering, Australia
c
Schlumberger, UK

a r t i c l e i n f o abstract

Article history: This paper deals with the formulation of global relationships between the forces and moments acting
Received 23 October 2010 on a PDC drag bit and the kinematic variables describing the penetration of the tool into the rock. It
Received in revised form considers the general situation where the bit penetration is characterized not only by an axial but also
17 November 2011
by lateral and angular components, as it is the case when drilling a deviated well with a bit tilted on the
Accepted 8 January 2012
borehole axis. These interface laws serve as boundary conditions for the drillstring treated as a rod
Available online 11 February 2012
when modeling the propagation of the borehole. While the relationships between forces and
Keywords: penetrations assume the bit to be reduced to a point, determination of the parameters of the interface
Bit–rock interaction laws requires information about the bit geometry and the cutter characteristics, as well as knowledge
Directional drilling
about the local cutter/rock interaction. We show that it is actually possible to construct the interface
PDC bit
laws by using the device of an equivalent blade, which embodies the properties and geometry of the bit.
Interface laws
The use of this device eliminates the need to consider the interaction of each individual cutter with the
rock during one revolution of the bit. The approach is illustrated for a cylindrical bit. In this case, the
interface parameters and their dependence on the bit tilt can be determined in closed form.
& 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction wells were essentially focused on providing measures of the

Bit/rock interface laws embody the rock fragmentation and
other dissipative processes induced by the bit during drilling.
These laws serve as boundary conditions for the drillstring treated
as a rod when modeling propagation of a borehole. Such models
can be used to predict the trajectory of a borehole [1–8] or can be
embedded in the control of rotary steerable systems—the down-
hole robots now commonly used to drill deviated wells [9].
The interface laws relate the forces and moments acting on the
bit to the penetration of the bit into the rock. Therefore, the
parameters of the bit/rock interaction laws embed information
about the ability to steer bits, a critical information when
designing or constructing deviated wells. Furthermore, quantify-
ing the bit steerability and understanding its dependence upon
the bit design is of obvious relevance for designing and selecting
bits appropriate to drill curved boreholes [10–14].
Bit/rock interaction has been the subject of intense research
since the 1950s (see for example [15,16], and also [17] for an
overview of the research on bit/rock interaction in anisotropic
formations). Early models of bit/rock interaction for deviated
n
Corresponding author at: Department of Civil Engineering, University of
Minnesota, 500 Pillsbury Drive SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.
Tel.: þ1 612 625 3043; fax: þ 1 612 626 7750.
E-mail address: detou001@umn.edu (E. Detournay).
drill-ahead tendency of the bit from a static BHA model
[1,18–20]. For example, in the pioneering work of Lubinski and
Woods [18] and Murphey and Cheatham [19], the drilling direc-
tion is assumed to be coaxial to the force acting on the bit in
isotropic formations, with deviation from coaxiality caused by
rock anisotropy or by a change in rock properties. This assump-
tion of coaxiality for isotropic rock formations was later relaxed
with the introduction of an angle between the force on the bit and
the penetration vector [1,20].
The concept of bit/rock interface laws, within the context of
directional drilling, appears to have been first introduced by
Cheatham and Ho [21], who proposed a 3D relationship between
the force on the bit and the penetration rate vector for nonplanar
borehole trajectories in anisotropic rocks. This model was later
refined by Ho [22–25], who extended these interface laws and
proposed a general linear bit/rock interaction model that accounts
for moments acting on the bit and for a turning rate vector of the bit.
The characteristics of the bit/rock interaction are often encap-
sulated in a few parameters (e.g., the axial and lateral drillabilities
and the bit walk) that can be deduced from linearized interface
laws [4,10,12,13,22,26]. The directional tendency can also be
assessed in laboratory experiments in which the bit is subjected
to imposed axial and angular velocities while a constant side force
or a constant lateral velocity is applied to the rock sample or to
the drilling shaft [4,12,17,26–30].

1365-1609/$ - see front matter & 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijrmms.2012.01.008
82 L. Perneder et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 51 (2012) 81–90
A critical review of past contributions to the formulation of bit/
rock interface laws for curved borehole trajectories suggests,
however, that fundamental issues still remain unanswered.
Indeed, these include questions about (1) the nature of the
interface laws in relation to the assumptions of rate-indepen-
dency and linearity between force and penetration; (2) the
identity of the kinematical quantities that are energetically
conjugated to the forces and moments; and (3) the separate
contributions of the bit geometry and the rock to the parameters
of the interface laws.
The lack of consensus on the identity of the kinematic
quantities at the interface is particularly troubling. Apart from a
handful of publications [24,31] that introduce two degrees of
freedom in rotation besides the bit rotation around its axis of
symmetry, only the penetration vector (the translatory degrees of
freedom of the interface) is incorporated in the bit/rock interac-
tion laws. Moreover, the real nature of the kinematical variables
for the interface is not always fully recognized, especially in view
of the assumption of rate-independence of the interface laws that
is consistently made, although seldom explicitly. Furthermore,
the nature of the boundary condition in rotation (in a direction
perpendicular to the bit axis of symmetry) is not addressed but
for a few exceptions [4,6,22,31,32], with the implicit assumption
generally made that the bit is free to rotate (that no moment is
applied to the bit). However, the bit is sometimes assumed to be
blocked in rotation [6].
In a rare attempt to justify the assumption of free rotation of
the bit, Voinov and Reutov [31] proposed that the overgauging of
the borehole might account for the absence of moment at the bit.
It is also worth noting an incorrect demonstration based on an
erroneous energy argument to justify the zero moment boundary
condition at the bit, when determining the equilibrium config-
uration of the bottomhole assembly [33]. Finally, the generally
assumed proportionality between forces and penetration vari-
ables is in contradiction with results of laboratory experiments
[34], which are themselves consistent with the recognition that
processes other than rock destruction and removal take place at
the bit/rock interface [35–37].
The objective of this paper is to generalize interface laws
established for fixed cutter bits drilling straight ahead [37], by
taking into consideration the lateral and angular penetrations that
take place when drilling curved boreholes. Determination of these
global relationships between generalized forces and penetrations,
with the bit reduced to a point, needs to account for the local
interaction process taking place on each cutter of the bit.
The derivation of these laws is articulated in two main sections
of the paper. One section, dealing with the global description of
the bit/rock interaction process, defines the global kinematic and
dynamic variables for the bit and proposes a general form of the
bit/rock interface laws. A second one introduces a methodology to
compute these interface laws using considerations about the local
cutter/rock interaction without requiring the detailed and explicit
positioning of the cutters on the bit body, while still accounting
for the relevant geometric features of the bit. This procedure for
constructing bit/rock interaction laws is then illustrated for a
cylindrically-shaped bit.
2. Problem formulation
2.1. Problem definition
We seek to determine the bit/rock interface laws, the relation-
ships between the forces and moments acting on the bit and the
conjugated kinematic quantities by reducing the bit to a point.
These laws encapsulate information about the cutter geometry,
Fig. 1. Bit kinematics and generalized forces.
the cutter/rock interaction, and the spatial disposition of the
cutters on the bit. The point to which the bit collapses is called
the reference point. Its trajectory defines the axis of the borehole.
The kinematics of the bit is characterized by a velocity vector
v, a spin vector x, and an angular velocity vector X acting at the
reference point of the bit (Fig. 1). The angular velocity vector X
describes the rotation of the bit around its axis of symmetry
denoted as i1 ; thus, X ¼ O i1 . The spin vector x is the angular
velocity of the bit axis of symmetry i1 and is orthogonal to i1 .
Similarly, the forces acting on the bit are reduced to the force
F, the moment M, and the torque C applied at the reference point.
The torque C is aligned with the bit axis of symmetry while the
moment M is orthogonal to this axis.
The interaction of the bit with the rock formation is embodied
in relationships between the kinematic variables {v, x, X} and
the generalized forces {F, M, C}. The explicit decomposition of the
moment acting on the bit into M and C (and similarly of the
angular velocity into two orthogonal vectors x and X) results
from recognizing that the directional response of the bit does not
directly depend on the torque C and on the angular velocity X.
2.2. Assumptions
Formulation of the bit/rock interaction model can be simpli-
fied by introducing three key assumptions.
Assumption 1. The forces on the bit {F, M, C} and the conjugated
kinematic quantities {v, x, X} can be averaged over at least one
revolution for the purpose of constructing interface laws that
capture the directional tendency of the bit. Indeed, the time scale
of the processes involved when considering the directional
response of the bit and drillstring is much larger than the period
of revolution. Thus, it is permissible to average the interface laws
over one revolution. On the contrary, when studying dynamical
phenomena involving time scales smaller or of the same order as
the typical period of revolution, such as stick-slip or whirl
vibrations, the interface laws have to be formulated in terms of
different kinematic variables [38,39].
Assumption 2. The bit/rock interaction laws are rate-indepen-
dent. This assumption is supported by experimental evidence
from single-cutter tests [34] and from kinematically controlled
drilling experiments with roller-cone bits [40]. In particular, the
drilling tests show independence of the torque on bit with the
rotary speed, provided that the penetration per revolution
remains constant [40]. Using a dimensional analysis argument
[37], the assumption of rate-independency of the interface laws
 L. Perneder et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 51 (2012) 81–90 83

naturally leads to the corollary that the generalized forces on the

bit only depend on the penetrations per revolution {2pv=O,
2px=O}; this assumption is sufficient but not necessary, however,
to identify the penetrations per revolution as the proper kine-
matic variables. (A more fundamental argument to identify the
penetrations per revolution as the appropriate state variables,
which does not rely on the assumption of rate independency,
requires consideration of the nature of the cutter/rock interaction
and an averaging of these local interactions over one revolution of
the bit.) Nevertheless, abandoning the assumption of rate-inde-
pendence implies a dependency of the parameters of the interface
laws upon the bit angular velocity O.

Assumption 3. While the assessment of the parameters of the

interface laws requires treating the bit as a finite solid object, the
global relationship between the forces and penetrations assumes
the bit to be reduced to a point. There is some arbitrariness as to
the location of this reference point along the bit axis of symmetry.
Here, the reference point is fixed on the bit bottom as this leads to
some simplifications of the interface laws.

2.3. Methodology
Fig. 2. Definition of the bit trajectory.

In principle, a theoretical derivation of the bit/rock interface

laws can be carried out from a three-dimensional description of 3.2. Bit inclination and tilt
the bit geometry, involving the position and characteristics of all
the cutters. It would proceed as follows. Given a prescribed steady The bit basis (i1 , i2 , i3 Þ is chosen in such a way that the i1 -axis
motion of the bit while drilling, the penetration of each cutter into coincides with the bit axis of symmetry while pointing ahead of
the rock can be computed, from which the individual cutter forces the bit. The axis i3 is parallel to ey and points in the same direction
can be determined using local cutter/rock interaction laws. Force (Fig. 2). The origin of this system of coordinates is located at the
and moment balance can then be invoked to calculate the reference point of the bit. In the plane (ex , ez ), the absolute
statically equivalent global forces and moments acting on the inclination y of the bit is measured counterclockwise between ez
bit. From these computed relationships between penetrations and and i1 , while the bit tilt c characterizes the relative angle
forces, the bit/rock interface laws can be deduced. between I and i1 . Thus
However, rather than accounting for the interaction of each y ¼ Y þ c: ð2Þ
individual cutter with the rock, we proceed here by replacing all
the cutters with an equivalent blade. This approach greatly
simplifies the derivation of the interface laws. The geometrical
reduction of a bit to an equivalent blade is permissible because 3.3. Penetration per revolution of the bit
only forces and moments averaged over one revolution are of
interest here and the motion of the bit is assumed to be For a general 3D trajectory of the bit, the kinematic quantities
stationary. that enter the interface laws are the penetration vector d and the
angular penetration vector u given by
2pv 2px
3. Bit kinematics
d¼ , u¼ : ð3Þ
O O
The angular penetration vector u is contained in the plane (i2 , i3 )
3.1. Bit trajectory
orthogonal to the bit axis. The decomposition of d and u in the bit
basis yields five scalar quantities that are referred to as the
Let (ex , ey , ez ) denote a fixed orthonormal coordinate basis,
penetration variables: d1, d2, d3, j2 , and j3 . However, if the
with its origin located at the rig and the ez -axis oriented in the
trajectory of the bit remains in the plane (ex , ez ), only three
same direction as gravity (Fig. 2). We assume that the borehole
penetration variables are needed: d1 (axial), d2 (lateral), and j3
(and thus the bit trajectory) evolves in the vertical plane (ex , ez ).
(angular), as d3 and j2 are both equal to zero (Fig. 3).
Restricting the bit trajectory to a planar curve considerably
The penetrations are often misconstrued as displacements, but
simplifies the geometrical description of the problem, yet does
the nature of these variables is that of a velocity. More precisely, a
not prevent the complete determination of the parameters of the
penetration per revolution is a scaled velocity. Indeed, if time is
interface laws. This planar curve B is described in the fixed
coordinate system by cðSÞ, a vectorial function of the curvilinear
coordinate S running along the borehole. At the rig, S¼ 0 and
0 r S r L with L being the length of the borehole. At a given point
of B, the tangent unit vector to the borehole, I, is defined in terms
of the vectorial function cðSÞ as
dc
I¼ : ð1Þ
dS
The borehole inclination, denoted as Y, is measured between ez
and I (Fig. 2). Fig. 3. Penetration variables for a planar trajectory.
84 L. Perneder et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 51 (2012) 81–90

scaled by the period of revolution of the bit (2p=O), then the

penetration variables of the bit are velocities in the scaled time.
The bit/rock interface laws are thus conceptually similar to a
dash-pot (a relationship between a force and a velocity), insofar
as the treated phenomenon occurs on a time scale large enough to
allow the averaging of the state variables.

3.4. Relationship between penetration and trajectory

The penetration variables are related to the bit trajectory,

parametrized by cðSÞ. To establish this relationship, let us first
Fig. 4. Definition of the equivalent blade.
define the operator dðÞ as the variation of a quantity over one
revolution of the bit; for instance, the bit inclination changes by
an angle dy during one revolution. Also, a dimensionless time t
can be defined as t ¼ t O=2p. Thus, when operating on a variable
exhibiting smooth variations when viewed at a temporal resolu-
tion not smaller than the period of revolution of the bit, the delta
operator is equivalent to
@ 2p @
d¼ ¼ ð4Þ
@t O @t
and it may be simply used as a time-derivative operator.
With this definition, the penetration d (the norm of the
penetration vector d) is the incremental increase of the length L
of the borehole (measured along the trajectory of the bit reference
point) over one revolution; hence
Fig. 5. Illustration of two successive instances of the surface S and of the volume
d ¼ dL: ð5Þ of rock dV r removed by the bit during a revolution.

Furthermore, since the velocity of the bit reference point is always

tangent to the borehole axis B, the penetration vector d can be
expressed as interface laws, as it enables us to avoid a detailed description of
the bit geometry.
dc
d ¼ dI ¼ d : ð6Þ To describe the bit cutting profile S and the cutting edge C, a
dS
cylindrical coordinates system with axes (ir , io , iz ) is introduced
Consequently, the bit tilt c, defined as the inclination of the bit on with its origin located at the reference point of the bit (Fig. 4). The
the axis of the borehole, can be expressed in terms of the axis iz points in the direction opposite to i1 and ir is in the plane of
penetration variables the equivalent blade. A point P with cylindrical coordinates ðr, o,zÞ
  thus has coordinates ðz,r cos o,r sin oÞ in the bit basis (i1 , i2 , i3 ).
d
c ¼ arctan 2 ð7Þ The geometry of the cutting edge C is naturally represented in the
d1
basis (ir , iz ) by the parametrization nðrÞ ¼ ðr~ ðrÞ, z~ ðrÞÞ with
assuming a planar trajectory. Under normal drilling conditions, 0 r r r ‘, where r is the curvilinear coordinate along the cutting
the lateral penetration is small compared to the axial penetration, edge C with origin at the reference point of the bit and ‘ is the
d2 5d1 , and the bit tilt can then be written as c Cd2 =d1 . Finally, length of the blade (Fig. 4). The external normal n to the
the angular penetration j3 represents the change of absolute equivalent blade is given by
inclination of the bit over one revolution and
dz~ dr~
j3 ¼ dy ¼ dY þ dc: ð8Þ n¼ ir  iz : ð9Þ
dr dr

3.5. Equivalent blade 3.6. Local penetration

The bit cutting profile S is defined as the surface of revolution
outlined by the cutter edges, as the bit is rotated by at least one
revolution with its reference point and its axis of symmetry fixed.
The two-dimensional curve C, which generates by rotation of the
surface S, is thus the envelope of the intersection of the cutter
edges with a fixed plane containing the axis of rotation i1 . (The
surface S is distinct from the imprint left in the rock if the bit is
suddenly stopped while drilling straight ahead.)
The curve C is defined as the bit cutting edge, see Fig. 4. After
being assigned attributes that reflect features of the cutters on the
bit, essentially the wear flat length distribution, C will be referred
to as the bit equivalent blade. Its properties are such that the forces
on the equivalent blade are the same as those acting on the
cutters, after averaging over a revolution. The introduction of this
concept greatly simplifies the determination of the global bit/rock
To determine the local penetration pðr, oÞ of the blade into the
rock during one revolution given the global penetration vectors d
and u, two ‘‘successive’’ instances of the cutting profile separated
by one revolution, S and S 0 , are considered. The surface S 0 is
defined in relation to S via a translation of S by the penetration
vector d and a rotation according to the angular penetration
vector u (Fig. 5 for the case of a planar trajectory). Since the bit
motion is assumed to be uniform, the relative configuration of S
and S 0 remains invariant during drilling.
Let dV denote the thin domain contained between the two
surfaces S and S 0 . (The thickness of the domain dV is much
smaller than its characteristic dimension ‘.) In general, only a part
dV r of the domain of dV corresponds to the volume of rock
removed over one revolution. Indeed, the bit cutting profile S
does not necessarily coincide everywhere with the (smoothened)
 L. Perneder et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 51 (2012) 81–90 85

bottomhole surface of the borehole: where the cutting profile S is 4. Bit/rock interface laws
not in contact with the borehole, no rock is removed. This can
readily be seen in the case of a cylindrical bit, which is tilted with 4.1. Structure of the interface laws
respect to the borehole axis.
As a prerequisite to the determination of the penetration The directional interface laws are relationships between the
pðr, oÞ, the incremental displacement du of a point on the cutting average force F and moment M on the one hand, and the
edge over one revolution is defined. Let P be a point on S and let P 0 penetration vector d and angular penetration vector u, on the
be the corresponding point on S 0 (that is, P moves to P0 after ! other hand. The force F is the dynamic quantity conjugated to d,
translating the surface S by d and rotating it by u). The vector PP 0 while M is conjugated to u. In other words, the dissipation per
thus represents the incremental displacement du of the point P on revolution of the bit that is associated with directional drilling is
the equivalent blade over one revolution (Fig. 6). defined as
The incremental displacement duðr, oÞ can readily be com-
D ¼ F  dM  u: ð15Þ
puted given the global bit penetration d and u and the cylindrical
coordinates of P; indeed The whole dissipation D is positive, but so is each individual
dissipation term associated with the force F and the moment M.
du ¼ ðd1 r~ j3 cos oÞi1 þ ðd2 z~ j3 Þi2 : ð10Þ The directional dissipation D is only relevant within the
context of directional drilling and should not be confused with
The incremental normal displacement of point P on the cutting the energy dissipation rate P at the bit, defined as
edge is then given by
P ¼ F  vM  xC  X, ð16Þ
dun ¼ du  n: ð11Þ
where the torque on bit C (which is parallel to i1 ) is the dynamic
A necessary condition for dun ðr, oÞ to be interpreted as the local quantity conjugated to X. In fact, the term C  X ¼ C O dominates
penetration (or depth of cut)p of a point on the cutting edge is that the dissipation rate, so that P CC O.
this quantity is positive. However, in view of the stationarity The directional bit/rock interface laws take the general form
assumption, this condition is also sufficient. Thus F ¼ LðPÞ  P, ð17Þ
( T
dun if dun 4 0, where the ‘‘force’’ F ¼ fF 1 ,F 2 ,F 3 ,M 2 ,M 3 g and the ‘‘penetration’’
p¼ ð12Þ P ¼ fd1 ,d2 ,d3 , j2 , j3 gT . Actually, as shown below, the two basic
0 if dun r 0:
processes that are taking place when the bit is interacting with
the rock, contact and penetration, lead to a piecewise linear
The assumption of uniform motion of the bit implies that neither
relationship between F and P. The torque C is not explicitly
p nor dun evolve during drilling; these quantities only depend on
introduced in the interface laws on the basis that it does not
the curvilinear coordinate r and on the cylindrical angle o.
influence directly the directional behavior of the bit.
Finally, the volume of rock 9dV r 9 removed over one revolution
The tensorial operator L presents some symmetries that are
of the bit is given by
inherited from the averaging process over a revolution, assuming
Z ‘ Z 2p the rock to be isotropic. Indeed, after averaging, the interface laws
9dV r 9 ¼ r~ ðrÞ pðr, oÞ do dr, ð13Þ do not present a preferential lateral direction and a rotation
0 0
around the axis of symmetry of the bit leaves them unchanged.
which is obviously not the same as the volume 9dV9 of the space This is expressed as the symmetry constraint
between the two surfaces S and S 0
L ¼ RT LR ð18Þ
Z ‘ Z 2p
on the bit/rock interaction operator L, where R is an orthogonal
9dV9 ¼ r~ ðrÞ 9dun ðr, oÞ9 do dr: ð14Þ
0 0 tensor expressing an o-rotation around the bit axis i1 :
2 3
1 0 0 0 0
6 0 cos o sin o 0 0 7
6 7
6 7
R¼6 6 0 sin o cos o 0 0 7:
7 ð19Þ
6 7
40 0 0 cos o sin o 5
0 0 0 sin o cos o

The general form of the interface operator L is given by

2 3
L11 L12 L13 L14 L15
6L 7
6 21 L22 L23 L24 L25 7
6 7
L¼6 6 L31 L32 L33 L34 L35 7,
7 ð20Þ
6L 7
4 41 L42 L43 L44 L45 5
L51 L52 L53 L54 L55

where the coefficients L have to be understood as functions of the

penetrations. The symmetry condition (18) on L implies not only
the vanishing of some coefficients
L12 ¼ L13 ¼ L14 ¼ L15 ¼ L21 ¼ L31 ¼ L41 ¼ L51 ¼ 0 ð21Þ
but also the existence of the following symmetries:
L22 ¼ L33 , L44 ¼ L55 , L24 ¼ L35 , L42 ¼ L53 ,
Fig. 6. Definition of the incremental displacement du of a point P and its
projection dun on the normal to the cutting profile. L23 ¼ L32 , L45 ¼ L54 , L25 ¼ L34 , L43 ¼ L52 : ð22Þ
86 L. Perneder et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 51 (2012) 81–90

Hence The cutter force components fn and f o , respectively, normal

2 3 and parallel to the free surface of the rock, are given for Regime I
L11 0 0 0 0
6 0 (0 op o pn ) by
6 L22 L23 L24 L25 7
7
6 7 0
f n ¼ z ep,
00
f o ¼ z ep ð26Þ
L¼66 0 L23 L22 L25 L24 7
7 ð23Þ
6 0 L42 L43 L44 L45 7
4 5 and for Regime II (p Z pn ) by
0 L43 L42 L45 L44 f n ¼ sl þ zep, f o ¼ msl þ ep: ð27Þ
noting that the axial bit/rock interaction is decoupled from the The parameters of this model are (1) the intrinsic specific energy
lateral and angular interactions, i.e., F 1 ¼ L11 d1 . From these of drilling e; (2) the maximum contact pressure on the interface
considerations the determination of the interface laws is reduced wearflat/rock s; (3) a coefficient of friction m, and (4) three
to the evaluation of nine coefficients, which can be assessed by 0 00
interaction numbers z, z , and z , which essentially depend on
only considering planar trajectories the inclination of the wearflat and of the cutting faces on the
8 9 2 3 cutter velocity; see [35,37] for a description of the physical
> F1 > L11 0 0
>
> >
> 6 8 9 processes that lead to the form of these laws.
>
> >
> 6 0 L24 7 d1 >
< F2 >
> = 6 L22 7>
7< = The quantity e represents the energy required to remove a unit
F3 ¼66 0 L23 L25 7 d
7> 2 >: ð24Þ volume of rock in the absence of any frictional contact (that is, for
>
> >
> M2 >
> > 6
> 4 0 L L 7: j ;
5
>
> > 42 44 3 l ¼ 0). The intrinsic specific energy e is about equal to the rock
:M > ; 0 L L
3 43 45 unconfined compressive strength q in cutting tests performed at
atmospheric pressure [51]. However, e depends also on the virgin
For a planar trajectory, the torque can similarly be expressed as
pore pressure and on the bottomhole pressure in downhole
C ¼ Cðd1 ,d2 , j3 Þ: ð25Þ conditions [52–55], except in very permeable rock, because the
local pore pressure in the rock disturbed by the cutter is
equilibrated with the downhole pressure [54]. The dependence
4.2. Local cutter/rock interaction of e on the cutter inclination is weak in the typical range of
variation of the rake angle on PDC bits [56].
Cutter/rock interaction has been the focus of many detailed In contrast to the uncontained flow of failed particles ahead of
experimental investigations in recent years. These works are gen- the cutter, the contact strength s reflects the existence of a
erally aimed at quantifying the role of the various geometric contained plastic flow process underneath the cutter wearflat. Thus,
parameters of the cutter and the groove on the magnitude and s should also depend on the elastic modulus in addition to the
direction of the forces acting on the cutter [35,41–47]. This problem strength parameters of the rock and the pressure environment.
has also been the subject of a number of numerical studies [48–50]. Nonetheless, s and e have been observed to be of the same order in
Here, a simple model that captures the main features of the atmospheric tests [44,57]. In any case, both s and e can vary from a
interaction between the cutter and the rock is outlined. few MPa to several hundreds MPa (up to the GPa range).
Experimental observations suggest that the interaction of a 0
Finally, z is observed to be of order Oð0:121Þ, but z and z are
00

single cutter with the rock is characterized by a bilinear relation-
ship between the forces and the cross-sectional area of the cut,
provided that cutting takes place in a ductile mode; that is, when
the rock is not chipping (Fig. 7). This bilinear relationship results
from the existence of two surfaces in contact with the rock: the
cutting face that is suborthogonal to the cutter velocity V, and a
wearflat or chamfer that is subparallel to V. The presence of these
two surfaces leads to the existence of two main regimes of
interaction: Regime I, where the forces are dominated by the
frictional contact between the wearflat and rock; and Regime II,
where the forces on the cutting faces dominate as the forces on
the wearflat have reached saturation [35,37].
These observations can be captured in a two-dimensional
model of interaction that relates the force f per unit width of a
blunt rectangular cutter to the depth of cut p (Fig. 7). For this
particular geometry, it is sufficient to characterize the cutter by
the length l of the wearflat only, on the assumption that the
interface law f ðpÞ is independent of the cutter width and provided
that the rake angle (the inclination of the cutting face on the
normal n to the rock surface) is implicitly accounted for in some
of the constitutive parameters.
of order Oð102100Þ [51]. The number z reflects the inclination of
0 00
the force acting on the cutting face, while z and z express the
variation of the actual contact area with p at very small depth of
cut, as the two contacting surfaces under the cutter are generally
not conforming. Experiments as well as numerical simulations
indicate that, somewhat surprisingly, z is hardly affected by the
cutter inclination or by the rock [50,51].
A significant experimental observation that is accounted for in
the cutter/rock interaction laws (26) and (27) is that the contact
force eventually saturates with increasing penetration and that
the saturation value is proportional to the wearflat area [44,57],
thus justifying the introduction of the contact strength s. The
structure of the interaction laws (26) and (27) implies therefore
that the threshold penetration pn, marking the transition between
the two regimes, is proportional to the wearflat length l.
The interaction laws (26) and (27) will be locally applied on
the equivalent blade. However, to account for the radial distribu-
tion of cutters on a bit, as well as for the spatial variation of cutter
wear, we have to assume that the local wear flat length l is in
general a function of the curvilinear coordinate r.
4.3. Bit/rock interaction laws

The infinitesimal forces f n ðr, oÞ dr, f o ðr, oÞ dr acting on a

Fig. 7. Bilinear laws for a blunt single cutter.
length dr of the equivalent blade can be deduced from the
penetration pðr, oÞ and the wearflat length lðrÞ, using the
cutter/rock interaction laws (Fig. 8). These infinitesimal forces
are integrated on the length of the equivalent blade and then
averaged on a revolution to yield the averaged forces and
moments acting on the bit: F1, F2, F3, M2, M3. The case of a
cylindrical bit is illustrated next.
 L. Perneder et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 51 (2012) 81–90 87

Bit gauge. The normal to the bit gauge is aligned with the axis
er , which is given by

er ¼ cos oi2 þsin oi3 : ð30Þ

The incremental displacement of a point ða, o,zÞ of the bit gauge is

du ¼ ðd1 a j3 cos oÞi1 þðd2 zj3 Þi2 , ð31Þ

which yields the normal incremental displacement

dun ¼ du  er ¼ ðd2 zj3 Þ cos o: ð32Þ

Contrary to the bit face, the gauge does not interact everywhere
with the rock. For a curved borehole, an outer and inner side of the
gauge is naturally defined. The part of the gauge interacting with the
rock depends on the tilt c and on the ratio between the bit height
and the borehole radius of curvature:

cn ¼ 2b=R: ð33Þ

There are four interaction configurations, denoted C1–C4, which

Fig. 8. Instantaneous infinitesimal forces f n ðr, oÞ dr, f o ðr, oÞ dr acting on an depend on the relative values of c and cn (the criteria below assume
infinitesimal length dr of the equivalent blade.
that j3 4 0). These configurations are characterized by different
patterns of contact between the bit gauge and the rock: C1 (c Z0),
all of the outer sides of the gauge penetrate the rock; C2
5. Application to a cylindrical bit
(c A ½cn =2; 0), both sides of the gauge are in partial contact with
the rock; C3 (c A ½cn ,cn =2), the inner side is partially in contact
5.1. Hypotheses and linearizations
with the rock; and C4 (c r cn ), all of the inner sides of the gauge
penetrate the rock.
The considered bit is a cylinder of radius a and height 2b. The
Fig. 9 illustrates these four configurations for j3 4 0. The
bit face refers to the base of the cylinder and is the set of points
coordinate zn defining the extent of the interaction surfaces can
with cylindrical coordinates ½ðr, o,0Þ, 0 r r ra, 0 r o o 2p. The
be deduced from the normal incremental displacement dun along
bit gauge is the side of the cylinder and is given by
the gauge and is given by
½ða, o,zÞ, 0 r o o 2p, 0 rz r2b. The equivalent blade can be
decomposed into an equivalent blade for the bit face and an c
equivalent blade for the bit gauge. The properties of these zn ¼ d2 =j3 ¼ 2b : ð34Þ
cn
equivalent blades are assumed constant on their length and are
0 00
as follows: lf , zf , zf , zf , pfn for the bit face equivalent blade and The penetration p is equal to the normal velocity on the interac-
0 00
lg , zg , zg , zg , pgn for the bit gauge equivalent blade. tion surfaces, while it is equal to zero elsewhere (Fig. 9). Note that if
The bit is assumed to maintain a steady motion, meaning that the trajectory is a straight line, cn ¼ 0 and the gauge can interact with
the penetration variables d1, d2, j3 are constant along the trajectory the borehole only in the first and fourth configurations.
of the bit. Consequently, the bit tilt c is also constant in time. The
axial penetration d1 is supposed to be much larger than d2 and aj3 ,
so that all the bit face penetrates the rock. Also, the bit tilt c is small
enough that it can be approximated by c Cd2 =d1 . The trajectories
characterized by constant penetrations are straight lines if j3 ¼ 0
and circular trajectories of radius R ¼ 9d=j3 9 if j3 a 0.
The magnitudes of the penetration parameters are such that
the cutting process takes place in Regime II on the bit face and in
Regime I on the bit gauge, so that for the face p 4pf n and for the
gauge p opgn .

5.2. Penetration

Bit face. Recalling (10), the incremental displacement of a point

on the bit face is

du ¼ ðd1 r j3 cos oÞi1 þd2 i2 : ð28Þ

Noting that the unit normal to the bit face is i1 , the normal
component of du is given by

dun ¼ du  i1 ¼ d1 r j3 cos o: ð29Þ

Fig. 9. Penetration of the bit gauge in the four interaction configurations of the gauge
for the case j3 4 0. C1: the outer side of gauge penetrates the rock; C2: both sides of
Since all of the bit faces are supposed to penetrate the rock, the gauge are in partial contact with the rock; C3: the inner side of the gauge is in
p ¼ dun . partial contact with the rock; C4: the inner side of the gauge penetrates the rock.
88 L. Perneder et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 51 (2012) 81–90

5.3. Bit/rock interaction 5.4. Numerical example

Once the penetration p is known on the cutting profile, the A numerical evaluation identifies orders of magnitude of the
incremental forces f n ðr, oÞ dr, f o ðr, oÞ dr given by the single forces and moments on the bit under normal drilling conditions.
cutter laws can be integrated and averaged over a revolution. An The dimensions of the bits a and b are typically of the order of
example is given in Appendix A for the moment M3 when the Oð0:1 mÞ. The equivalent wearflat length l varies significantly
gauge interacts with the rock in the second configuration. between a new and a used bit but is generally of the order
Finally, the bit/rock interaction laws can be written as Oð1 mmÞ. The axial penetration d1 is about 1 mm per revolution,
2 3 while the lateral penetration d2 is two orders of magnitude
2 3 2 lf 3 zf 0 0
F 1 =ea2 s
6 7 smaller: d1  Oð1 mmÞ and d2  Oð102 mmÞ. The radius of cur-
a e
6 F =ea2 7 6 7 6 0 1 0
2zg n C1 12z0g n2 C2 72 d1 =a 3
6 2 7 6 0 7 6 7 vature of the borehole R is usually of the order of Oð100 mÞ; thus
6 7 6 7 6
6 F 3 =ea2 7 ¼ 6 0 7 6 0 1 00
2zg nC1 4 zf 12z00g n2 C2 7
1
76 d =a 7 ð35Þ j3  Oð105 Þ.
6 7 6 76 74 2 5,
6 M =ea3 7 6 7 6 1 00 2
3zg n C3 7 j3
2 00 3 7
4 2 5 4 0 5 6
4
0 2zg n C2 5 Permeable rock formations have an intrinsic specific energy e
M3 =ea3 0 0 12z0g n2 C2 16 zf þ 23z0g n3 C3 typically varying from 10 to 100 MPa and the maximum contact
pressure s is of the same order. We choose to work with
where n ¼ b=a is the slenderness of the bit and C1 , C2 , C3 are in e  s  Oð10 MPaÞ, which corresponds to a soft rock. Single cutter
general functions of the ratio c=cn and depend on the gauge/rock experiments give interaction coefficients z equal to about 1 while
interaction surface configuration. For configurations C1 and C4 z0 and z00 are around 10.
(when one side of the gauge is in full contact with the rock), The order of magnitude for the forces and moments can then
C1 ¼ C2 ¼ C3 ¼ 1, but for configurations C2 and C3, the functions be estimated as follows: F 1  Oð103 NÞ, F 2  F 3  Oð102 NÞ,
C1 , C2 , C3 depend on the bit tilt c as summarized below, noting M2  M 3  Oð10 NmÞ. These orders of magnitude are consistent
that 0 o Ci r 1. with field and laboratory observations for soft rocks.
Configuration C2 (cn =2 r c r 0, j3 4 0):
c
C1 ¼ 1 þ , 6. Conclusions
cn
 2 In this paper, we have presented a methodology to construct
c
C2 ¼ 13 , the bit/rock interface laws for fixed cutter bits in the general
cn situation when the bit is drilling curved boreholes and is tilted on
 3 the borehole axis. The construction of the interface laws relies on
c the local cutter/rock interaction and requires information about
C3 ¼ 1 þ7 : ð36Þ
cn the bit geometry and the cutter characteristics.
Configuration C3 (cn r c r cn =2, j3 4 0): In formulating the interface laws, we have clarified the nature
of the kinematic variables that are associated with the forces and
c moments acting on the bit. The penetrations per revolution can
C1 ¼  ,
cn most easily be identified as the proper kinematic variables by
assuming the interface laws to be rate-independent. We have also
 2
c made explicit the intrinsic symmetries of the bit/rock interaction
C2 ¼ ,
cn laws averaged over one revolution.
We have shown that it is possible to construct the interface
 3
c laws by using the device of an equivalent blade, which embodies
C3 ¼  : ð37Þ
the properties and geometry of the bit. The use of this device
cn
eliminates the need to consider the interaction with the rock of
The interface laws (35) show that the axial penetration d1 each individual cutter. The introduction of the equivalent blade
generates only an axial force, while the lateral and angular concept is made possible because only the averaged bit response
penetrations d2 and j3 generate lateral forces and moments on over at least one revolution is of interest in directional drilling
the bit mainly due to the interaction of the gauge of the bit with applications. This averaging in fact implies that the angular
the rock. disposition of the cutters on the bit is of no relevance in the
The torque C can be determined in a similar way relationship between forces and penetrations. Besides simplifying
  the evaluation of the interface parameters, the introduction of the
C 1 lf s d1
¼ m þ þ cðd2 , j3 Þ, ð38Þ equivalent blade also enables an easy separation of the contribu-
ea3 2 a e a
tion of the rock and of the bit in the parameters of the interface
where cðd2 , j3 Þ is the contribution to the torque due to lateral and laws. In an illustration of the approach for the case of a cylindrical
angular penetrations. Under normal drilling conditions, cðd2 , j3 Þ is bit, we have obtained closed-form expressions of the interface
negligible and the torque C is dominated by the axial penetration parameters, showing their dependence on the bit tilt.
and the contact forces on the cutter wearflats. The term cðd2 , j3 Þ
depends on the interaction configuration; for a cylindrical bit, it is
given by Acknowledgments
8 00  
>
> z nd2 
> 2  nj3 
> for C1 and C4, L.P. gratefully acknowledges the support from CSIRO, Australia,
>
> p a
>
> " ! # in the form of a Fellowship in Drilling Mechanics awarded to the
>
> 00  2
< z n c d2 c Department of Civil Engineering of the University of Minnesota.
c ¼ 2 p 1þ 3  15 2 nj3 for C2, ð39Þ
> cn a cn The authors would also like to thank Schlumberger for providing
>
> " #
>
> 2 partial funding for this research. L.P. and E.D. have benefited from
> 00
> 2z n c d2 þ c nj :
>
> for C3:
>
: p cn a c2 3 stimulating discussions with Thomas Richard and Luiz Franca of
n
the CSIRO Drilling Mechanics Group. Finally, we wish to thank
 L. Perneder et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 51 (2012) 81–90 89

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