Overview of Silicon Semiconductor

Device Physics

Dr. David W. Graham

West Virginia University

Lane Department of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering
© 2009 David W. Graham

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 Silicon
Silicon is the primary semiconductor used in VLSI systems

Si has 14 Electrons

Energy Bands
(Shells) Valence Band

Nucleus

At T=0K, the
highest energy
band occupied by
Silicon has 4 outer shell / an electron is
valence electrons called the valence
band.
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 Energy Bands

• Electrons try to
occupy the lowest
Disallowed energy band possible
} Energy
• Not every energy
States level is a legal state
Increasing for an electron to
Electron occupy
Energy Allowed
• These legal states
} Energy
States
tend to arrange
themselves in bands

Energy Bands

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 Energy Bands

EC Conduction Band
First unfilled energy
band at T=0K
Energy
Eg Bandgap

EV Valence Band
Last filled energy
band at T=0K

4
 Band Diagrams
EC Increasing electron energy

Eg
EV
Increasing voltage
Band Diagram Representation
Energy plotted as a function of position

EC Æ Conduction band
Æ Lowest energy state for a free electron

EV Æ Valence band
Æ Highest energy state for filled outer shells

EG Æ Band gap
Æ Difference in energy levels between EC and EV
Æ No electrons (e-) in the bandgap (only above EC or below EV)
Æ EG = 1.12eV in Silicon

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 Intrinsic Semiconductor

Silicon has 4 outer shell /

valence electrons

Forms into a lattice structure

to share electrons

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Intrinsic Silicon

The valence band is full, and

no electrons are free to move
about

EC

EV

However, at temperatures
above T=0K, thermal energy
shakes an electron free

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 Semiconductor Properties
For T > 0K
Electron shaken free and can • Generation – Creation of an electron (e-)
cause current to flow and hole (h+) pair
• h+ is simply a missing electron, which
leaves an excess positive charge (due to
an extra proton)
• Recombination – if an e- and an h+ come
in contact, they annihilate each other
h+ e– • Electrons and holes are called “carriers”
because they are charged particles –
when they move, they carry current
• Therefore, semiconductors can conduct
electricity for T > 0K … but not much
current (at room temperature (300K), pure
silicon has only 1 free electron per 3
trillion atoms)

8
 Doping

• Doping – Adding impurities to the silicon

crystal lattice to increase the number of
carriers
• Add a small number of atoms to increase
either the number of electrons or holes

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 Periodic Table
Column 3 Column 4
Elements have 3 Elements have 4
electrons in the electrons in the
Valence Shell Valence Shell

Column 5
Elements have 5
electrons in the
Valence Shell

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 Donors n-Type Material
Donors
• Add atoms with 5 valence-band
electrons
• ex. Phosphorous (P)
• “Donates” an extra e- that can freely
travel around
• Leaves behind a positively charged
nucleus (cannot move)
• Overall, the crystal is still electrically +
neutral
• Called “n-type” material (added
negative carriers)
• ND = the concentration of donor
atoms [atoms/cm3 or cm-3]
~1015-1020cm-3
• e- is free to move about the crystal
(Mobility μn ≈1350cm2/V)

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 Donors n-Type Material
Donors n-Type Material
• Add atoms with 5 valence-band
electrons –
• ex. Phosphorous (P) + + – – + –+ + +–
• “Donates” an extra e- that can freely + + – –
– + –+ +– + +
travel around
+ – – –
• Leaves behind a positively charged + –+ + – – + +
–
nucleus (cannot move)
• Overall, the crystal is still electrically
neutral Shorthand Notation
• Called “n-type” material (added + Positively charged ion; immobile
negative carriers) – Negatively charged e-; mobile;
• ND = the concentration of donor Called “majority carrier”
atoms [atoms/cm3 or cm-3] + Positively charged h+; mobile;
~1015-1020cm-3 Called “minority carrier”
• e- is free to move about the crystal
(Mobility μn ≈1350cm2/V)

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Acceptors Make p-Type Material

Acceptors
• Add atoms with only 3 valence-
band electrons
• ex. Boron (B)
• “Accepts” e– and provides extra h+
to freely travel around
• Leaves behind a negatively
h+ charged nucleus (cannot move)
– • Overall, the crystal is still
electrically neutral
• Called “p-type” silicon (added
positive carriers)
• NA = the concentration of acceptor
atoms [atoms/cm3 or cm-3]
• Movement of the hole requires
breaking of a bond! (This is hard,
so mobility is low, μp ≈ 500cm2/V)

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 Acceptors Make p-Type Material
p-Type Material Acceptors
• Add atoms with only 3 valence-
+ – +– – –+ band electrons
– – + +
– – + + • ex. Boron (B)
+ – + – – + – – • “Accepts” e– and provides extra h+
+ – + + – + to freely travel around
– – – + + – + • Leaves behind a negatively
charged nucleus (cannot move)
• Overall, the crystal is still
Shorthand Notation
electrically neutral
– Negatively charged ion; immobile
• Called “p-type” silicon (added
+ Positively charged h+; mobile;
positive carriers)
Called “majority carrier”
• NA = the concentration of acceptor
– Negatively charged e-; mobile;
atoms [atoms/cm3 or cm-3]
Called “minority carrier”
• Movement of the hole requires
breaking of a bond! (This is hard,
so mobility is low, μp ≈ 500cm2/V)

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 The Fermi Function
The Fermi Function
• Probability distribution function (PDF)
• The probability that an available state at
f(E)
an energy E will be occupied by an e-
1
1
f (E ) = (E − E f ) kT
1+ e 0.5

E Æ Energy level of interest

Ef Æ Fermi level
Æ Halfway point
Ef E
Æ Where f(E) = 0.5
k Æ Boltzmann constant
= 1.38×10-23 J/K
= 8.617×10-5 eV/K
T Æ Absolute temperature (in Kelvins)

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 Boltzmann Distribution

If E − E f >> kT f(E)
Then 1
( ) kT
f (E ) ≈ e
− E−E f

0.5
Boltzmann Distribution
• Describes exponential decrease in the
density of particles in thermal equilibrium
with a potential gradient Ef E
• Applies to all physical systems
• Atmosphere Æ Exponential distribution of gas molecules ~Ef - 4kT ~Ef + 4kT
• Electronics Æ Exponential distribution of electrons
• Biology Æ Exponential distribution of ions

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 Band Diagrams (Revisited)
E
EC
Eg
Ef
EV

Band Diagram Representation 0.5 1 f(E)

Energy plotted as a function of position
EC Æ Conduction band
Æ Lowest energy state for a free electron
Æ Electrons in the conduction band means current can flow

EV Æ Valence band • Virtually all of the

Æ Highest energy state for filled outer shells valence-band energy
Æ Holes in the valence band means current can flow
levels are filled with e-
Ef Æ Fermi Level • Virtually no e- in the
Æ Shows the likely distribution of electrons
conduction band
EG Æ Band gap
Æ Difference in energy levels between EC and EV
Æ No electrons (e-) in the bandgap (only above EC or below EV)
Æ EG = 1.12eV in Silicon

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Effect of Doping on Fermi Level
Ef is a function of the impurity-doping level
n-Type Material

E
EC
Ef

EV
0.5 1 f(E)

• High probability of a free e- in the conduction band

• Moving Ef closer to EC (higher doping) increases the number of available
majority carriers

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Effect of Doping on Fermi Level
Ef is a function of the impurity-doping level
p-Type Material
1 − f (E )
E
EC

Ef
EV
0.5 1 f(E)

• Low probability of a free e- in the conduction band

• High probability of h+ in the valence band
• Moving Ef closer to EV (higher doping) increases the number of available
majority carriers

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Equilibrium Carrier Concentrations
n = # of e- in a material
p = # of h+ in a material

ni = # of e- in an intrinsic (undoped) material

Intrinsic silicon
• Undoped silicon
• Fermi level
• Halfway between Ev and Ec
• Location at “Ei”
E

EC
Eg
Ef
EV
0.5 1 f(E)

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Equilibrium Carrier Concentrations

Non-degenerate Silicon
• Silicon that is not too heavily doped
• Ef not too close to Ev or Ec
Assuming non-degenerate silicon
(E f − Ei ) kT
n = ni e
(Ei − E f ) kT
p = ni e
Multiplying together
2
np = ni

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 Charge Neutrality Relationship

• For uniformly doped semiconductor

• Assuming total ionization of dopant atoms

p − n + ND − N A = 0
# of carriers # of ions

Total Charge = 0
Electrically Neutral

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Calculating Carrier Concentrations
• Based upon “fixed” quantities
• NA, ND, ni are fixed (given specific dopings
for a material)
• n, p can change (but we can find their
equilibrium values) 1
⎡
ND − N A ⎛ ND − N A ⎞
2
2
⎤ 2

n= + ⎢⎜ ⎟ + ni ⎥
2 ⎢⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
1
N A − N D ⎡⎛ N A − N D ⎞ ⎤
2 2
2
p= + ⎢⎜ ⎟ + ni ⎥
2 ⎢⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
2
ni
=
n
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Common Special Cases in Silicon

1. Intrinsic semiconductor (NA = 0, ND = 0)

2. Heavily one-sided doping
3. Symmetric doping

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Intrinsic Semiconductor (NA=0, ND=0)

Carrier concentrations are given by

n = ni
p = ni
n = p = ni

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 Heavily One-Sided Doping
N D − N A ≈ N D >> ni
N A − N D ≈ N A >> ni
This is the typical case for most semiconductor applications

If N D >> N A , N D >> ni (Nondegenerate, Total Ionization)

Then n ≈ N D
2
ni
p≈
ND
If N A >> N D , N A >> ni (Nondegenerate, Total Ionization)
Then p ≈ N A
2
ni
n≈
NA
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 Symmetric Doping

Doped semiconductor where ni >> |ND-NA|

• Increasing temperature increases the

number of intrinsic carriers
• All semiconductors become intrinsic at
sufficiently high temperatures

n ≈ p ≈ ni
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Determination of Ef in Doped Semiconductor

⎛ ND ⎞
E f − Ei = kT ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ for N D >> N A , N D >> ni
⎝ ni ⎠
⎛ NA ⎞
Ei − E f = kT ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ for N A >> N D , N A >> ni
⎝ ni ⎠

Also, for typical semiconductors (heavily one-sided doping)

⎛n⎞ ⎛ p⎞
E f − Ei = kT ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = −kT ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ [units eV]
⎝ ni ⎠ ⎝ ni ⎠

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Thermal Motion of Charged Particles

• Look at drift and diffusion in silicon

• Assume 1-D motion
• Applies to both electronic systems and
biological systems

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 Drift
Drift → Movement of charged particles in response to an external field (typically an
electric field)

E-field applies force

F = qE
which accelerates the charged particle.
However, the particle does not accelerate
indefinitely because of collisions with the lattice
(velocity saturation)
Average velocity
<vx> ≈ -µnEx electrons
< vx > ≈ µpEx holes
µn → electron mobility
→ empirical proportionality constant
between E and velocity
µp → hole mobility E
µn ≈ 3µp µ↓ as T↑

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 Drift
Drift → Movement of charged particles in response to an external field (typically an
electric field)

E-field applies force

F = qE
which accelerates the charged particle.
However, the particle does not accelerate Current Density
indefinitely because of collisions with the lattice
(velocity saturation)
J n ,drift = μ n qnE
Average velocity
<vx> ≈ -µnEx electrons J p ,drift = μ p qpE
< vx > ≈ µpEx holes
µn → electron mobility q = 1.6×10-19 C, carrier density
→ empirical proportionality constant n = number of e-
between E and velocity p = number of h+
µp → hole mobility
µn ≈ 3µp µ↓ as T↑

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 Resistivity
• Closely related to carrier drift
• Proportionality constant between electric field and the total
particle current flow
1
ρ= where q = 1.602 ×10 −19 C
q (μ n n + μ p p )
n-Type Semiconductor p-Type Semiconductor
1 1
ρ= ρ=
qμ n N D qμ p N A
• Therefore, all semiconductor material is a resistor
– Could be parasitic (unwanted)
– Could be intentional (with proper doping)
• Typically, p-type material is more resistive than n-type
material for a given amount of doping
• Doping levels are often calculated/verified from resistivity
measurements
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 Diffusion
Diffusion → Motion of charged particles due to a concentration gradient
• Charged particles move in random directions
• Charged particles tend to move from areas of high concentration to areas of
low concentration (entropy – Second Law of Thermodynamics)
• Net effect is a current flow (carriers moving from areas of high concentration
to areas of low concentration)
dn( x )
J n ,diff = qDn q = 1.6×10-19 C, carrier density
dx D = Diffusion coefficient
dp( x ) n(x) = e- density at position x
J p ,diff = −qD p p(x) = h+ density at position x
dx

→ The negative sign in Jp,diff is due to moving in the opposite direction

from the concentration gradient
→ The positive sign from Jn,diff is because the negative from the e-
cancels out the negative from the concentration gradient

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Total Current Densities
Summation of both drift and diffusion
J n = J n ,drift + J n ,diff
dn( x )
= μ n qnE + qDn (1 Dimension)
dx
= μ n qnE + qDn∇n (3 Dimensions)

J p = J p ,drift + J p ,diff
dp ( x )
= μ p qpE − qD p (1 Dimension)
dx
= μ p qpE − qD p ∇p (3 Dimensions)

Total current flow

J = Jn + J p

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 Einstein Relation

Einstein Relation → Relates D and µ (they

are not independent of each other)
D kT
=
μ q
UT = kT/q
→ Thermal voltage
= 25.86mV at room temperature
≈ 25mV for quick hand approximations
→ Used in biological and silicon applications

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 Changes in Carrier Numbers
Primary “other” causes for changes in carrier concentration
• Photogeneration (light shining on semiconductor)
• Recombination-generation

Photogeneration
∂n ∂p
= = GL Photogeneration rate
∂t light ∂t light

Creates same # of e- and h+

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 Changes in Carrier Numbers
Indirect Thermal Recombination-Generation

∂p − Δp
= h+ in n-type material n0, p0 Æ equilibrium carrier concentrations
∂t R −G τp n, p Æ carrier concentrations under
arbitrary conditions
∂n − Δn Δn, Δp Æ change in # of e- or h+ from
= e- in p-type material equilibrium conditions
∂t R −G τn

Assumes low-level injection

Δp << n0 , n ≈ n0 in n - type material

Δn << p0 , p ≈ p0 in p - type material

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 Minority Carrier Properties
Minority Carriers
• e- in p-type material
• h+ in n-type material
Minority Carrier Lifetimes
• τn Æ The time before minority carrier electrons undergo recombination
in p-type material
• τp Æ The time before minority carrier holes undergo recombination in
n-type material

Diffusion Lengths
• How far minority carriers will make it into “enemy territory” if they are
injected into that material
Ln = Dnτ n for minority carrier e- in p-type material

L p = D pτ p for minority carrier h+ in n-type material

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 Equations of State
• Putting it all together
• Carrier concentrations with respect to time (all processes)
• Spatial and time continuity equations for carrier concentrations

∂n ∂n ∂n ∂n ∂n
= + + +
∂t ∂t drift ∂t diff ∂t R −G ∂t (other
light )

1 ∂n ∂n
= ∇ ⋅ Jn + +
q ∂t R −G ∂t other
1
424 3 ( light )
Related to Current

∂p ∂p ∂p ∂p ∂p
= + + +
∂t ∂t drift ∂t diff ∂t R −G ∂t other
( light )

1 ∂p ∂p
= − ∇⋅ Jp + +
q ∂t R −G ∂t other
1424 3 ( light )
Related to Current

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 Equations of State
Minority Carrier Equations
• Continuity equations for the special case of minority carriers
• Assumes low-level injection

∂Δn p ∂ 2 Δn p Δn p
= Dn − + GL
∂t ∂x 2
τn
Light generation

Indirect thermal recombination

∂n 1 ∂J
J, assuming no E-field qDn and also ∇ ⋅ J n → Dn n
∂x q ∂x

∂Δpn ∂ 2 Δpn Δpn

= Dn − + GL
∂t ∂x 2
τp

np, pn Æ minority carriers in “other” type of material

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