BBM 5th Semester OB Note PDF

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
BBM 5TH SEMESTER

UNIT-I
INTRODUCTION TO
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
CONCEPT OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
 Organization behaviour is the study of how people
behave in an organization and how their
behaviour affects organizational performance.
 Organizational behaviour is the study and
application of knowledge about how people-as
individuals and as groups act within
organizations.
 Organizational behaviour is the understanding,
predictions and management of human behaviour
in an organization.
 Organizational behaviour is concerned with the
study of what people do in an organization and
how that behaviour affects the performance of the
organization.
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR SYSTEM
 Organizational behaviour is an open social
system. It is a unified whole of interrelated and
interacting subsystems. It is influenced by
environment. OB system helps to understand,
predict and manage behaviour at work.
 OB system consists of three subsystems i.e.
input, processing and output and are as follows:
 Individuals: Individuals are employees of an
organization. Employees are different to each
other related to biological characteristics, ability,
personality, emotions, values, beliefs and
attitudes.
 Groups: It consists of two or more individuals.
Groups differ in size, composition, cohesiveness,
role, status and norms.
 Organizational: It consists of structure and
culture. Structure is the authority responsibility
relationship whereas culture is common values,
beliefs and norms that guide behaviour.
 Components of OB system: OB system has
following components……
OB
OB Inputs OB
Outputs
•
Processing
•Productivity
•Individuals •Individuals • Satisfaction
• Groups • Groups • Low
•Organizational •Organizational Absenteeism
• Low Turnover
• Organizational
Citizenship
Feedback
 Inputs to OB System:
a) Individual Inputs: each individual in the
organization has individual differences. They
consist of:
i) Personal Characteristics: Age, gender and
marital status influences a person’s behaviour
at work.
ii) Personality: Personality traits like introvert
vs extrovert, agreeableness, conscientiousness,
emotional stability, openness to experiences
influence behavioral responses.
iii) Emotions: they are intense feelings directed
at object, person or event. It creates a state of
readiness for behaviour.
iv) Values, Beliefs and Attitudes
 Values: values represents basic convictions. It
represents an individual’s ideas as to what is
right, good or desirable. Value system influences
behaviour.
 Beliefs: They are descriptive thought based on
knowledge, opinion and faith. They influence
behaviour.
 Attitudes: They are favourable or unfavourable
statements about objects, people or events.
Attitudes are based on judgement. They reflect
how one feels about something. Attitudes
influence behaviour.
v) Ability: It is an individual’s capacity to perform
various job-related tasks. Individuals differ in terms
of abilities. It can be physical and mental. There
should be fit between job and ability.
 b) Group Inputs: Group inputs consists of
i) Size: Number of persons in the group.
ii) Composition: Variety of abilities in the
group.
iii) Cohesiveness: Degree of attraction of group.
memebers to each other and motivation to
stay in the group.
iv) Roles: Expected behaviour patterns
attributed to a position.
v) Status: A socially defined rank given to a
group by others.
vi) Norms: Accepted standards of behaviour
shared by group members.
 c) Organizational Inputs: Consists of following…
i) Organizational Structure: It defines how tasks
are divided, grouped and coordinated. It involves
differentiation as well as integration. Key elements
are:
 Specialization: Division of work for each member to
specialize in a particular job.
 Departmentalization: Similar jobs are grouped together
in departments.
 Chain of command: It is authority and responsibility
relationships for communication.
 Span of Control: the number of subordinates a manager
can direct.
 Decentralization: The degree to which decision making
authority is pushed down to lower levels.
 Coordination: Mechanisms are established for unity of
efforts.
 iii) Organization Culture: Culture is a set of sign,
symbols, values, beliefs, norms, attitude, perception,
rules, regulations, policy, procedures that are evenly
shared by the top level management of an
organization. It is system of shared meaning held by
the members of the organization. Key elements of
culture are:
 Risk-taking: The degree to which employees are
encouraged to be innovative and take risks.
 Aggressiveness: The degree to which employees are
aggressive and competitive rather than easy going.
 Reward System: The degree to which results are based
on performance .
 Results-Orientation: The degree to which results are
focused for effectiveness.
 People- Orientation: The degree to which people are
considered.
 Team Work: The degree to which work is organized
around teams.
 Collaboration: The degree to which employees
collaborate with each other to solve problems.
 Processing in OB system: Processing takes place at
individual, group and organizational levels.
a) Individual Processing: It is done by….
i) Perception: Giving meaning to the environment by
organizing one’s sensory impressions.
ii) Learning: Relatively permanent change in
behaviour, usually occurs as a result of information
and experience.
iii)Motivation: Creating a drive to achieve goals by
putting efforts.
iv) Decision Making: Choosing best alternative out of
two or more alternatives. Empowers employees with
job-related decision making authority.
b) Group Processing: It is done by....
i) Communication: It is the transference of
information and understanding of meaning.
There is a positive relationship between
communication and performance.
ii) Leadership: It is an ability to influence a group
toward the achievement of goals. It provides
direction toward goal achievement. Leadership
style can be autocratic, democratic and laissez-
faire.
iii) Power and Politics: Power is the capacity to
influence the beheviour of others. The bases of
power can be: coercion, reward, authority,
expertise and referent. People respond differently
to various bases of power. Politics is converting
power into action. It influences the distribution of
rewards within the organization.
iv) Conflict: It consists of all kinds of opposition or
antagonistic interaction. It begins when one party
perceives that another party has negatively
affected or is about to negatively affect something
that the first party cares about. Functional conflict
is a positive force and enhances group
performance.
v) Team Work: A team is a small group whose
members are committed to common goals.
Coordinated team efforts generate positive
synergy. Effective teams improve organizational
performance.
c) Organizational Processing: It is done by…
i) HRM: HRM policies and practices are concerned
with recruitment, selection, socialization, training,
development, performance appraisal and labour
relations. They are the important force for shaping
employee behaviour.
ii) Job design: It specifies content of job and the
methods of doing the job. It organizes tasks into a
unit of work. Considerations of behavioural
factors in job design affect employee motivation.
Such factors are: Skill variety, Autonomy, Task
Identity, Task Significance and Feedback
iii) Organizational Development: It is a system-
wide approach for managing planned change
through behavioural interventions. Such
interventions can be at individual, group and
systemic levels. It helps environmental adaptation.
 Outputs of OB System
Outputs of OB system are organizational
effectiveness in terms of:
a) Higher Productivity: Productivity is the
relationship between input and output. An
organiation is productive if it achieves its goals at
the lowest cost. Productivity implies higher
performance.
b) Job Satisfaction: it is a general attitude
attitude towards one’s job. Satisfied employees
tend to be productive. Job satisfaction is
important for organizational effectiveness.
c) Low Absenteeism: It is a failure to report to
work. It disrupts work flow. Absenteeism
adversly affects the effectiveness of organization.
d) Low Turnover: It is permanent withdrawal by
employees from the organization. Organization’s
effectiveness increases when turnover is low.
e) Organizational Citizenship: Employees perform
beyond expectations. It is not a part of an
employee’s formal job requirements. But it
promises organizational effectiveness. Good
citizenship involves:
 Positive statement about organization
 Voluntary efforts for extra job activities
 Avoiding conflicts
 Respecting rules and regulations
 Caring for organizational property
 Feedback of OB System
This component of OB system provides
information to re-design OB inputs and processing
to achieve organizational effectiveness.
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF OB
Assumptions of OB
Assumptions Assumptions
about Nature of about Nature of
People Organization
•Individual Differences •Social System

• Selective Perception •Mutuality of Interest
•A whole Person •Ethical Treatment
•Motivated Behaviour
•Desire for Involvement
•Value of the Person
 Assumptions about Nature of People
1. Individual Differences: OB assumes individual
differences. Individuals are different from each other.
People differ in terms of physique, intelligence,
personality and other traits. This is called “Law of
individual differences” in psychology. Each employee
should be treated differently for OB purpose. There is
no standard way of dealing with employees.
2. Selective Perception: Each person has a unique
way to see, organize and interpret things. His views is
filtered by perception. Employees behave on the basis of
their perception. Their behaviour is based on selective
perception of what reality is, not on actual reality.
Perceptual differences of employees are important for
OB.
3) A whole person: OB assumes a whole
person. An individual functions as a whole
person. Work life cannot be totally separated
from home life. Emotional conditions cannot
be separated from physical conditions.
4) Motivated Behaviour: OB assumes
motivated behaviour. Motivated behaviour is
caused by needs. It is directed towards goals.
OB takes an approach that leads to increased
motivation of employees.
5) Desire for Involvement: OB assumes desire
for involvement. It believes that people have
capabilities for task performance, role fulfillment,
meaningful contribution and meeting challenging
situations. They seek opportunities to get
involved in decision making.
6) Value of the Person: OB assumes value of
the person. People should not be treated as
economic tools. They should be treated with
respect and dignity. They want to be valued for
their abilities and skills. They want to be
provided opportunities to develop themselves.
Due recognition should be given to the aspiration
and skills of employees. They should be given
human dignity.
 Assumptions about Nature of Organization
1) Social Systems: OB assumes organization as
social systems. They are collection of people.
People have roles and status. Their behaviour is
influenced by group. Formal social system and
informal social system exist side by side. The
social system framework should be used for
analyzing OB issues.
2) Mutuality of Interests: OB assumes
mutuality of interests in organizations.
Organization needs people and people needs
organization. Mutual interests facilitates
integrated efforts of employee and employer to
achieve goals through mutual cooperation.
Employees should help to achieve organizational
goals. Managers should help to achieve individual
goals of employees. Both employees and managers
should jointly solve organizational problems.
3) Ethical Treatment: OB assumes ethical
treatment by organization. Ethics involves moral
issues and choices. It deals with right or wrong
behaviour. Ethical treatment of employees is
necessary for organizations to succeed. High
standards of ethical performance should be ensured.
Organization should establish codes of ethics. They
should provide ethics training to managers and
employees. Employees behaviour should be rewarded.
LEVELS OF OB ANALYSIS
 OB is concerned with the study of determinants
of behaviour at multiple levels.
 OB can be analyzed from the following levels:
 Individual Level (Micro Level)
 Group Level (Meso Level)
 Organizational Level (Macro Level)
 Individual Level:
 At individual level, we study characteristics and
thought processes of individuals.
 These include the study of motivation theory and
practice, perceptions, personalities, attitudes and
values.
 Group Level:
 At group or team, we study group or team dynamics,
decisions, power, organizational politics, conflict and
leadership.
 Organizational Level:
 At organizational level analysis, we focus on
organization structure and design, change and
development.
 Organizational level analysis also includes how it
interacts with the environmental forces.
 Without analyzing these different levels it is
difficult to understand character and
interdependence of individual and organizational
dimensions.
 All these levels are interdependent and each level
is constructed upon the previous level.
CONTRIBUTING DISCIPLINES IN
THE FIELD OF OB
 Organizational behaviour is an applied

science built on contributions from a
number of behavioural disciplines, mainly
psychology and socio psychology, sociology,
and anthropology.
 Psychology’s contribution have been mainly
at individual level or micro level of analysis,
while the other disciplines have contributed
to our understanding of macro concepts
such as group processes and organization.
CONTRIBUTING DISCIPLINES IN THE
FIELD OF OB
 Psychology:
 The science that seeks to measure, explain, and
sometimes change the behaviour of humans and other
animals.
 Most of the psychologists studied the problems of
fatigue, boredom, and other working conditions that
could impede efficient work performance.
 More recently, their contribution have explained to
include learning, perception, personality, emotions,
training, leadership effectiveness, needs and
motivational forces, job satisfaction, decision-making
processes, performance appraisal, attitude
measurement, employee-selection techniques, work
design and job stress.
FIELD OF OB
 Social Psychology:
 An area of psychology that blends concepts from
psychology and sociology and that focuses on the
influence of people on one another.
 One major area is change i.e. how to implement it
and how to reduce barriers to its acceptance.
 Social psychologists also contributed to measuring,
understanding, and changing attitudes; identifying
communication patterns; and building trust.
 Finally, important contribution is the study of group
behaviour, power, and conflict.
FIELD OF OB
 Sociology:
 The study of people in relation to their social
environment or culture.
 While psychology focuses on the individual, sociology
studies people.
 Sociologists have contributed to OB through their
study of group behaviour in organizations,
particularly formal and complex organizations.
 Perhaps most important, sociologist have studied
organizational culture, formal organization theory
and structure, organizational technology,
communications, power, and conflict.
FIELD OF OB
 Anthropology:
 The study of societies to learn about human beings
and their activities.
 Anthropologists study on cultures and environments
which has helped to understand differences in
fundamental values, attitudes, and behaviour
between people in different countries and within
different organizations.
 Much of the current understanding on organizational
culture, organizational environments, and differences
among national cultures is a result of the work of
anthropologists or those using their methods.
CHALLENGES FOR MANAGERS
 Responding to Economic Pressures
 When the US economy plunged into a deep and
prolonged recession in 2008, virtually all other
large economies around the world followed suit.
 Layoffs and job losses were widespread, and
those who survived the ax were often asked to
accept pay cuts.
 During difficult economic times operation of an
organization is often at a premium.
 Anybody can run a company when business is
booming, because the difference between good
and bad management reflects the difference
between making a lot of money and making a
lot more money.
 Managing employees well when times are tough is
just as hard as when times are good-if not more so
but OB approaches differs in both of the cases.
 In good times understanding how to reward,
satisfy, and retain employees is at a premium.
 In bad times, issues like stress, decision making,
and coping come to the fore.
 Example: Consider Enterprise Rent-A-Car. The
company prided itself on never having laid off a US
employee in its 51 year history. Even in the 2001-
2002 recession after the 9/11 terrorist attacks,
Enterprise kept hiring. In 2008-2009, however,
Enterprise was forced to lay off more than a
thousand employees.
 Responding to Globalization
 Organizations are no longer constrained by national
boundaries.
 Jaguar Land Rover and Tetley-originally British
brands-are now owned by India’s Tata Group, KFC is
offering its products in Kathmandu and McDonald’s
sells hamburgers in Delhi.
 The world has become a global village, in this
process, the mangers' job has changed i.e…
 Increased Foreign Assignments
 Working with people from different cultures
 Overseeing movement of jobs to countries with low-cost

labour.
 Managing Workforce Diversity
 The concept that organization are becoming
more heterogeneous in terms of gender, age,
race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and
inclusion of other diverse groups.
 One of the most important challenges for
organizations is adapting to people who are
different.
 Globalization focuses on difference among
people from different countries, workforce
diversity addresses differences among people
within given countries.
Workforce diversity acknowledges a
workforce of women and men; many racial
and ethnic groups; individuals with a variety
of physical or psychological abilities; and
people who differ in age and sexual
orientation.
Managing this diversity is a global concern.
Challenges are like:
 How can we leverage differences within groups for
competitive advantage?
 Should we treat all employees alike?
 Should we recognize individual and cultural
differences?
 Does diversity even matters?
 What are the legal requirements in each country?
 Improving Customer Service
 Many organization has failed because its
employees failed to please customers,
management needs to create a customer-
responsive culture.
 The Ritz Carlton Hotel Company-recognized
worldwide as the gold standard of the
hospitality industry-seeks to build strong
relationship and create customers for life. Its
customer responsive culture is reflected in its
motto (“we are ladies and gentlemen serving
ladies and gentlemen”), credo, and service
values.
 OB can provide considerable guidance in helping
managers create such cultures- in which employees are
friendly and courteous, accessible, knowledgeable,
prompt in responding to customer needs, and willing to
do what’s necessary to please the customer.
 Improving People skills
 Providing employees with right kind of training and
development programs as per the needs of employees
is a greatest challenge for managers these days.
 Trained employees must be provided with the jobs
that helps them to practice their skills in a regular
basis otherwise it creates job dissatisfaction as a
result there will be decrease in effectiveness and
efficiency.
 Stimulating Innovation and Change
 Today’s successful organization must foster
innovation and master the art of change, or they’ll
become candidates of extinction.
 In a changing environment only those organization
will become successful which maintains flexibility,
continually improve their quality, beat their
competition to the marketplace with a constant
stream of innovative products and services.
 The challenge for managers is to stimulate their
employees creativity and tolerance for change.
 The field of OB provides a wealth of ideas and
techniques to aid in realizing these goals.
 Example: Amazon.com is putting a lot of

independent bookstores out of business as it
proves that any body can successfully sell books
(and most anything else) from a Web site. After
years of lackluster performance, Boeing realized it
needed to change the existing business model. The
result was its 787 Dreamliner and a return to
being the world’s largest airplane manufacturer.
 Coping with “Temporariess”
 Globalization, expanded capacity, and advances in
technology have required organizations to be fast and
flexible if they are to survive.
 The results is that most managers and employees
today work in a climate best characterized as
“temporary.”
 Workers must continually update their knowledge
and skills to perform new job requirements.
 Production employees at companies such as
Sundaram Motors, Titan, and Lupin now neeed to
operate computerized production equipment. That
was not part of their job description some 20 years
back.
 In past, employees were assigned to a specific
work group, gaining a considerable amount of
security working with the same people day in and
day out. That predictability has been replaced by
temporary work groups, with members from
different departments, and the increased use of
employee rotation to fill constantly changing
work assignments.
 Today’s managers and employees must learn to
cope with temporariness, flexibility, spontaneity,
and unpredictability.
 The study of OB can help you better understand
a work world of continual change, overcome
resistance to change, and create an
organizational culture that thrives on change.
 Working in Networked Organizations
 Software programmers, graphic designers,
systems analysts, technical writers, photo
researchers, book and media editors, and
medical transcribers are just a few examples of
people who can work from home or other
nonofficial locations.
 Networked organizations allow people to
communicate and work together even though
they may be thousands mile apart.
 The manager’s job is different in a networked
organization. Motivating and leading people and
making collaborative decisions online requires
different techniques than when individuals are
physically present in a single location.
 Helping Employees Balance Work-Life Conflicts
 Employees are increasingly complaining that the line
between work and network time has become blurred,
creating personal conflicts and stress. At the same
time, today’s workplace presents opportunities for
workers to create and structure their own roles.
 The creation of global organization means the world
never sleeps, at any time on any day thousands of
employees are working somewhere.
 The need to consult with colleagues or customers
eight or ten time zones away means many employees
of global firms are “on call 24 hours a day.”
 Communication technology allows many technical
and professional employees to do work from
anywhere i.e…..
 …..It means many feel like they never really get
away from the office.
 Organizations are asking employees to put in longer
hours at work.
 The rise of dual career couple makes it difficult for
married employees to find time to fulfill
commitments at home, spouse, children, parents,
and friends.
 Millions of single parent households and employees
with dependent parents have even more significant
challenges in balancing work and family
responsibilities.
 OB therefore should be providing number of
suggestions to guide managers in designing
workplaces and jobs that can help employees deal
with work-life balance.
 Creating a Positive Work Environment
 Although competitive pressures on most
organizations are stronger than ever, some
organizations are trying to realize a
competitive advantage by fostering a positive
work environment.
 In response to increasing alienation of
knowledge workers from their work in the IT
sector, companies have been planning avenues
for their employees to donate some of their
time and talent to work on issues they are
interested in.
 Improving Ethical Behaviour
 In an organizational world characterized by
cutbacks, expectations of increasing productivity,
and tough competition, it’s not surprising many
employees feel pressured to cut corners, break
rules, and engage in other questionable practices.
 Increasingly they face ethical dilemmas and ethical
choices in which they are required to identify right
and wrong conduct.
 What constitutes good ethical behaviour has never
been clearly defined, and , in recent years, the line
differentiating right from wrong has blurred.
 Executives are involved in taking bribes inflating
profits so they can cash in on lucrative stock
options.
 Determining the ethically correct way to

behave is especially difficult in a global
economy because different cultures have
different perspectives on certain ethically
issues.
 Today’s managers must create ethically
healthy climate for his/her employees where
they can do their work productively with
minimal ambiguity about what right and
wrong behaviors are.
UNIT II
UNDERSTANDING INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR
CONCEPT ON INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR
 Soon after the birth a person is affected by his
environment. The inherited characteristics are
modified by learning experiences to produce a
complete personality.
 Heredity and environment are so closely linked
that it is impossible to isolate the affect of any
one in developing and moulding of individual.
 The inherited mental characteristics are modified
by learning experiences to produce a complete
personality.
 Human behaviour being the most complex
phenomenon, is the most difficult to assess in
quantifiable terms.
 B = f(P,E)
 A number of researches have been undertaken on
individual behaviour and assumptions have been
made such as:
 Behaviour of an individual is determined by a
combination of forces in the individual and forces in
the environment.
 Every individual makes decisions on how to do
regular work at office differently.
 Different individuals have different levels and types
of needs, desires and goals.
 Individuals at work make decisions based on their
perceptions (expectancies) of the degree to which a
given behaviour will lead to desired outcomes.
 The term individual differences refers to
the fact that people vary in many ways.
(Helliriegel, Slocum, Woodman and Burning, 1998)
 Individual differences are personal
attributes that vary from one person to
another
(Moorhead, Griffin, Irving and Coleman, 2000)
BEHAVIOUR AS AN INPUT-OUTPUT
SYSTEM
 Human behaviour is considered as a system
consisting of input-process and output.
 It is evident that without a stimulus, there is
no output, i.e. in the absence of a stimulus,
there is no information which can be handled
by the internal process to cause behaviour to
take place.
 There are mainly two view points to see
human behaviour as a system and are listed
below:
 Traditional Viewpoint
 Behavioural Viewpoint
SYSTEM
1. Traditional Viewpoint:
S-R model holds the view that stimulus leads to
response as input leads to output in machine.
Later on, it has been modified by injecting
organism (O) in between S and R.
This second view tells that with the same
stimulus, the responses are different because
organism is active, not passive. This ‘O’ is affected
by a person’s values, attitudes, needs and
expectations (VANE).
SYSTEM
Traditional Viewpoint Behavioural Viewpoint
a. Stimulus Response (S-R) Stimulus Organism Behaviour
b. Stimulus-Organism-Response (S O R)
(S-O-R)
a. Stimulus: An event that produces responses or that results in

sensory experience.
b. Organism: Living being with parts which work together, any
system with parts dependent upon each other.
c. Response: Act in answer to (or because of) the action of another
(or input).
d. Behaviour: Anything a person or an animal does that can be
observed in some way.
SYSTEM
2. Behavioural Viewpoint:
This view point is much more comprehensive and
realistic than traditional viewpoint. This model
represents a causal sequence between S-O-B.
Three components of the viewpoint are discussed
below:
 Situation: As against to traditional model, ‘S’ stands
for situation in behavioural model. Situation includes
all environmental aspects: immediate stimulus
(Overt and Covert) and environment (i.e. physical,
socio-cultural and technological environment). This
situation influences organism and also affected by it.
SYSTEM
 Organism (O): This aspect is highly complex in nature and
plays a very important role. It includes four sub-functions:
physiological(heredity), nervous system, five sense organs and
muscles; cognitive processes(thinking, reasoning, problem
solving, decision-making, perception, conceptualization,
judgment, and creativity); psychological processes (motivation
and learning) and personality.
 Behaviour (B): behaviours are responses which come in form
of overt and covert and ultimately individuals show a pattern
of behaviour. There exists a two-way interaction between ‘S’
and ‘O’ and between ‘O’ and ‘B’. Thus, there is an interactive
relationship between the variables.
SYSTEM
Situation Organism Behaviour
(S) (O) (B)
•
•Physical
(heredity,
•Immediate
nervous system,
Stimulus (overt • Responses
sense organs
and covert) (Overt and
and muscles)
•Environment Covert)
•Cognitive
(physical, socio- • Patterns of
Processes
cultural and behaviour
• Physiological
technological)
Processes
(motivation and
learning)
• Personality
SYSTEM
 An Alternative View-Point
the view point is similar to behavioural model. It
was presented by kolasa. In this model, he has
described human behaviour in the form of inputs,
process and outputs.
Input Process Outcomes
(Situation) (organism) (Behavior)
• Environmental
• Covert responses
Stimuli • Selecting
(attitudes,
• feeling Information
motivation and
•Hearning • Organizing
feelings)
•Seeing • Interpreting
• Overt responses
•Smelling information
(behaviour)
•Tasting
MENTAL PROCESS
 A person’s behaviour is affected by mental
process or process of his/her thinking.
 In simple words, mental process is the
performance of some composite cognitive activity,
an operation that affects mental contents; the
process of thinking and cognitive operation of
remembering.
 Contents to be studied under mental process are
listed below:
 Beliefs,
 Attitudes,
 Values,
 Needs,
 Motives and behavior,
 Sensation, Emotions and Cognitive dissonance.
MENTAL PROCESS
 Beliefs:
 Beliefs are cognitions, or thoughts, about the
characteristics of objects.
 Attitudes are a result of beliefs.
 Belief is termed as an enduring (long-lasting)
organization of perceptions and cognitions about
some aspect of the individual world.
 It is a pattern of meanings of a thing and the totality
of the individual’s cognition about the things.
 Belief is significant because of the following reasons:
 Beliefs provide continuity to the personality of an
individual.
 Beliefs assign meanings to an individual’s day-to day
perceptions and activities and serve in his attempted
solutions of varied goals.
MENTAL PROCESS
 Belief Formation: There are three processes
that play an important role and are:
 Past Experiences: People come to believe, or not
believe, things on the basis of what they have seen
happened or have experienced in the past. For e.g. if
everyone who has held ‘Job A’ has been promoted
within six months, current ‘Job A’ holders are likely to
believe that they also will be promoted within six
months.
 Available Information: If employees hear from the
personnel(HR) department that Job A holders are
going to be promoted rapidly, this will influence what
they believe.
 Generalizations: These come from similar events or
situations. If no one who has held closely related job
B has ever been promoted, this may lead Job A
holders to believe that they will not promoted either.
MENTAL PROCESS
 Attitudes:
 In the quotation of Shakespeare “one might smile
and smile and yet be a villain.”
 Attitudes are evaluative statements or judgments
concerning objects, people or events.
 Attitudes are learned predispositions toward aspects
of our environment. They can be positively or
negatively directed towards certain people, services
or institutions.
 Attitudes are relatively lasting feelings, beliefs, and
behavioural tendencies directed toward specific
people, group, ideas, issues, or objects.
 An individual’s background and experiences are
reflected through attitudes.
 Parents, friends, and members of social work groups
strongly influence attitude formation.
MENTAL PROCESS
 Salient Features of Attitudes:
 Attitude can be favourable or unfavourable.
 Unlike values, attitudes are less stable.
 It is a mental state of readiness to be motivated. It is
nether behaviour nor a cause of behaviour. It is an
intervening pre-disposition.
 Attitudes can also vary in relation to the needs they
serve.
 People at workplace have attitudes about lots of
topics that are related to them.
 Components of Attitudes:
 Affective: the feelings, sentiments, moods and
emotions about some person, idea, event, or object.
 Cognitive: the beliefs, opinions, knowledge, or
information held by the individual.
MENTAL PROCESS
 Behavioural: predisposition to act on a favourable or

unfavourble evaluation of something.
 Types of Job Related Attitudes:
 Job Satisfaction: Job satisfaction refers to an
individual’s favourable or positive emotional state
toward his or her job. It expresses the amount of
agreement between one’s expectations of the job and
the rewards that the job provides. It is related with
the five specific dimensions of the job namely pay, the
work itself, promotion opportunities, supervision, and
co-workers. A high level of job satisfaction score
indicates a positive attitude towards the job and vice
versa.
MENTAL PROCESS
 Job Involvement: It is the degree to which a person
identifies with his or her job, actively participates in
it and considers his or her performance importance to
self-worth. If employees are highly involved with
their job the chances for absenteeism and turnover
will be low.
 Organizational Commitment: It indicates an
employee’s attitude towards loyalty to their working
organization. It reflects an individual’s identification
with and attachment to the organization. Highly
loyal employees want to maintain membership in the
organization. A high level of organizational
commitment of employee produces low level of
absenteeism and turnover.
MENTAL PROCESS
 Attitude Formation:
 Experience: One important source of attitude
formation is job experience. They develop it regarding
factors like salary, performance appraisal and so
many other factors.
 Association (Relationship): Person’s relationship with
different working group also exerts impact on his
attitude formation. Our attitudes are influenced by
age, race, sex, income-class, region, religion,
educational background and other types of groups
that we interact.
 Family: Initial core/common part of attitudes is
largely shaped by family-mainly mother and father.
MENTAL PROCESS
 Peer Groups: Friends circle, colleagues at work place

largely influences the attitude of an individual.
 Society: Social class and religious affiliation also play
a vital role in forming attitudes of an individual. The
culture, language, and the structure of the society, all
provide an individual with the boundaries of his
initial attitudes.
 Personality Factors: Formation of attitudes are also
subjected upon differences in personality among
individuals.
MENTAL PROCESS
 Values:
 Values generally identify a person’s ethical/moral
structure on which the concept of good or bad and
right or wrong is based.
 Value is a framework of personal philosophy which
governs and influences the individual’s reactions and
responses to any situations.
 When behaviour occurs, it is likely to be in line with
the values one holds.
 Some of the important aspects of values are:
 They contain a judgmental element (i.e. an individual
ideas as to what is good, right or desirable-they
contain moral flavour).
MENTAL PROCESS
 They are one of the sources of individual differences

and affect individual behaviour.
 All of us have a value system i.e., a set of values.
 They can be determined by assessing the relative
significance assigned by an individual to various
objects.
 Some of the values are highly stable and enduring
and vice-versa.
 They are basically learned. But some portion is
genetically determined.
MENTAL PROCESS
 Types of Values:
 Milton Rokeach, a pioneer in studying human values,
conducted a research survey on human values. On
the basis of his research findings, he identified two
basic types of values and are as follows:
 Terminal Values: Terminal values represent the
desirable end-states of existence; the goals an
individual would like to achieve during his/her life
time. Rokeach identified 18 terminal values.
 Instrumental Values: Instrumental values reflect the
way to achieving goals. In other words, these
represent preferable modes of behaviour or means of
achieving one’s terminal values. Rokeach identified
another set of 18 instrumental values.
MENTAL PROCESS
 Both terminal and instrumental values work

together to provide individuals with goals to
strive for and acceptable ways to achieve the
goals. A complete list of Rokeach’s terminal and
instrumental values is presented below:
 Terminal Values: World Peace, Happiness,
Equality, Achievement, Inner Peace, Beauty in
nature, Family Security, Self Respect, Salvation,
Friendship, Mature Love, Pleasure, Freedom,
Wisdom, Prosperity, National Security, Social
Respect, Exciting Life.
 Instrumental values: Honesty, Forgiving nature
MENTAL PROCESS
 …..Instrumental Values: Helpfulness, Independence,

Obedience, Ambition, Open-mindness, Cleanliness,
Affection and love, politeness, Rationality,
Responsibility, Courage, Competence, Cheerfulness,
Intelligence, Imagination.
MENTAL PROCESS
 Needs:
 Need is a deficiency.
 A need may be defined as a condition requiring

the supply of relief, the lack of anything
requisite, desired or useful.
 A need is a lack or deficit of something within the
system or organism.
 An unsatisfied need creates tension that
stimulates drives within the individual. These
drives generates search behavior to find
particular goals that, if attained, will satisfy the
need and lead to the reduction of tension.
MENTAL PROCESS
 For example, a need exists when cells in the body
are deprived of food and water or when the
personality is deprived of other people who serve
as friends or companions.
 Types of Human Needs:
 Primary Needs: They are the things that people
require to sustain themselves such as food, water, and
shelter. Needs of this type are instinctive (natural) and
physiologically based.
 Secondary Needs: They are the requirements based
more in psychology and are learned from the
environment and culture in which the person lives.
Examples include the needs for achievement,
autonomy, power, order, affiliation and understanding.
MENTAL PROCESS
 Motives and Behaviour:

 A motive is a factor that determines a person’s
choice of one course of behaviour from among
several possibilities.
 Motives are derived from needs.
 In short, with a few exceptions, drives or motives

(the two terms often used interchangeably) are
set up to alleviate needs.
 A drive can be simply defined as a deficiency with
direction.
 Drives are action-oriented and provide an
emerging thrust toward goal accomplishment.
MENTAL PROCESS
 The examples of the needs for food and water are

translated into the hunger and thrust drives, and
need for friends become a drive for affiliation.
 Types or Classification of Motives:
 Primary Motives: Two criteria must be met in order
for a motive to be included in the primary
classification. It must be unlearned, and must be
physiologically based. The most commonly recognized
primary motives include hunger, thirst, sleep,
maternal concern etc.
 General Motives: To be included in this category, a
motive must be unlearned but not physiologically
based. Some of the examples of them are: curiosity,
manipulation, love or affection drive etc.
MENTAL PROCESS
 Secondary Motives:
 Whereas the general drives seem relatively
more important than the primary ones to the
study of human behaviour in organizations, the
secondary drives are unquestionably the most
important.
 They are closely tied to the learning concepts.
 A motive must be learned in order to be included
in the secondary classification.
 Some of the more important ones are power,
achievement, and affiliation.
 Security and status are also important
secondary motives.
MENTAL PROCESS
 Behaviour:
 A human resource manager hires an employee,
trains and develops them now he needs to
understand their behaviour.
 Employees willingness to work is based largely
on a management's ability to integrate the
interest and needs of its employees with the
objectives of the enterprise.
 Human behaviour is caused, motivated and goal
directed.
 If employees’ needs, feelings and expectations are
not satisfied, they may show problematic
behaviour towards organization.
MENTAL PROCESS
 To get the job done through proper employee
behaviour, the management should answer the
following questions:
 Why do people behave in a particular way?
 What satisfies my people?
 Shall I know their needs, motives or drives? Is there
relationship between needs motives and behaviour?
And the like.
 Relationship between Needs, Motives and
Behaviour:
Unsatisfi Drives Search Satisfied Reduction

ed Needs
Tension (Motives) behaviour of tension
need
MENTAL PROCESS
 Sensation: Sensation is defined as the process in
which a sensory receptor is stimulated, producing
nerve impulses that travel to the brain, which in turn
interprets such impulses as a visual image, a sound,
taste, odor, touch, or pain. The physical stimulus
present in the environment emits energy that is
absorbed by a sensory organ (known as transduction),
causing sensation.
 Emotions: Emotions are intense feelings that are
directed at someone or something. There are dozens of
emotions including anger, contempt, enthusiasm, envy,
fear, frustration, disappointment, embarrassment,
disgust, happiness, hate, hope jealousy, joy, love, pride,
surprise, and sadness.
MENTAL PROCESS
 Cognitive Dissonance: Cognitive dissonance is
defined as any incompatibility between two or
more attitudes or between behaviour and
attitudes. Any form of inconsistency is
uncomfortable and that individuals will therefore
attempt to reduce it. They will seek a stable
state, which is a minimum of dissonance.
UNIT III
PERCEPTION
CONCEPT OF PERCEPTION
A process by which individulas organize and
interpret their sensory impressions in order to
give meaning to their environment.
 However, what we perceive can be
substantially different from objective reality.
 It is essentially a psychological process.
 Perception is the process of obtaining
knowledge of external objects and events by
means of senses.
 It is regarded as sensation plus meaning.
 For example, all employees in a firm may view it is a great
place to work-favorable working conditions, interesting job
assignments, good pay, excellent benefits, understanding and
responsible management-but, as most of us know, it’s very
unusual to find such agreement.
FACTORS AFFECTING PERCEPTION
1. Factors in the perceiver: These factors are

inside a person. Among the internal factors, the
most important are:
a) Attitudes: Suppose, a teacher who has negative
attitudes towards Nepali(language) speaking and
students sitting on last bench would neglect even
the genuine questions raised by them.
b) Motives: It plays an important role in determining
what a person perceives. A person’s most urgent
needs and desires at any given time can influence
perception.
c) Interests: We perceive those things quickly for
which we have a deep interest. For e.g. an imperfect
faced person will be perceived quickly by a plastic
surgeon as compared to dentist.
d) Experience: Successful experiences enhance and boost
up the perceptive ability and lead to accuracy in
perception and vice versa.
e) Expectations: People see what they expect to see. In
the above example, teacher would notice rough
behavior of a student on last bench as compared to
the first benchers.
2. Factors in the Target: They are the factors which
are within the things to be perceived. Important
ones are:
a) Novelty: Completely new objects are easily perceived.
b) Motion: Speed of the object influences perception.
c) Sounds: Intensity of sound influences perception.
d) Size: Size of an object influences perception.
d) Proximity(nearness): The things that are proximate

to time or physical settings are perceived easily and
quickly.
e) Similarity: If the things are similar to us, we
perceive it easily and quickly. For example, BBM
students studying leadership in OB during 5th
semester perceives the topic studied in PM during
1st semester.
f) Background: It states the relationship of a target to
its background influences perception i.e. perceived
objects stand out as separable from their general
background.
FIGURE GROUND ILLUSTRATION:
 The "faces or vases" illustration is one of the most frequent
demonstrations of figure-ground. What you see depends on
whether you see the white as the figure or the black as the
figure.
 If you see the white as the figure, then you perceive a vase.
If you see the black as the figure, then you see two faces in
profile. Most people are able to reverse their perceptions
and switch back and forth between the vase and faces
images.
3. Factors in the Situation:
a) Time: It also affects perception. Students who read
OB book early in the morning understand (perceive)
easily and quickly. They perceive OB book quickly
in a book store at the time of examination.
b) Work Setting: Suppose, if the OB class is small and
peaceful, the students perceive the subject easily
and quickly and vice versa.
c) Social setting: It also affects perception. For
example, a lady student wearing miniskirt in a
disco will not be perceived but the same lady with
miniskirt in OB class at LBC will be perceived
quickly.
PERCEPTUAL PROCESS
PERCEPTUAL PROCESS
PERCEPTUAL PROCESS
 External Stimuli: External stimuli or situation

refers to the environmental force that are
continuously bombarding our five senses-feeling,
hearing, seeing, smelling and tasting. Examples
are lights, waves, sounds, management style,
values etc. that constantly interact with our
internal stimuli and then result in feeling
hungry, over-functioning of salivary glands,
tension in muscle and other bio-chemical
processes in our body.
PERCEPTUAL PROCESS
 Selective Attention: It is not possible for an

individual to give attention to a large volume of
information and thus he or she just goes for
selective attention or selective perception for the
information that is supportive and satisfying for
him or her. This is called the process of filtering
information (selecting and screening out) that is
received by our five senses.
PERCEPTUAL PROCESS
 Perceptual Organization and Interpretation:

Comprise the process by which people group
environmental stimuli into recognizable patterns.
Most of the information the perceiver acquires
about others-whether obtained from observation of
behaviour or through any other means can be
interpreted in various ways. The perceiver
attempts to interpret the information in order to
give it a certain meaning. For the purpose of
perceptual organization and interpretation an
individual makes perceptual grouping of
information based on three basic principles i.e
closure, identifying trends and proximity.
PERCEPTUAL PROCESS
 Emotions and Behaviour: Either overt or

covert response is generated or individuals may
have intense feelings towards someone or
something.
ATTRIBUTION THEORY
 Nonliving objects such as desks, machines, and
buildings are subject to the laws of nature, but
they have no beliefs, motives, or intentions.
People do.
 That’s why when we observe people we attempt
to explain why they behave in certain ways.
 Our perception and judgment of a person’s
actions, therefore will be significantly influenced
by the assumptions we make about that person’s
internal state.
 Attribution theory is an attempt to determine
whether an individual’s behaviour is internally
or externally caused.
ATTRIBUTION THEORY
 Attribution theory suggests that when we

observe an individual’s behaviour, we attempt to
determine whether it is internally caused or
externally caused.
 The determination largely depends on three
factors:
i. Distinctiveness
ii. Consensus
iii. Consistency
 Let’s be clear on internal and external
causation first.
ATTRIBUTION THEORY
 Internally caused behaviours are those we

believe to be under the personal control of the
individual.
 Externally caused behaviour is what we imagine
the situation forced the individual to do.
 For e.g. if one of your employee is late for work,
you might attribute that to his partying into the
wee hours and then oversleeping. This is an
internal attribution. But if you attribute lateness
to an automobile accident that tied up traffic, you
are making an external attribution.
 Let’s discuss on three determining factors.
ATTRIBUTION THEORY
 Distinctiveness refers to whether an individual
displays different behaviours in different situations.
For e.g. Is the employee who arrives late today also one
who regularly blows off commitments? What we want
to know is whether this behaviour is unusual. If it is,
we are likely to give it an external attribution. If it’s
not, we will probably judge the behaviour to be
internal.
 Consensus refers that if everyone who faces a similar
situation responds in the same way. For e.g. the
behaviour of our tardy employee meets this criterion if
all employees who took the same route were also late.
From an attribution perspective, if consensus is high,
you would probably give an external attribution
ATTRIBUTION THEORY
 ..to the employee’s tardiness, whereas if other

employees who took the same route made it to
work on time, you would attribute his lateness to
an internal cause.
 Consistency refers whether person responds the
same way over time i.e. consistency in a person’s
actions. For e.g. coming in 10 minutes late for
work is not perceived in the same way for an
employee who hasn’t been late for several months
as it is for an employee who is late two or three
times a week. The more consistent the behaviour,
the more we are inclined to attribute it to internal
causes.
ATTRIBUTION THEORY
 Below figure summarizes the key elements in

attribution theory.
ATTRIBUTION THEORY
 One of the most interesting findings from

attribution theory research is that errors or
biases distort attributions. When we make
judgments about the behaviour of other people,
we tend to underestimate the influence of
external factors and overestimate the influence of
internal or personal factors.
 Types of Attribution Errors:
i. Fundamental Attribution Error: The tendency
to underestimate the influence of external factors
and overestimate the influence of internal factors
when making judgments about the behaviours of
others.
ATTRIBUTION THEORY
ii. Self-serving Bias: The tendency for individuals to
attribute their own successes to internal factors
and put the blame for failures on external factors.
SPECIFIC APPLICATION OF PERCEPTION
IN AN ORGANIZATION
 Employment Interview
 Performance Expectations
 Performance Evaluation
 Employee Effort
 Employee Loyalty
PERCEPTUAL ERRORS
(FREQUENTLY USED SHORTCUTS IN JUDGING OTHERS)
 Selective Perception: The tendency to

selectively interpret what one sees on the basis of
one’s interests, background, experience and
attitudes.
 Halo Effect: The tendency to draw a general
impression about an individual on the basis of a
single characteristics.
 Contrast Effect: Evaluation of a person’s
characteristics that is affected by comparisons
with other people recently encountered who rank
higher or lower on the same characteristics.
 Stereotyping: Judging someone on the basis of
one’s perception of the group to which the person
belongs.
PERCEPTUAL ERRORS
(FREQUENTLY USED SHORTCUTS IN JUDGING OTHERS)
 Projection: Projection refers to the tendency of the

people to see their own traits in other people. It
means that, when people make judgments about
others, they project their own characteristics into
others. As the saying goes, to a an honest man,
every body is honest and vice versa.
 Impression: There is a popular saying that the first
impression is the last impression. We frequently form
impression of others on the first sight. Even before
knowing any of their personality traits they start
having impressions and perceive thereby. This
sometimes leads to perceptual distortions.
 E.g.: First bencher: Disciplined and intelligent, Last
benchers: undisciplined and weak.
UNIT IV
LEARNING
CONCEPT OF LEARNING
 Learning is any relatively permanent change in
behaviour that occurs as a result of experience.
 Learning can be defined as relatively permanent
change in behaviour potentially that results from
reinforced practice or experience.
 Learning is the modification of behviour through
experience and training.
 Learning leads to new or changed responses.
 Learning is a process of progressive behaviour

adaptation.
 Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge
and attitudes. It involves new ways of doing
things and it operates in an individual’s attempts
to adjust to new situations.
FACTORS INFLUENCING LEARNING
 Physiological: These factors include those aspects
that are not in the control of the individual.
Physiological limitations, make-up, genetic make-up
are some of the aspects of physiological factors.
Intelligence, age, health, sex, fatigue are some of the
physiological factors. The effect of drug can also be
included in this category.
 Social factors: Social factor hinder or encourage
the learning processes. Many behaviours that are
not accepted in the social and culturally taboos
inhibit learning while those behaviour cherished in
the society encourages learning process. Social
factors include social need, incentive, reward and
punishment, competition, social encouragement,
imitation, suggestion, cooperation etc.
 Environmental factors: The natural
environmental factors that include intensity and
duration of light, temperature, noise and presence
of other stimuli facilitate or hinder learning
processes. Extreme temperature or excessive light
hinders learning process. loud or varied noise
distracts the learning process. Similarly, complete
silence also distracts learning.
 Nature of Learning material: What is to be
learned or the learning material also influences the
process of learning. Verbal material to the illiterate
or semi-literate is difficult to learn as compared to
educated people. Similarly, non-verbal materials,
meaningful or non-meaningful materials influence
the learning process.
 Process of learning: How one learns the task is
also important to influence the process of
learning. Whether one learns full or part,
whether one takes rest during learning or not, to
what extent one practices, whether the learning
is incidental or accidental are the processes of
learning. These processes determine how much
or in depth one learns and remembers.
 Person or ‘O’ factors: These factors re
intimately related with the individual and his/her
psychological and physiological state. Mental
state is a psychological factor. Interest, mood,
level of perception, need to learn, ability and
skills etc. are personal factors that can influence
his/her learning process.
PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
 Motivation: The concept of motivation is basic
because, without motivation learning does not
take place or, at least, is not discernible.
Motivation may be seen at different levels of
complexity of a situation. A thirsty rat will learn
the path through a maze to a dish of water; it is
not likely to do so well, or even move purposefully
at all, if it is satisfied. On a broader level, a
college student must have the need and drive to
accomplish a task and reach a specific goal.
 Knowledge of Results: It is generally conceded
that knowledge regarding one’s own performance
is a necessary condition for learning. Feedback
about the performance will enable the learner to
 Know where he stands and to initiate corrective

action if any deviation from the expected goal has
been taken place. There are some tasks for which
such feedback is virtually mandatory for
learning. A crane operator, for example, would
have trouble learning to manipulate the controls
without knowing how the crane responded to
control actions.
 Reinforcement: Reinforcement is the single
most important principle of learning.
Reinforcement may be understood as anything
that both increases the strength of response and
tends to induce repetitions of the behaviour that
preceded the reinforcement. It is the
consequences off behaviour.
 There are four basic forms of reinforcement in
organizations: positive reinforcement, avoidance,
extinction, and punishment.
 Positive Reinforcement: If an employee does
something well and is complimented for it by the
boss, the probability that the employee shall
repeat the behaviour will strengthen.
 Avoidance: A manager may habitually criticize
individuals who dress casually. To avoid criticism,
the employees may dress to suit the manager’s
tastes. The employees are engaging in desirable
behaviour to avoid an unpleasant consequence.
 Extinction: Whereas positive reinforcement and
avoidance increase the frequency of desirable
behaviour, extinction decreases the frequency of
undesirable behaviour, especially behaviour that was
previously rewarded. In other words, if rewards are
withdrawn for behaviours that were previously
reinforced, the behaviour probably will become less
frequent and eventually die out.
 Punishment: Punishment, like extinction, also tends to
decrease the frequency of undesirable behaviour.
Punishment is presented as an unpleasant, or aversive,
consequence of undesirable behaviour. In the
workplace, undesirable behaviour might include being
late, stealing and the like. Examples of punishment
include verbal or written reprimands, pay cuts, layoffs,
and termination.
 Schedules of learning: Distributed or spaced
practice is superior to continuous or massed
practice. Schedules of learning can manipulated
in three different ways: (i) duration of practice
sessions, (ii) duration of rest sessions, and (iii)
positioning of rest sessions. Evidence seems to
support the motion of short practice periods and
moderate rest periods. Of course exact definitions
of the terms short and moderate need to be
established empirically for each individual task,
as does the optimal positioning of rest periods.
However, it is usually much more effective to
have short frequent rest periods than to have
only one or two long rest periods and one or two
long practice periods.
 Whole Versus Part Learning: A great deal of
work has been done in the psychology of learning
to decide whether learning a whole job is superior
to breaking the job into parts and learning the
parts. In parts learning, the individual is not only
required to learn each individual part but must be
able to combine the separate parts so that the
whole performance can be accomplished.
 Meaningfulness of Material: A definite
relationship has been established between
learning and meaningfulness of the subject learnt.
More meaningful the material, better does
learning proceed. Acquisition of nonsense syllables
proceeds more slowly than that of prose or poetry.
 Learning Curves: A highly used learning
concept, which is valid for a wide range of
situations, is the learning curve, a diagrammatic
presentation of the amount learned in relation to
time. A typical learning curve will show on the Y-
axis the amount learnt and on the x-axis the
passage of time. Certain characteristics are
common to all learning curves. One such feature
is the initial spurt. At the beginning, it is natural
that the rate of learning exhibits a spurt. Another
feature of the curve is the learning plateau. At
some point in the learning process there is a
flattening off in terms of the improvement, a
plateau.
 Jumping from one plateau to another is called
organization of learning. Organization of learning is
achieved when the learner discovers a new and more
effective method of performing particular tasks. For
example, in mathematics the student learns to apply
the calculus to solve problems of business.
Disorganization of learning is an actual fall off in
performance. This arises when the subject has to choose
between alternative methods of tackling a task. The
last characteristics of the learning curve is the end
spurt. The end spurt is preceded by fatigue which is
likely to set in with the passage of time. When the
training session draws nearer to an end, and the
subject realizes this, there occurs resurgence of interest
and effort to learn more. This revival is called the end
spurt.
 Learning Curve in figure:

LEARNING THEORIES
 Classical Conditioning
 Operant Conditioning
 Cognitive Theory of Learning
 Social Learning Theory

LEARNING THEORIES
 Classical Conditioning:
 When we think of the classical conditioning, the first
name that comes to our mind is that of Ivan Pavlov, the
Russian psychologist who won the Nobel Prize for his
early experiments on the subject.
 Pavlov conducted an experiment on a dog and tried to
relate the dog’s salivation and the ringing of a bell.
 When Pavlov presented the dog with a piece of meat,
the dog exhibited a noticeable increase in salivation.
 When he withheld the presentation of meat and merely
rang a bell, the dog has no salivation.
 Then Pavlov proceeded to link the meat and the
ringing of the bell.
 After repeatedly hearing the bell before getting the
food, the dog began to salivate as soon as the bell rang.
LEARNING THEORIES
 After a while, the dog would salivate merely at
the sound of the bell, even if no food was
offered. In effect, the dog has learnt to respond
(salivate) to the bell.
 From the brief description given above, certain
key concepts of classical conditioning can now
be introduced.
 Salivation in response to food is a natural
unlearned response-in-short, a reflex. This
response was called the unconditioned reflex.
The food, because it elicited the unconditioned
reflex automatically, was called the
unconditioned stimulus.
LEARNING THEORIES
 When Pavlov’s repeated presentation of the
bell followed by food led the dog to salivate in
response to the bell alone, this salivation was
designed as conditioned reflex, which
emphasized that arousal of the reflex was
dependent upon a stimulus other than the
natural one.
 Similarly, Pavlov referred to the bell,
previously a neutral stimulus, as the
conditional stimulus. Thus, the concepts
central to classical conditioning are
unconditioned stimulus(US), unconditioned
response (UR), conditioned stimulus (CS), and
conditioned response(CR).
LEARNING THEORIES
 The relationship among these components of classical

conditioning is shown below. The essential feature of this
process is that a previously neutral stimulus acquires the
capacity to elicit a certain response, which is then called a
conditioned response.
Before Conditioning
CS(BELL) No Response
During Conditioning
CS(BELL) After Conditioning
CS(BELL) CR(Salivation)
US(FOOD) UR(Salivation)
LEARNING THEORIES
 In an organizational setting we can see classical

conditioning operating.
 For example, at one manufacturing plant, every
time the top executives from the head office would
make a visit, the plant management would clean
up the administrative offices and wash the
windows. This went on for years. Eventually,
employees would turn on their behaviour and look
prim and proper whenever the windows were
cleaned even in those occasions when the cleaning
was not paired with the visit from the top brass.
People had learnt to associate the cleaning of thee
windows with the visit from the head office.
LEARNING THEORIES
 Operant Conditioning:
 Operant conditioning argues that behaviour is
a function of its consequences.
 Behaviour is likely to be repeated if the
consequences are favourable.
 Behaviour is not likely to be repeated if the
consequences are unfavourable. Thus, the
relationship between behaviour and
consequences is the essence of operant
conditioning.
 The term operant indicates that the organism
operates on its environment to generate
consequences.
LEARNING THEORIES
 The relationship between consequence
and response summarizes quite
concisely a basic learning process that
occurs over time, in which a person
changes his behaviour based on his past
experiences.
 One of the fathers of operant
conditioning is B.F. Skinner, a Harvard
psychologist. What Pavlov did for
classical conditioning, Skinner did for
operant conditioning.
LEARNING THEORIES
 One can see illustrations of operant conditioning
in organizations. For example, the boss assures
his subordinates that he would be suitably
compensated in the next performance appraisal,
provided the employee works overtime. However,
when the evaluation time comes, the boss does not
fulfill his assurance to his subordinate, though
the latter did attend to overtime work. Next time,
the subordinates coolly declines to work overtime
when the boss requests them to do so. The
behaviour of the employee is explained by operant
conditioning. If the behaviour fails to be positively
reinforced, the probability that the behaviour will
be repeated declines.
LEARNING THEORIES
 Similarly, if a worker in a factory works hard, the
manager rewards the worker for his hard work.
The worker repeats his hard work with the
renewed enthusiasm.
 Operant conditioning is seen everywhere like,
turning your key in a lock, writing a letter, calling
parents on the telephone, saying “I Love You” to
your wife-all of these are operant acts, operant in
the sense that we do them in anticipation of
reward which acts as a reinforcer for the
commission of these behaviours. Operant
conditioning techniques are used in clinical and
educational research, control of alcoholism and
control of deviant children in the class-room.
LEARNING THEORIES
 Differences between Classical Conditioning
and Operant Conditioning:
Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
1. Responses are elicited from a Responses are emitted by a
person (reactive). person (proactive).
2. Responses are fixed to 2. Responses are variable in
stimulus (no choice). types and degrees(choice).
3. CS is stimulus such as a 3. CS is a situation such as an

sound, an object, a person. office, as social setting, a specific
set of circumstances.
4. Reinforcement is not received 4. Person is instrumental in
by choice. securing reinforcement by
operating on the environment.
LEARNING THEORIES
 Contingency Theory of Motivation:

 This theory of learning is also called stimulus-
stimulus (S S type) theory of learning.
 The primary emphasis is on knowing, how events and
objects are related to each other.
 While both the classical and operant conditioning
results in a stimulus-response situation(S-R/R-S),
cognitive theory deviates from this model.
 Here, learning is considered as the outcome of
deliberate thinking about the problem.
 It uses both intuition and known facts to achieve the
goal.
 Some psychologists say that most problem solving
situations are hard to explain by S-R relationships i.e.
demands cognitive learning.
LEARNING THEORIES
 Cognitive process is not tied to a single theory or

model. It generally views learning as a cognitive
process. It assumes that people are conscious active
participants in how they learn. The steps in it are:
 First, the cognitive view suggests that people draw on
their experiences and use past learning as a basis for
their behaviour. These experiences represent
knowledge or cognitions. For example, an employee
faced with a choice of job assignments will use
previous experiences in deciding which one to accept.
 Second, people make choices about their behaviour.
The employee recognizes that s/he has two
alternatives and chooses one.
LEARNING THEORIES
 Third, people recognize the consequences of their

choices. Thus, when employees find the job
assignment rewarding and fulfilling, s/he will
recognize that the choice was a good one and will
understand why.
 Finally, people evaluate those consequences and add
them to prior learning which affects future choices.
 Edward C. Tolman is widely recognized as a
pioneering cognitive theorist. He was one of the first
to use the now famous white rat in psychological
experiments. Using rats in his laboratory, he showed
that they learned to run through a complicated maze
towards their goals of food. It was observed that rats
developed expectations at every choice point in the
maze.
LEARNING THEORIES
 Thus, they learned to expect that certain cognitive

cues related to the choice point could ultimately lead
to food. The learning took place when the
relationship between the cues and expecting was
strengthened because the cues led to expected goals
or food.
LEARNING THEORIES
 Social Learning Theory:

BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION (OB MOD.)
 OB Mod. is the application of reinforcement
theory to people in organizational settings.
 In short, OB Mod. is:
 Application of behaviouralistic conditioning
principles to practical problems in work settings.
 A technique to modify or eliminate undesirable
behaviour and replace it with behaviour that is more
compatible with goal attainment.
 It is basically derived from B.F. Skinners operant
conditioning.
 It contributes to the better understanding of human
behaviour.
 It is used to improve organizational effectiveness.
 Steps in Applying the OB Mod. Process:
1) Identification of performance related behavioral
events: In this step managers need to identify
behaviours that are highly desirable and undesirable.
They need to specify exactly what behaviour is
wanted or needs to be changed. This demands two
questions:
1) Can those behaviours be seen?
2) Can those behaviours be measured?
If both of the questions answer are yes then the
second step is applied, otherwise not.
2) Measurement of behaviours: This step involves
collection and analysis of performance (behavioural)
data before, during and after the OB Mod. program.
The data collected before the beginning of change
processes are called base line data. This data helps
to evaluate the success or failure of OB Mod. Program
used.
3) Functional Analysis: This step brings out the

problem solving nature of OB Mod. This step consists
of a detail examination of present behaviours being
shown by employees to determine what consequences
each produce, what conditions lead to their
occurrence etc. Behaviour modification recognizes
that behaviour is influenced by two environmental
contingencies: the antecedents that proceeds
behaviours and the consequence that follow
behaviour. These principles are part of the
Antecedents-Behaviour-Consequences (A-B-C) model
of behaviour modification. The central objective of
behaviour modification is to change behaviour (B) by
managing its antecedents (A) and consequences (C).
Explanation of A-B-C is in next slide…….
 Antecedents: They are events that cause behaviour;

they are input factors for behaviour. They should be
well communicated to the employees.
 Consequences: They are the events following a
particular behaviour that influences its future
occurrence. Although, antecedents are important, OB
Mod. Focuses mainly on the consequences of
behaviour.
New attendance Employee Employee

bonus system is attends work at receives
announced designated times attendance bonus
4) Develop Intervention Strategy: intervention

strategies are designed to strengthen desirable
critical behaviour and weaken undesirable critical
behaviours. It has four sub-processes. They are:
I. Develop intervention strategy (Structure, process,
technology, groups or tasks)
II. Apply appropriate strategy ( app. Reinforcement
principle)
III. Remeasure the frequency of responses (collected data is
compared with the data collected in step II)
IV. Maintain desirable behaviour (done through
application of schedules of reinforcement i.e.
continuous, intermittent and self-reinforcement)
5) Evaluation for performance improvement:

Identifying the success or failure of OB Mod.
program. The manager compares employee
behaviour (performance)prior to the start of the
program. Again, managers try to know whether the
goals sought have actually been achieved or not.
UNIT V
PERSONALITY
Chapter-5
The term ‘personality’ is derived from the Latin
word ‘persona’ which means a mask. According
to K. Young, “Personality is a patterned body of
habits, traits, attitudes and ideas of an
individual, as these are organized externally
into roles and statuses, and as they relate
internally to motivation, goals, and various
aspects of selfhood.” G. W. Allport defined it as
“a person’s pattern of habits, attitudes, and
traits which determine his adjustment to his
environment.”
According to Robert E. Park and Earnest W. Burgess,
personality is “the sum and organization of those
traits which determine the role of the individual in
the group.”
Herbert A. Bloch defined it as “the characteristic
organization of the individual’s habits, attitudes,
values, emotional characteristics which imparts
consistency to the behaviour of the individual.”
According to Arnold W. Green, “personality is the
sum of a person’s values (the objects of his
striving, such as ideas, prestige, power and sex)
plus his non- physical traits (his habitual ways of
acting and reacting).”
According to Linton, personality embraces the total
“organized aggregate of psychological processes
and status pertaining to the individual.”
 Personality is not related to bodily structure
alone. It includes both structure and
dynamics
 Personality is an indivisible unit.
 Personality is neither good nor bad.
 Personality is not a mysterious phenomenon.
 Every personality is unique.
 Personality refers to persistent qualities of
the individual. It expresses consistency and
regularly.
 Personality is acquired.
 Personality is influenced by social interaction.
It is defined in terms of behaviour.
Personality is the sum total to ways in which an
individual reacts and interacts with others.
- Personality refers to a relatively stable set of
characteristics and tendencies of a person.
- It explains both commonalities and
differences in the behaviour of people.
- It draws attention to the factors within people
that cause them to behave as they do.
Personality includes ;
- External appearance and behaviour.
- Inner awareness of self as a permanent
organizing force.
- Particular organization of measurable traits,
both inner and other.
 It is an aggregate whole of an individual’s features. (A
whole person concept)
 It can be developed. The development starts from womb
(garva) and does not stop till the person rests on tomb
(grave).
 Every person has it, but in different style. It indicates the
individual differences.
 It is goal directed.
 Personality influences the behaviour of an individual.
 It is partly in-born and partly acquired or developed.
 It is most often described in terms of measurable traits
that a person exhibits/shows.
A. The Nature (Inborn Factors)
1. Biological Factors
a. Heredity
b. Brain
c. Physical Features
B. Nurture (Environmental and Situational Factors)
2. Cultural Factors
3. Family and Social Factors
a. Identification Process
b. Socialization Process
4. Situational Factors
The accepted norms of social behaviour are known
as culture. Culture was traditionally considered as
the major determinant of an individual's
personality.
The way in which people behave with others and

the driving force of such functions are considered
significant components of culture. The ideology of
the culture is imitated by the following generations.
The personality attributes of independence,
aggression, competition and cooperation are the
outcomes of cultural interaction.
Religion plays a significant role in shaping one's
personality. Hindus have different personalities
from those of Sikhs and Muslims. Children in
Hindu societies learn from the very beginning
about hard work and god-fearing attitudes.
Christians are open, independent, and
cooperative.
Children learn from their parents, sisters and
brothers. family is the first factor affecting
personality development, after hereditary
characteristics are endowed. Rich people have
different personalities from those of poor.
Children care under a warm, loving
environment are positive and active as
compared to children neglected by their
parents.
The positive and negative personalities of
children are dependent on their parents
characteristics and mutual behaviour. Children
develop negative personalities if their parents
don't have good relationship. Proper parental
guidance to children makes them active and
efficient.
Situation
Situation further influences the effects of
heredity and environment on personality. A
individual's personality, while generally stable
and consistent, does change in different
situations.
It has been observed that many overconfident
and indiscipline employees become humble and
disciplined in a particular situation. Those having
a criminal background may become powerful and
strong administrators, dominant politicians, etc.
 The Myers-Briggs type indicator (MBTI)
 The Big Five Model
- MBTI is most widely used personality
framework.
- It is essentially a 100 questions personality
test that asks people how they usually feel or
act in particular situation.
- On the basis of these questions, person’s
personality is identified.
- MBTI framework differentiates people in
terms of four general dimensions as sensing,
instituting, judging and perceiving.
 MBIT is useful for determining
communication styles and interaction
preferences.
 MBTI measures how people prefer to focus
their attention (extroversion vs. introversion),
collect information (sensing vs. intuition),
process and evaluate information (thinking
vs. feeling) and orient themselves to the outer
world (judging vs. perceiving).
 Extroverts
Sociable, bold and talkative
Introverts
Shy, quite and careful.
 Sensing people like collecting information by
applying their five senses.
 Sensing people are capable of synthesizing
large amounts of random information to form
quick conclusions.
 Intuitive people collect information non-
systematically.
 They rely more on subjective evidence as well
as their intuition and complete inspiration.
 This type of personality is concerned with
rational cause-effect logic and scientific
research methods to make decision.
 They evaluate the evidence objectively and
unemotionally.
 Feeling types consider how their choices
affect other.
 Judging types enjoy the control of decision
making.
 Perceiving types are more flexible.
 Perceiving personality wants to keep their
options open.
 Theoretically, psychologists identified
thousands of personality traits which
differentiates one person form another.
 Now, researchers have identified five
fundamental traits that are especially relevant
to organizations.
 It reflects a person’s comfort level with
relationship.
 People who are outgoing, talkative, sociable and
self-confident are called extroverts.
 Extrovert people prefer interaction.
 Quite, shy and careful people are called
introverts.
 Introvert people prefer loneliness.
 Research suggests that extroverts tend to be
higher overall job performances than introverts.
 Extrovert people can maintain attractive
relationship for marketing and sales position.
 It refers to a person’s ability to get along with others.
 People with high agreeableness tend to be polite,
good natured, sympathetic and caring.
 Low agreeable tends to be uncooperative, short-
tempered and ill-tempered.
 Low agreeable people are more committed to their
own needs against high agreeableness.
 Researchers have not yet fully investigated the effects
but agreeable people are more flexible to develop
good working relationship with co-workers,
subordinates and higher level managers.
 It refers to the number of goals on which a person
focuses.
 It expresses the extent that people are careful,
dependable and self disciplined.
 High conscientious people tend to be focus on small
number of goals at one time and are likely to be
organized, systematic, careful, responsible and self
disciplined.
 Low conscientious tends to be adopt a wider range
of goals.
 As a result, they tend to be more disorganized,
careless and irresponsible and less self disciplined.
 Research has suggested that high conscientiousness
people tend to higher performer.
 It refers to person’s ability to cope stress.
 People with high emotional stability are
bearing, secure and calm.
 Unstable people tend to be depressed,
uneasy, hesitant, insecure and move
backward and forward.
 It refers to a person's range of interest.
 High open people are sensitive, flexible,
creative and curious.
 Closed people tend to be resistant to change,
closed to new ideas, and fixed in their ways.
 People with openness may perform better due
to their flexibility.
 Ways to bring a link between personality and
values to the workplace
Personality/Person-Job Person-Organization Fit

Fit (Theory)
 John Holland has presented six personality
types and proposes that satisfaction and
tendency to leave a job depend on the degree
to which individuals successfully match their
personalities to an occupational environment.
Types Personality Congruent Occupation
Characteristics
Realistic: Prefers Shy, genuine, persistent, Mechanic, drill press
physical activities that stable, conforming and operator, assembly-line
require skill, strength, practical worker, farmer
and coordination.
Investigative: Prefers Analytical, original, Biologist, economist,
activities that involve curious, independent mathematician, news
thinking, organizing, and reporter
understanding
Social: Prefers activities Sociable, friendly, Social worker, teacher,
that involve helping and cooperative, counselor, clinical
developing others understanding psychologist
Types Personality Congruent Occupation
Characteristics
Conventional: Prefers Conforming, efficient, Accountant, corporate
rule-regulated, orderly, practical, unimaginative, manager, bank teller, file
and unambiguous inflexible clerk
activities
Enterprising: Prefers Self-confident, Lawyer, real estate
verbal activities in which ambitious, energetic, agent, public relations
there are opportunities to dominant specialist, small business
influence others and manager
attain power
Artistic: Prefers vague Imaginative, disorderly, Painter, musician, writer,

and unsystematic idealistic, emotional, interior decorator
activities that allow impractical
creative expression
 Match between personality and congruent
jobs will satisfy the employees and minimize
the employee turnover.
 A realistic person should be given mechanic,
assembly line jobs.
 Realistic person in a realistic ob is in a more
congruent situation than a realistic person in
an investigative job.
 People are attracted to organizations that
match their personalities.
 Agreeable people match with supportive
organizational climate.
 Managers at the time of interview select
employees that fit with organizational
culture.
 Fit of employees value with culture of their
organization predicts job satisfaction,
commitment.
Locus of Control (Internal vs. External)
- Locus of control refers to an individual’s belief
that what happens is either within one’s control
or beyond one’s control.
- First one is internal and second is external.
- Employees having internal locus of control
believe that they are masters of their own fate or
luck.
- Those who have external locus of control see
themselves as slave/das of fate and believe that
what happens to them in their work life due to
luck or factors beyond their control.
 Locus of control is the center of control of an individual’s
code of conduct. People can be grouped into two
categories i.e. internals and externals respectively.
 People who consider themselves as the masters of their
own fates are known as internals, while, those who affirm
that their lives are controlled by outside forces known as
externals.
 Before making any decision, internals actively search for
information, they are achievement driven, and want to
command their environment. Thus, internals do well on
jobs that requires complex information processing, taking
initiative and independent action.
 Externals, on the other hand, are more obedient, more
willing to follow instructions, so, they do well in
structured, routine jobs.
 Mach behaviuor is directed at gaining power and
controlling the behaviour of others.
 Degree of Machiavellianism differs from person
to person.
 High mach individual tends to be cool, logical,
pragmatic, maintains emotional distance.
 Such person tries to control people, events and
situations by manipulating the system to his/her
benefits.
 Low mach individuals get little pleasure from
manipulating others, value, loyalty and friendship
highly. They are more emotional and less willing
to lie to succeed.
 High SE is more likely to seek higher status jobs,
be more confident in their ability to achieve
higher levels of performance.
 They derive intrinsic satisfaction to their
accomplishments.
 Person with less SE may be more satisfied to
remain in a lower-level job, be less confident of
his ability focus more on extrinsic rewards.
 Higher SE people are found more satisfied with
their jobs.
 High SE can take more risks in job selection and
choose more unconventional jobs than low SE
persons.
 It refers to an individual’s ability to adjust
his/her behaviour to external or situational
factors.
 High SM people show greater ability to adjust
themselves with external situation.
 They behave differently in different
situations.
 High SM managers tend to be more mobile in
their careers and receive more promotions.
 It is the degree to which a person is willing to
take chances and make risky decisions.
 People differ in taking risks.
 High risk taking managers make more rapid
decision
 Type A people are impatient and much
aggressive to achieve more and more.
 Working fast, working for long hours are
some of the specific behavioral outcomes.
 Type B is much easier going, relaxed about
time pressure, less competitive and more
philosophical in nature.
 Personality traits/characteristics.
 Workplace
 The reality
 Solution
- Measure (identify) personality type
- Measure (identity) abilities
- Identify the work place situations
- Applications
 People have their own unique personality.
 Personality is defined as the combination of
stable physical + mental characteristics.
 These characteristics are the product of
interacting genetic (nature) +environmental
influences.
 Different work places demand different kind
of peoples’ qualities and behaviour.
 Workplaces are composed of structure, social
context, technology and environment (both
internal and external).
 No two persons are similar (personality
differences).
 No two situations/work places are similar
(cultural differences and job demands).
 No personality type (traits) is superior or
inferior in itself.
 No single workplace (organization/culture) is
superior or inferior in itself.
 Personality changes/develops over the period
of time.
 Measure (identify) personality type
 Measure (identity) abilities
 Identify the work place situations
 Applications (bringing the match)
 It is derived from Latin word movere which
means “to move”.
 It is derived from the word ‘motive’.
 It is will to work.
Motivation is a process that starts with a

physiological or psychological deficiency or
needs that activates behaviour or a drive that is
aimed at a goal or incentive. (Fred Luthans)
 Motivation is an internal feeling.
 It is basically a psychological process.
 Motivation produces goal directed behaviour.
 Motivation contains systems orientation.
 Motivation can be either positive or negative.
 Motivation means bargaining (a perceived
relationship between effort (input) and reward
(output). The more the relationship is positive
the more the level of motivation will be.
Motivation Theory Types Central Ideas
Maslow’s needs Content/historical People try to satisfy a higher
hierarchy (universal) need when a lower need is
fulfilled (satisfaction progress)
Alderfer’s ERG theory Content/historical Satisfaction-progression (see

(universal) above); also, people focus on a
lower need if unable to satisfy a
higher need (frustration-
regression)
Herzberg’s motivation Content/historical Motivators (job content,

hygiene theory (universal) recognition) motivate and
satisfy, whereas hygiene factors
(work relations, work
environment) can create or
reduce dissatisfaction but do not
motivate.
McClelland’s learned Content/historical Some needs are learned rather

needs theory (universal) natural and more than one need
can motivate at the same time.
Motivation Type Central Idea
Theory
Equity theory Content Perceived equity is formed from

/Contemporary outcome/input ratios with a comparison
other and people are motivated to reduce
perceived inequalities.
Goal setting Content/Contemp Clear, relevant goals increase motivation

orary and performance by stretching the
intensity and persistence of effort and by
clarifying role perceptions.
Expectancy
Theory
Content/Contemporary
Motivation is determined by perceived expectancies,

outcome values and a rational decision-making process.
People will be motivated to engage in
a behavior (make a choice) to the
degree that they believe that the
behavior will lead to a valued outcome
Expectancy: The degree to which you
expect that hard work (effort)
will lead to good performance
or high accomplishments
Instrumentality: The perception that if you
perform well you will be
rewarded
Valence: How much do you value the
rewards you may receive
Effort Skills and
Expectancy abilities
Performance X
Instru- Job
mentality Motivation Performance
Rewards X
Valence of
Rewards Role perceptions
and opportunities
16
 Job satisfaction is an emotional response to a
job situation. As such , it can’t be seen, it can
only be inferred.
 Job satisfaction is often determined by how
well outcomes meet or exceed expectations.
 Job satisfaction represents several related
attitudes: pay, work itself, promotion
opportunities, supervision and co-workers.
- Promotion - Work Group
- Pay
-Work Itself - Supervision - Working
Conditions
Satisfaction
and
Productivity
Effects of Job
Other effects Satisfaction/D Satisfaction
and Turnover
issatisfaction
Satisfaction
and
Absenteeism
Concept of Group
A group is the largest set of two or more individuals
who are jointly characterized by a network of
relevant communications, a shared sense of collective
identity and one or more shared characters with
associated normative strength. David H. Smith
Characteristics of
Group
• Common goal or interest
• Interaction and
interdependent
• Collective identity
• A stable structure
• Collection of two or
more people
Basis Formal Group Informal Group
Objective It is created to achieve It has no predetermined

predetermined objectives. objectives.
Structure It is an official hierarchy of Its structure is based on

relations. It refers to the human emotions and
structure of well defined sentiments. It refers to the
authority and responsibility personal relationships which
relationships. develop automatically when
people work together.
Formation Formal relations are well Informal relations are

planned and are created unplanned and they originate
intentionally. automatically.
Chain of command Formal group follows the Informal group does not have
official chain of command a fixed chain of command. It
which can’t be changed. is based on the sentiments of
Communication has to follow the members. There are no
formal channels. fixed patterns of
communication.
Basis Formal Group Informal Group
Stability Formal origination is usually Informal organization does

stable. not last so long.
Human relations Formal organization reflects Informal organization reflects

technological aspect of the human aspect. It is based on
organization. It does not take the attitudes, likes and
care of human sentiments. dislikes tastes, language etc
of people.
Flexibility It follows a rigid structure of It is loosely structured. It is

relationships. highly flexible in nature.
Leadership Managers provide leader- Informal leaders are chosen

ship to the workers. by the group members.
Nature of Informal Group
- Informal relations are unplanned.
- Formation of informal group is a natural process.
- Informal groups reflect human relationships.
- Informal groups are based on common taste,
problem, language, religion, culture etc.
- The membership of informal group is voluntary.
Significance of Informal Group
Benefits to Member
 Sense of belonging
 Safety valve for emotional problems
 Aid on the job
 Breeding ground for innovation and originality
 Important channel of communication
 Social control
 Check on authority
Benefits to Organization/Management
- Reducing burden
- Fills in gaps in a manager’s abilities
- Gives the feedback about employees and their
work experience
Dynamics of Group
Formation/Development
Stages of Group Formation

GROUP DEVELOPMENT
As applied to group development, group dynamics is
concerned with why and how groups develop.
Groups develop based on activities, interactions, and

sentiments.
Individuals share common activities, they will have

more interaction and will develop attitudes (positive
or negative) toward each other.
GROUP DYNAMICS
 A group can be defined as several individuals who come

together to accomplish a particular task or goal.
 Group dynamics refers to the behavioral characteristics of a
group. Group dynamics concern how groups form, their
structure and process, and how they function. Group
dynamics are relevant in both formal and informal groups
of all types. In an organizational setting, groups are a very
common organizational entity and the study of groups and
group dynamics is an important area of study in
organizational behavior.
 The following sections provide information related to group
dynamics. Specifically, the formation and development of
groups is first considered.
Forming
This stage is usually characterized by some confusion and

uncertainty.
- The major goals of the group have not been established. The
nature of the task or leadership of the group has not been
determined (Luthans, 2005).
- Thus, forming is an orientation period when members get to
know one another and share expectations about the group.
- Members learn the purpose of the group as well as the rules to
be followed.
- The forming stage should not be rushed because trust and
openness must be developed. These feelings strengthen in
later stages of development. Individuals are often confused
during this stage because roles are not clear and there may
not be a strong leader.
Storming
 In this stage, the group is likely to see the highest level of
disagreement and conflict.
 Members often challenge group goals and struggle for
power. Individuals often vie for the leadership position during
this stage of development. This can be a positive experience
for all groups if members can achieve cohesiveness through
resolution.
 Members often engage in criticism in this phase. If members
are not able to resolve the conflict, then the group will often
disband or continue in existence but will remain ineffective and
never advance to the other stages.
Norming
 This stage is characterized by the recognition of
individual differences and shared expectations.
 Hopefully, at this stage the group members will
begin to develop a feeling of group cohesion and
identity.
 Cooperative effort should begin to yield results.
 Responsibilities are divided among members and
the group decides how it will evaluate progress.

Performing
 Performing, occurs when the group has matured and
attains a feeling of cohesiveness.
 During this stage of development, individuals accept
one another and conflict is resolved through group
discussion.
 Members of the group make decisions through a
rational process that is focused on relevant goals
rather than emotional issues.

Adjourning
 Not all groups experience this stage of
development because it is characterized by the
disbandment of the group.
 Some groups are relatively permanent (Luthans,
2005). Reasons that groups disband vary, with
common reasons being the accomplishment of the
task or individuals deciding to go their own ways.
 Members of the group often experience feelings of
closure and sadness as they prepare to leave.
Concept of Group Dynamics
 The social process by which people interact face to
face in small groups is called group dynamics. Davis
and Newstrom
 Dynamics derived from Greek word meaning
‘force’. Thus, group dynamic refers to the study of
forces operating within a group.
 Kurt Levin (the father of group dynamics)
popularized the term in the 1930s.
Different views associated with group
dynamics are:
A normative view
This view says that group dynamics describes “How” a
group should be organized and conducted. This view
mainly focuses on democratic leadership, member
participation and overall cooperation.
A technical view
This view advocates that it consists of set of

‘Techniques’. This view point mainly focuses on role
playing, brainstorming, focus group, leaderless
groups, group therapy, sensitivity training, team
building, etc.
An internal nature view
This view is very close to the Kurt Levin’s original
version. This view explains the term group dynamics
from the perspective/angle of the internal nature of
groups, how they form, their structure and processes,
and how they function and affect individual,
members, other groups as well as the organization.
Moorhead & Griffin Phase One
Types of Group
Phase Two
Phase Three Member Characteristics

Group Characteristics 1. Interdependent
1. Productive 2. Coordinated
2. Adaptive 3. Cooperative
3. Self-correcting 4. Competent
5. Motivated
6. Communicative
Formal Leader
Every group has its formal leader.
- Leader can adopt different leadership style through
autocratic and democratic.
- The leader in a group can be as a manager, supervisor,
project leader, committee coordinator and so on.
- The success and failure of a group largely depends upon
the leader of a group.
Roles
Group members perform different types of roles to
accomplish group goal.
Role is a set of activities expected of a person occupying

a particular position within a group.
It is a pattern of behaviour that is expected of an

individual when s/he interacts with others.
-It is expected bahaviours for a position and job.
-It is fairly difficult to pin-down roles in exact terms.
-It results change in behaviour.
Norms
 Norms are shared ways of looking at the world.

 Groups control their members through the use of norms.
 A norm is a rule of conduct that has been established by
group members to maintain consistency in behaviour.
 It tells an individual how to behave in a group.
 Norms summarize and simplify group influence process.
 They are developed through mutual agreement.
 They develop gradually, they are dynamic in nature.
 Not all norms apply to everyone.
Enforcing Norms
Enforcement of norms is achieved through the
following steps:
Education
Providing training to the group members about norms,
reward and punishment applicable.
Close supervision(surveillance)
It detects deviance from group norms. It is important
because education does not work to all group members.
Warning (oral and written)
Sanction (punishment)
Group Status
Status is a prestige grading position, or rank within a group.

Status fixing is a process by which one relates to others and
consequently organized and rationalizes social relationships.
Status Equity
Group members should perceive status hierarchy as equitable
(justifiable). Status inequity creates disequilibrium.
Formal and Informal Status
Formal Status
Group’s hierarchical structure determines it. It is closely related
to the chain of command or rank.
Informal Status
Values and norms of the group determine the status of a
member. It can be acquired by such characteristics as
education, age, sex , skills, experience, social membership etc.
Group Size
 Size of a group can have greater impact on how the group behaves
internally and with regard to the other groups.
 Determines number of interactions of individual in a group.
 Effective group is relatively small.
 Small group helps in maintaining face to face contacts.
 Group size affects overall group behaviour.
 Smaller groups are faster at completing tasks than are larger ones.
 If the group is engaged in problem solving, larger groups generally
get better results than small ones.
 Groups with an odd number (3,5,7,9 etc.) of numbers tend to be
preferable than even (4,6,8,10 etc.) numbers.
 Groups of approximately 7 members tend to be more effective for
taking actions.
Social loafing (The Negative Side of
Group Size)
Social is the tendency of group members to do less
than they are capable of as individuals.
It indicates that increase in group size is inversely
related to individual performance because of:
-Perceived inequity in efforts by others.
-Perceived non-measurability of their contribution.
-Perceived dispersion of responsibility.

Group Composition
Production of a group to some extent depends on the
composition of the group.
Homogeneous group may promote group cohesiveness.
Group Demography
It is degree to which members of a group share common
demographic attributes such as age, sex, race, education,
experience, etc. It is important to predict turnover.
Cohorts/Partners
Cohorts are individuals who hold a common attribute.
E.g. Employee born in 1970 is a cohort.
Group Cohesiveness (Degree of Unity)
It refers to degree of attachment or unity of members

of their group.
Features
- It has relatively few members.
- Members have similar interest and background.
- Interpersonal communication.
- Physically remote or isolated from other groups in

the organization.
- Leader rewards cooperative behaviour.
Important variables of group processes
are as below:
 Leadership
- It is a process by which leader or individual
influences other members to achieve a common
goal.
- Different leadership style generates different
results.
- Proper leadership will accomplish assigned task and
achieve the group goal.
Communication
 It unites people or group member.
 Its main objective is sharing ideas, problems,
achievements, feelings etc. among group members.
 It helps in exchanging information.
 Type of communication process, system or network
adopted by a group affects the satisfaction of
members, motivation and goal attainment.
Group Decision Making
 Group decision is taken to solve problems or grab
opportunities.
 GDM refers to the decisions which are taken by two
or more number of people.
 It affects the group performance, members
satisfaction and goal attainment.
Power
 Power is defined as the ability to exert influence.
 It is a way of behaviour change.
 It provides energy to group.
 It is used to accomplish goal.
Group Task
 Task is a distinct work activity.
 Nature of task affects group members’
performance and satisfaction.
 Group effectiveness is dependent on complexity
and interdependence of task.
Problem-solving teams
 They are temporary teams established to attach
specific problems in the work-place.
 After solving the problem, the team is usually
disbanded, allowing members to return to their
normal work.
 It is cross functional.
Self-managed work teams
 These teams complete an entire piece of work
requiring several interdependent tasks.
 They are fairly autonomous.
 There is less need for direct supervision.
 They are also cross functional.
 They rely on people with diverse and
complementary skills, knowledge and experience.
Cross-functional teams
 This team is made up of employees from about the
same hierarchical level, but from different work
areas, who come together to accomplish a task.
 It is called horizontal group.
 Committees composed of members from across
departmental lines are another example of cross-
functional teams.
Virtual Teams
 They are groups of people who work
interdependently with shared purpose across space,
time and organization boundaries using technology
to communicate and collaborate.
 Virtual teams can be effective because they are
flexible and are driven by information and skills
rather than time and location.
Building Effective Work Team (Factors
in Managing Team)
Composition
Context (Situation)
Abilities of members
 Adequate resources
Personality
Leadership and structure
Allocating roles
Climate of trust
Diversity
Performance evaluation
Size of teams
and reward system
Member flexibility
Member preferences
Process
Work Design  Common purpose
 Autonomy Specific goals
Skill variety Team efficacy
Task identity Conflict levels
Task significance Social loafing
The End
Leadership
Chapter-8
Concept of Leadership
 Leadership is the ability to influencing a group
toward the achievement of goals. Robbins
 It is process of influencing the subordinates so that
they work hard and corporate enthusiastically in the
achievement of group goals.
 Leadership is modifier of behaviour of people.
Function of Leadership
 Representation of follower.
 Develops team work, motivates team and directs
their activities.
 Uses power properly for the achievement of group
goals.
 Manages the resources of the organization
properly.
 Shows extra-ordinary conduct.
 Inspires employees and facilitates change.
Nature of Leadership
 It is a relationship between two or more people for
some common objectives.
 The essence of leadership is followership. There
cannot be leader without followers.
 It is a function of the leader, the followers and other
situational variables.
 It is a human factor-an art, ability and many more.
 It is an important part of management, but not all
of it.
Major Responsibilities of Leadership
 Representative
 Team builder
 Motivator
 Manager
 Facilitator
 Communication
 Decision maker
 Change agent
Manager vs. Leaders
Category Management Leadership
Thinking Process -Initiates -Originates
- Focuses on things - Focuses on people
- Looks inward - Looks outward
- Accepts reality - Investigates reality
Direction Setting  Operational plans  Vision

 Improve the present  Create the figure
Immediate financials New markets
 Sees tress Sees forest
Employee relations  Tight control  Empower

 Subordinates  Associates
 Instructs  Learns
 Directs and coordinates  Trusts and develops
Decision methods  Policies, rules, and procedures  Values and principles

 Relies on process and system  Relies on ideas and people
 Achieves what’s expected  Strives (try) to excel
 Serves top managers  Serves clients and customers
Theories of Leadership/Approaches to
Leadership
Trait Approach (Theories/Perspective)
Behavioral Approach (Theories)

Approaches to
Leadership
Contingency Approach (Theories)
Emerging Approaches (Theories)

Trait Theories/Perspective (Till 1940s)
 Oldest approach
 Used till 1940s.
 Assumed that leaders are born, not made.
 Person must possess certain qualities to be a
leader.
 Emphasized that a person is born with necessary
traits of leadership.
Assumptions of Trait theory
 By birth leaders receive leadership traits.
 Leadership success is largely a matter of
personality, a function of specific traits.
 They differ greatly from their followers.
 Traits remain unchanged across time.
 Leadership qualities were considered as the
function of heredity.
Following leader’s traits are shown by
research
Personal Traits
Successful leader should have following traits:
 Personal drive to achieve the goal
 Desire to lead and influence others
 Honesty and dependability
 Self-confidence and emotional balance
 Diplomacy and fluency of speech

Physiological Traits
 Good personality
 Good appearance
 Attractive physical fitness with appropriate height,
age, weight and get-up
Intelligence Traits
 Decision and judgment
 Creativity and capability to manage and control
 Job knowledge: Technology, process, company and
industry
Social Traits
 Friendship and popularity
 Humanity and warmth
 Good behaviour
 Social service
 Flexibility
Background
 Good family background
 Good education
 Experience
Limitations of Trait Theory of
Leadership
 Lack of Guarantee
 No Universal Application
 Behavioral Effect
 Needs of Followers
 Lack of Scientific Basis
Behavioural Theories (Late 1940s to
1960s)
 Effective leadership is the result of effective
behaviour.
 Success in leadership depends more on what the
leader does than on his/her unique traits.
 Leadership effectiveness is determined in terms of
how leaders delegate their tasks, how thy
communicate with and motivate their followers.
Assumptions of Behavioral Theories
 The behaviour of effective leaders would be
different from the bahaviours of less effective
leaders.
 The behaviour of effective leader would be the
same across all situations.
Theories under Behavioral Approach
 The Michigan Studies

 The Ohio State Studies
 The Leadership Grid/Managerial Grid
The Michigan Studies
 It’s program of research conducted at university of
Michigan.
 Goal of this work is to determine the pattern of
leadership bahaviours that results in effective group
performance.
 Researchers collected and analyzed description of
supervisory behaviour to determine how effective
supervisors differ from ineffective ones.
 Basic forms of leader behaviour were identified –
job centered and employee centered.
Features of Employee Centered
Leader
Obejective:
Build effective work groups with high performance
goals.
Behaviours
 Treats subordinates as human beings.
 Shows concern for their well being.
 Involves them in goal setting.

Features of Production Centered
Leader
Objective:
Efficient completion of task.
Behaviors
 Emphasizes technical aspects of job.
 Emphasis on work standards.
 Close supervision
 Employees are seen as a tool in the production

process.
Conclusions
 It suggests that any given leader could exhibit
either production centered or employee centered
leader behaviour, but not both at the same time.
 Michigan researchers strongly favored leader who
were employee oriented.
 Employee oriented leaders were associated with
high group productivity and higher job satisfaction.
 Production oriented leaders were associated with
low group productivity and lower worker
satisfaction.
The Ohio State Studies
 It was conducted about the same time as the
Michigan studies in late1940s and early 1950s.
 These studies sought to identify independent
dimensions of leader behaviour.
 Beginning with over 1000 dimensions, they
eventually narrowed the list down to just two
categories that accounted for most of the
leadership behaviour described by subordinates.
 They called these two dimensions initiating structure
and consideration.
Consideration
a. Consultation with subordinates

b. Friendliness and mutual trust
c. Recognition of subordinates
d. Open communication
e. Supportiveness
f. Representation of subordinate’s interest
Initiating Structure
a. Planning
b. Coordinating
c. Directing
d. Problem solving
e. Criticism of poor works
Impoverished (1,1)
This style has little concern for both people and production. It
is also called laissez-faire management.
Country Club (1,9) Style
It reflects a minimum concern for production but a high degree
of concern for people.
Middle Road (5,5) Style
It reflects a moderate concern for both. Most of the managers
prefer to follow it.
Task (9,1) Style
It has highest concern for production but has lowest concern
for people problems, It is most useful in crisis management
period.
Team (9,9) Style
It is the best style according to this model. It shows a maximum
concern for both production and people.
Contribution
 This theory can be taught and applied in day to day situations.
 It helps to improve people’s attitudes.
 Many organizations have adopted training programs to develop 9,9

managers which proved successful.
 The grid helps manages to identify their own style and can improve
them.
Criticism
- One best style is not always possible.
- Choice of style depends upon the situation which is not considered in
this story.
- It does not offer the answer to the question what makes a manager an
effective leader.
- It offers only a framework for conceptualizing style.
 Contingency leadership models identify variables
that permit certain leadership characteristics and
bahaviours to be effective in given situations.
Leader-member relations
It refers to the degree of confidence, trust and respect
follow have in the leader. If followers are following because
of charisma, expertise, competence or mutual respect, the
leader has little need to depend on task structure or position
power.
Task Structure
It refers to how routine and predictable the work group’s
task is. It measures the extent to which the task performed
by subordinates is routine or non-routine.
Leader Position Power
It refers to the degree of influence a leader has over power
variables such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and
rewards. It is the positional or formal power.
The End
Tangible
(Reassuring)
(Translate)
Step
referring
Sound
Briefness
s
step
Informal talk
Rumor
Rumor Informal talk
Healing
Understanding Weak
s
Self assured
s s
Communication System/Channels
Vertical channels (downward/upward)
1. Downward (superior-subordinate
communication)
- It is to communicate policies, procedure,
programs, objective and issue instructions
and orders to the juniors.
Upward Communication
- It is subordinate initiated channel.
- It encourages subordinates to paritcipate in
the decision making process and submit
valuable ideas and suggestions.
- It is non-directive.
Horizontal (Interactive)
Communication
• It is also known as interactive communication.
• It refers to transmission of information among
positions of the same level.
• It is more of an informal nature.
• It is to coordinate.
• It is to solve problems.
• Information sharing.
Communication Nework (Formal vs.
Informal)
Formal Network
- The paths of communications which are
institutionally determined by the organization
are called formal networks.
- It is typically vertical, follow the authority
chain and are limited to task.
COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
Informal
Formal network
network
• Wheel • Single strand
network • Gossip
• Chain network • Probability
• Y network • Cluster
• Circle network
• All channel
network
Wheel Network
• It is most centralized network.
• All communication passes through the center
position.
• Members of group do not directly communicate
with each other.
• It is appropriate only when the groups work is
routine and simple.
• This network demands leader.
• It is called wheel network because all
communication passes through central authority.
Formal network
Wheel network
A
D E B
C
Chain Network
• Classical types of organization or group adopt
it.
• Information flows only upward or downward
in a hierarchical chain of command.
• Horizontal communication is not allowed
here.
Chain network
A E
B F
G
C
H
D
Y-Network
• It facilitates to report to higher position holder
from junior employees through hierarchical
chain.
• Even middle position holder should report to
senior position holder.
Y network
B
A
(top level managers)
C
( middle level manager)
(subordinates)
E
Circle Network
• Information moves in circle i.e. each person an
communicate with his/her two neighborhood
colleagues.
• This network allows communication to both
sides but not with rest of the members in the
group.
Circle network
A
E B
D C
All Channel network
• There is no restriction on the flow of communication.
• Every member in the group is free to communicate
with any member.
• It is rarely used in formal groups.
• There is no leader-anyone can initiate communication.
• This is most flexible and comprehensive network
among all networks.
• It is one of the good example of decentralized
communication system.
All channel network
A
E B
D C
Issues in Communication
• Communications Barriers between Men and Women
- The differ in terms of their conversation and expression
style.
- It highlights oral communication barriers.
- The issue here is men use communication to satisfy
independence and status in a hierarchical social order.
- Men usually complain women for taking repeatedly about
their problems. Women criticize men for being unable to
listen.
- Men are more direct than women in communication.
- Men often criticize women for expecting apology all the
time.
Politically Correct Communication
• It gives different meaning to different people.
• We must be careful about other s feelings and prestige.
• Some words if used directly insult others; therefore, we
use politically correct communication.
• Example; Previously we used to say widow(Bidhawa)
now we say Ekal Mahila .
• Previously we used to say Briddha Bhatta now we say
Jestha Nagarik Bhatta , Samajik Suraksha Bhatta .
• Prajatantra is replaced by loktantra.
The End
Conflict
Chapter-10
Intra-individual conflict
• This is also called intra-personal conflict.
• It arises inside the individual member.
• There is no other person involved.
• It is internal to the person and is probably
most difficult type of conflict to analyze.
Sources of intra-personal conflict
 Goal conflict
It occurs when a goal that an individual is attempting to
achieve has both positive and negative features.
It occurs when two or more competing goals exist.
 Role conflict
- It arises when roles ar conflicting in nature.
- E.g. a supervisor has to perform two different roles.
- He is both a boss and a subordinate.
Inter-personal conflict
• Two or more individuals are involved rather
than one individual.
• It arises from differences between the choices
made by different individuals.
• Each individual has a separate alternative of
action.
Sources of inter-personal conflicts
• Personality differences
• Perceptions
• Clashes of values and interests
• Power and status differences
• Scarce resources
Nature of Group Conflict
• Heterogeneity of members
• Communication distortions/twist
• Decision-making
• Unclear roles and responsibility
Intra-group conflict
• It arises when differences over an issue
appear between the members of the same
group.
• This type of conflict is within the same group
unlike inter-personal conflict.
• No two groups or members of the group are
involved.
Source of intra-group conflict
• New problem
• New value system
• Role differences
Inter-group conflict
• There is involvement of two or more groups.
• Whole group is in conflict with the whole
other group.
• Inter-group conflicts over authority, control
and resources are extremely common.
Sources of inter group conflict
• Difference in goals
• Task interdependence
• Resource allocation
• Competitive rewards system
• Other reasons
Types of Inter-Group Conflict
• Vertical (Hierarchical conflict
• Horizontal conflict
Vertical (Hierarchical ) Conflict
• It o urs etween an organization’s hierar hy
of authority.
• It refers to any conflict between levels in an
organization i.e. superior- subordinate
relations.
Reasons for vertical conflicts
• Inadequate communication between levels
• Difference of interests between position
holders occupying different status in the
organizational hierarchy
• Lack of shared perceptions and attitudes
among members in various levels.
Horizontal conflict
• It takes place between groups operating at the
same level in the hierarchy.
• E.g. production department may prefer long
economical runs whereas marketing
department may prefer quality product and
quick delivery.
Reasons for Horizontal conflicts
• Goal incompatibilities
• Resource scarcities
• Perceptual factors
• Role factors etc.
Line and Staff Conflict
• This conflict occurs when line and staff
representatives disagree over issues of
substance in their working relationships
because staff personnel (e.g. an internal
auditor) oftern have the potential for maor
impact on certain areas of line operations (e.g.
marketing/human resource/production etc.)
Diversity Based Conflict
• It has both pros and cons.
• Conflicts are higher in heterogeneous groups as
compared to homogeneous groups.
• The most difficult type of diversity based conflicts
in organizations to resolve are:
- Issues of race
- Issues of gender
- Issues of ethnicity
- Issues of religion
Organizational Level Conflict
• Intra-organizational conflict
• Inter-organizational conflict
Intra-Organizational conflict
• These types of conflict are similar to inter-
group conflict explained earlier.
Inter-organizational conflict
• It arises when there are differences of opinion
over certain issues between different
organizations.
Types of Inter-Organizational Conflict
• Management-government
• Inter-management
• Inter-union
• Union-government
• Union-management
Management-government
• They are conflicts over political contributions,
anti-trust actions, fair trade, consumer
protection etc.
Inter-management
• Managements may compete against each
other in ways that they believe will enhance
their position in the industry.
• Disputes over patents and fulfillment of
contracts, price wars may be included here.
Inter-union
• Unions may compete for members or jobs, as
in jurisdictional disputes.
Union-government
• The unions will scrutinized by agents of
government for illegal activities like criminal
activities discrimination, illegal strikes etc.
Union-management
• If management and labor are to retain their
institutional ideal ties, they must disagree and
must adopt appropriate roles.
• Conflict is essential to survive for the union;
lack of conflict would weaken it.
• Conflict between labor and management is
expressed in many forms like strikes, peaceful
bargains, grievances, debates, loyalties, and
absenteeism.
Functional Conflict
Qua- Capacity of
actual
confusion
gap
Forefront- position of greatest importance
release violently
Danger
(rise)
Twist
/unexpected.
Coming
Current state of status

remain unchanged
Refuse
Empathy- The ability to understand and share the feelings of another.

OD Objectives and Goals
 Improvement in interpersonal competence
 A change in value systems so that human factors and
feelings can be considered legitimate.
 Development of enhanced inter-group and intra group
understanding to minimize tension.
 Development of more effective team management (i.e.
the capacity of the functional groups to work
effectively)
 Development of better methods of conflict resolution
instead of usual bureaucratic methods.
 Development of an organic system rather than a
mechanic system.
Prerequisites to OD
• Top a age e t s o it e t
• Strong and influential managers
• Capable external consultants
• Successful past experience
• Built-in reward system
• Internalization of OD efforts
Cause harm
root
System-wide/Systemic Interventions
(Organizational/Macro Level)
• It is macro-level intervention.
• It brings change throughout the organizations.
• Their focus is towards bringing changes in the
organizational system as a whole.
Organizational Restructuring
• Comprehensive organizational change/development
involves a major reorganization, usually referred to as a
structural change.
• Cha gi g tasks i to jo s, g oups jo s i to depa t e ts
and divisions.
• It may move from functional departmentalization to a
system based on products or geography.
• Dividing large groups into smaller ones or merging
small groups into larger ones.
• Supe viso s a e o e Coa hes o fa ilitato s i
a team-based organization.
Task and technological changes
• It is another way to bring OD at organizatoinal
level.
• It may try to change task or the technology or
both of them as per necessity.
• Changing how inputs are transformed into
output is called technological change.
• It usually results in task changes.
Goal Setting (MBO)
• It s a e t e el popula tool of OD.
• It was first described and advocated by Peter Drucker
in 1945.
• He st essed that usi ess pe fo a e e ui es that
each job be directed towards the objective of the
whole business.
• MBO, also efe ed to as Ma age e t Results is
based on the assumption that involvement leads to
commitment and if an employee participates, in setting
goals, such employee will be motivated to perform
better.
• It ultimately leads to the achievement of objectives.
Techniques of Goal Setting
• People involved in the programme must be
educated about the basic principles and
procedures of MBO.
• Employees and managers meet formally and
agree upon clear-cut and quantifiable objectives.
• Progress towards the chosen objectives is
reviewed after some internal feedback is
provided to employees.
• An overall evaluation is made to assess the
current progress for the next cycle of objective
setting and planning.
Quality of Work Life (QWL)
• It is most popular and widely used system wide intervention
techniques.
• It refers to the favorableness or unfavorableness of a job
environment for people.
• The basic purpose is to develop work environment that are
excellent for people as well as for the economical health of the
organization.
• QWL program includes many items such as communication,
equitable reward systems, a concern for employee job security and
participation in job design.
• As a result of QWL, develops positive attitude towards work.
• Increase productivity.
• Increase effectiveness of the organization.
The End

BBM 5th Semester OB Note PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

BBM 5th Semester OB Note PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

BBM 5TH SEMESTER

•Individual Differences •Social System

 Organizational behaviour is an applied

 Working with people from different cultures

 Overseeing movement of jobs to countries with low-cost

 Example: Amazon.com is putting a lot of

 Determining the ethically correct way to

a. Stimulus: An event that produces responses or that results in

 Behavioural: predisposition to act on a favourable or

 Peer Groups: Friends circle, colleagues at work place

 They are one of the sources of individual differences

 Both terminal and instrumental values work

 …..Instrumental Values: Helpfulness, Independence,

 A need may be defined as a condition requiring

 Motives and Behaviour:

 In short, with a few exceptions, drives or motives

 The examples of the needs for food and water are

Unsatisfi Drives Search Satisfied Reduction

1. Factors in the perceiver: These factors are

d) Proximity(nearness): The things that are proximate

 External Stimuli: External stimuli or situation

 Selective Attention: It is not possible for an

 Perceptual Organization and Interpretation:

 Emotions and Behaviour: Either overt or

 Attribution theory suggests that when we

 Internally caused behaviours are those we

 ..to the employee’s tardiness, whereas if other

 Below figure summarizes the key elements in

 One of the most interesting findings from

 Selective Perception: The tendency to

 Projection: Projection refers to the tendency of the

 Learning is a process of progressive behaviour

 Know where he stands and to initiate corrective

 Learning Curve in figure:

 Cognitive Theory of Learning

 Social Learning Theory

 The relationship among these components of classical

 In an organizational setting we can see classical

3. CS is stimulus such as a 3. CS is a situation such as an

 Contingency Theory of Motivation:

 Cognitive process is not tied to a single theory or

 Third, people recognize the consequences of their

 Thus, they learned to expect that certain cognitive

 Social Learning Theory:

3) Functional Analysis: This step brings out the

 Antecedents: They are events that cause behaviour;

New attendance Employee Employee

4) Develop Intervention Strategy: intervention

5) Evaluation for performance improvement:

The way in which people behave with others and

Personality/Person-Job Person-Organization Fit

Artistic: Prefers vague Imaginative, disorderly, Painter, musician, writer,

Motivation is a process that starts with a

Alderfer’s ERG theory Content/historical Satisfaction-progression (see

Herzberg’s motivation Content/historical Motivators (job content,

McClelland’s learned Content/historical Some needs are learned rather

Equity theory Content Perceived equity is formed from

Goal setting Content/Contemp Clear, relevant goals increase motivation

Motivation is determined by perceived expectancies,

Objective It is created to achieve It has no predetermined

Structure It is an official hierarchy of Its structure is based on

Formation Formal relations are well Informal relations are