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Unit:1
INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
1. Point out the input variables of organizational behavior system.

Individual processing variables
 Biological characteristics
 Ability
 Values
 Attitudes
 Personality
 Emotions, etc.
Group level variables

 Task characteristics
 Group composition
 Group size, etc.
Organizational level variables

 Organization structure
 Culture
 Leadership, etc.
2. Define organization and behavior.

An organization is a consciously coordinated social unit, composed of two or more people that
functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals. Behaviour
refers to anything that a person does and can be observed in some way.
3. Define organizational behavior.
Organizational behavior is directly concerned with the understanding, prediction, and control of
human behavior in an organization. In other words, organizational behaviour is a field of study
that investigates the impact that individuals, groups and structures have on behaviour within an
organization with the purpose of applying such knowledge for improvement of organizations
effectiveness.
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4. Enlist the few importance of OB.

Some of the major importance of OB are listed as follows:
 It helps to understand organization and employee in a better way.
 It motivates employees.
 It helps to improve labor relations.
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 It assists in prediction and control of human behaviour.

 It helps in maximization of human reousrces.
5. List out the critical behaviour issues confronting today’s managers.

The critical behavious issues confronting today’s managers are enlisted as follows:
 Globalization
 Workforce diversity (heterogeneity)
 Quality and production
 Improving people skills
 Empowerment of employees
 Managing organization change
 Improving ethical behavior
6. What are the outputs of Organizational Behaviour system?

The key outputs of OB system are enlisted as follows:
 Productivity
 Absenteeism
 Turnover
 Organization citizenship behaviour
 Job satisfaction
7. Why is it important to understand organizational behaviour?

Need for Understanding Organizational Behaviour
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Organizational behaviour is directly concerned with the understanding, prediction, and control of
human behaviour in an organization. In other words, organizational behaviour is a field of study
organization with the purpose of applying such knowledge for improvement of organizations
effectiveness.
Understanding organization is important because we spend our lives interacting with them. If the
world is a stage, it is a stage filled with organizations. We play our roles/parts on an
organizational stage. By acting our parts, we influence organizations and organizations also
influence us. In this regard, it is extremely important to understand these behavioural aspects of
organization. The necessity to understanding OB is explained through the following points.
The study of OB helps us understand ourselves and others in a better way. This helps greatly in
improving our inter-personal relations in the organizations. Friendly and cordial relations
between employees and management and also among the employees create a congenial work
environment in organizations.
The knowledge of OB helps the managers know individual employees better and motivate
employees to work for better results. It helps managers apply appropriate motivational
techniques in accordance to the nature of individual employees who exhibit glaring differences
in many respects. One of the basic characteristics of OB is that it is human in nature. So to say,
OB tackles human problems humanly. It helps understand the cause of the problem predicts its
future course of action and controls its evil consequences. Thus, treating employees as human
beings enables the managers to maintain cordial industrial relations which, in turn, create peace
and harmony in the organization.
Another popular reason for studying OB is to learn how to predict human behaviour and, then,
apply it in some useful way to make the organization more effective. Thus, knowledge of OB
becomes a pre-requisite to students of BBS who is going to assume a managerial job. Finally, all
organizations are run by human. Human working in the organizations makes all the difference.
This is where OB comes into the picture. OB helps managers to efficiently manage human
resources in an organization. It enables managers to inspire and motivate employees towards
productivity and better results.
8. State briefly the levels of analysis of OB.
Levels of OB
OB is the systematic study of what people do in an organization and how their behaviour affects
organization’s performance. Analysis of organizational behaviour can be done in reference to
three key levels explained below:
i. Individual level: OB views organization as individual's behaviour. It studies the individual
behaviour of people and how they react to organizational plan, policies, etc. Psychological
theories like learning, motivation and leadership are also considered in studying the behaviour of
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an individual. It also studies the factor iike learning, perception, belief, and attitude of each
individual.
ii. Group level: OB views organization as the group behaviour. It studies how the group interacts
with each other? How they work? What types of task the groups are performing? How does
leadership influence to the group? Etc.
iii. Organizational level: OB is the behavioural science. It studies the behaviour of organization
as a whole. In studying the organization, it applies the knowledge of behavioural science. OB
analyzes how the organizational structure, designs, technology influences the organizational
effectiveness. It tries to focus the relationship between organization and environmental factor
that directly or indirectly affects the organization.
9. What are the various disciplines contributing to the field of organizational behaviour?
Explain.
Contributing Disciplines of OB
Organization behaviour is applied sciences that is built up on contribution from a number of
behavioural science .Some of the key disciplines that contribute OB are explained briefly.
i. Psychology: It is a science which describes the change if behaviour of human and other
animals. The major contributions of psychology in the field of OB have been in the following
subject matter:
 Learning
 Perception
 Personality
 Individual decision-making
 Performance appraisal
 Attitude measurement
 Employee selection
 Work design
 Motivation
 Emotions
 Work stress
 Job satisfaction
ii. Social Psychology: It is an area within psychology that blends concepts from psychology and
sociology and focuses on the influence of people on one another. The major contributions of
social psychology to OB are in the following subject matter:
 Behavioural change
 Attitude change
 Communication
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 Group process
 Group decision making
iii. Sociology: It is the study of society, social institution and social relationship. The main
contributions of sociology to the field of OB are in the following subject matter:
 Group dynamics
 Communication
 Power
 Conflict
 Inter group behaviour
 Formal organizational theory
 Organizational culture
 Organizational technology
 Organizational change
iv. Anthropology: It is the study of human, past and present. The major contributions of
Anthropology in the field of OB are in the following subject matter:
 Comparative values
 Cross-culture analysis
 Organization culture
 Comparative attitudes
 Organization environment
v. Political Science: It is the study of the behaviour of individuals and group within a political
environment. The main contribution of political science in the field of OB has been concerned
with the following subject matter:
 Conflict
 Intra-organizational politics
 Power
10. Why is the understanding of behavious of people at work necessary? Discuss the critical
behavioural issues the modern managers are facing.
Necessity of understanding behaviours of people of work necessary
Organizational behaviour is directly concerned with the understanding, prediction, and control of
human behaviour in an organization. In other words - organizational behaviour is a field of study
organization with the purpose of applying such knowledge for improvement of organization's
effectiveness.
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Understanding organization is important because we spend our lives interacting with them. If the
world is a stage, it is a stage filled with organizations. We play our roles/parts on an
organizational stage. By acting our parts, we influence organization and organizations also
influence us. In this regard, it is extremely important to understand these behavioural aspects of
organization. The necessity to understanding OB is explained through the following points.
The study of OB helps us understand ourselves and others in a better way. This helps greatly in
improving our inter-personal relations in the organizations. Friendly and cordial relations
between employees and management and also among the employees create a congenial work
environment in organizations.
The knowledge of OB helps the managers know individual employees better and motivate
employees to work for better results. It helps managers apply appropriate motivational
techniques in accordance to the nature of individual employees who exhibit glaring differences
in many aspects.
One of the basic characteristics of OB is that it is human in nature. So to say, OB tackles human
problems humanly. It helps understand the cause of the problem predicts its future course of
action and controls its evil consequences. Thus, treating employees as human beings enables the
managers to maintain cordial industrial relations which in tum, create peace and harmony in the
organization.
Another popular reason for studying OB is to learn how to predict human behaviorr and then
apply it in some useful way to make the organization more effective. Thus, knowledge of OB
becomes a pre-requisite to students of BBS who are going to assume a managerial job.
Finally, all organizations are run by humans. Human working in the organization makes all the
difference. This is where OB comes into the picture. OB helps managers to efficiently manage
human resources in an organization. It enables managers to inspire and motivate employees
towards productivity and better results.
Critical behavioural issues faced by Modern Manager
Human beings are a complex phenomenon. Two people act differently in same situation. As
behaviour of an individual and group are different, complexities occur. Regulating an
organization smoothly hence has become a challenge. In this regard, the critical behavioural
issues confronting the managers are explained briefly:
i. Responding to globalization: Globalization has turned the world into one small village.
Managers of today are required to work with people from different cultures. Globalization
requires managers to modify their management practices to suit differences among people from
different cultures and countries.
ii. Work force diversity: Work force diversity refers to different types of work force in
organization in terms of gender, race and ethnicity. Due to work force diversity, there is a great
challenge for the manager to manage and coordinate them towards the goal of the organization.
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iii. Skill deficiency: Skill deficiency is another critical behavioural issue for the manager. Due to
the development of IT sector, companies are installing advance technologies to cope with
competition. Company at one hand install the advanced technology, oh the other hand they lack
the required skill to operate. The existing human resources do not possess the required skill and
can't be replaced. Providing training to the existing staff to eliminate the deficiencies in skill is
another critical issue.
iv. Managing change: Change is an on-going activity for most of the organizations. Change is
essential for both employee and managers. Employee needs change to continually update their
knowledge and skill to meet new job requirements. Managers need change to sustain and
succeed in complex work environment. In this regard, it is important to manage change in
organization which is a critical issue to confront.
v. Improvising ethical behaviour: Managers of today face a lot of ethical dilemmas. Managers
need to create an ethically healthy climate for employee. They should establish codes of conduct
and offer training and seminars to improve ethical behaviour.
11. What is organizational behaviour? Explain the critical behavioural issues confronting
the managers.
Concept of OB
Organizational behaviour is directly concerned with the understanding, prediction and control of
human behaviour in an organization. In other words, organizational behaviour is a field of study
organization with the purpose of applying such knowledge for improvement of organization's
effectiveness. It is a human tool for human benefit and seeks to know the behaviour of people in
all types of organizations.
To sum up, OB is concerned with the study of how and what people act in organizations and also
how their behaviour affects the performance of the organization. Likewise, it applies knowledge
gained about an individuals and groups in order to make organizations work more effectively.
Critical Behavioural issues Confronting the Managers
Human beings are a complex phenomenon. Two people act differently in same situation. As
behaviour of an individual and group are different, complexities occur. Regulating an
organization smoothly hence has become a challenge. In this regard, the critical behavioural
issues confronting the managers are explained briefly:
i. Responding to globalization: Globalization has turned the world into one small village.
Managers of today are required to work with people from different cultures - Globalization
requires managers to modify their management practices to suit differences among people from
different cultures and countries.
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ii. Work force diversity: Work force diversity refers to different types of work force in
organization in terms of gender, race and ethnicity. Due to work force diversity, there is a great
challenge for the manager to manage and coordinate them towards the goal of the organization.
iii. Skill deficiency: Skill deficiency is another critical behavioural issue for the manager. Due to
the development of IT sector, companies are installing advance technologies to cope with
competition. Company at one hand install the advanced technology, on the other hand they lack
the required skill to operate. The existing human resources do not possess the required skill and
can't be replaced. Providing training to the existing staff to eliminate the deficiencies in skill is
another critical issue.
iv. Managing change: Change is an on-going activity for most of the organizations. Change is
essential for both employee and managers. Employee needs change to continually update their
knowledge and skill to meet new job requirements. Managers need change to sustain and
succeed in complex work environment. In this regard, it is important to manage change in
organization which is a critical issue to confront.
v. Improvising ethical behaviour: Managers of today face a lot of ethical dilemmas. Managers
need to create an ethically healthy climate for employee. They should establish codes of conduct,
and offer training and seminars to improve to ethical behaviour.
12. Explain the fundamental concepts of OB
Fundamental Concepts of OB
Like all other discipline/subjects, OB is also based on certain key elements also called
Fundamental concepts or assumptions. There are four key elements in OB which are explained
below.
People
Organizations are run by people. People consist of individuals and groups. Though people have
much in common (they become happy by having gains and sad by losing something valuable),
yet they differ from each other. One can find glaring differences in people’s trait, intelligence,
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personality, etc. Manager cannot adopt one formula or standard across the board for dealing with
employees. Manager has to treat employees with individual differences differently. It is because
of individual differences, the subject matter of OB begins with individual.
An individual joins organization along with his/her social background, likes and dislikes, pride
and prejudices. An individual's family life cannot be separated from organizational life.
Therefore, OB studies an individual as a whole person.
Human behaviour is always caused. Behaviour is directed towards some goals. There is always a
cause behind every human behaviour or act. For example, when a worker is absent from work,
there is a cause behind. The manager must know the cause to solve the problem. People think,
feel and react. The manager, therefore, needs to treat them with human dignity, not just as a
machine.
Structure
Organizations are social systems. There are two types of social systems that exist side by side in
an organization. One is the formal and other is the informal social system. The formal
relationship of people in organizations is called structure. Different jobs are required to
accomplish the organizational goals and objectives. For example, there are managers,
accountants and assemblers. These all people performing different jobs at different levels have to
be related in some structural way so that their work can be effectively coordinated.
That people need organizations and organizations also need people. It means that OB is based on
mutuality of interest. It is mutual interest that unites people and organization to work in tandem
for accomplishing individual and organization goals.
Technology
Technology provides the resources with which people work. It also affects the tasks that they
perform. The great benefit of technology is that it allows people to do work in an advanced and
efficient manner. However, it also reduces the human impact.
Environment
No organization work in vacuum. They operate within a given internal and external environment.
An organization is a part of a larger system that contains other factors or elements, such as a
government, the family, and other organizations. This entire factor mutually influences one
another in a complex way. Thus, organizations are influenced by the environment. Environment
affects people by influencing their attitudes, working conditions, etc. It will not be wrong to
mention that an organization is the effect for which environment is the cause. Hence,
environment is another key element in the study of OB.
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2.0 UNDERSTANDING INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR

1. What is belief?
Belief is an enduring organization of perceptions and cognitions about some aspect of the
individual world.
2. What do you understand by individual behavior?
Individual behavior refers to the response of the person in reference to various perspectives in an
organizational situation. Every individual is different in nature so understanding individual
behavior is complex. Individual behavior moreover is difficult to predict due to interplay of
different variables.
3. Give the meaning of mental process.
Mental process basically is the performance of some composite cognitive activity. In simple
words, it refers to a process that receives information from environment, analyze it and make
decision and develop attitude based on the analysis.
4. What are the basic steps in mental process?
The basic stages in mental process are enlisted as follows:
- Analyze
- Purpose
- Research
- Decide
- Hypothesize
- Initiate
5. Sketch the figure of “behavior as an input-output system”.
The figure that represents behavior as an input-output system is sketched below.
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6. What is cognitive dissonance?

A situation that involves conflicting attitudes, beliefs or behaviors is termed as cognitive
dissonance. In other words, cognitive dissonance refers to any incompatibility that an individual
might perceive between two or more of his or her attitudes, or between his or her behaviors and
attitudes.
7. What are human motives?
Human motives refer to factors that determine a person’s choice of one course of behavior from
among several possibilities. In other words, it is a human’s reason for choosing one behavior
from among several choices.
8. State the factors influencing attitude.
The primary factors influencing attitude are enlisted as follows:
- Family
- Individual behavior
- Teachers
- Individual ability
- Friends
- Environment
- Co-workers
- Experience
9. Define beliefs and value.
Belief is an enduring organization 9f perceptions and cognitions about some aspect of the
individual world. Value on the other hand is a framework of personal philosophy which governs
and influences the individual’s reactions and responses to any situations.
10. Differentiate values from beliefs.
They are differentiated as follows:
Value Belief
Value is a framework of personal philosophy Belief is an enduring organization of

which governs and influences the individual’s perceptions and cognitions about some aspect
reactions and responses to any situations. of the individual world.
Value is derived from social, cultural and Beliefs are formed from past experience,
moral backgrounds. available information and generalization.
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11. What are the needs of human beings?

A need is a lack or deficit of something within the system or organism. The different needs of
human beings can be classified into two major halves.
- Primary need: Primary need refer to the things that human require sustaining themselves. For
example, food, water, shelter, etc.
- Secondary need: Primary need refer to desire and want of human beings and is much more
psychological. For example, power, achievement, order, etc.
12. Enlist the major human needs with examples.
The major human needs are enlisted as follows:
- Primary need: food, water, shelter, etc.
- Secondary need: achievement, autonomy power, affiliation, understanding, etc.
13. Define attitude.
An attitude refers to evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people or events. In

other words, an attitude refers to the way a person feels about and disposed towards some object.
14. What do you mean by emotions?
Emotion is an acute disturbance of the individual as a whole, psychological in origin, involving
behavior, conscious experience and visceral functioning. In other words, emotion is any experience
of strong feeling, usually accompanied by bodily change in circulation, breathing, sweating, etc.
and often accompanied by tense and impulsive actions.
15. List out the major factors influencing individual behavior?
Individual behavior as a dependent variable is influenced by numerous factors enlisted as

follows:
- Goals
- Needs
- Beliefs
- Motives
- Attitudes
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- Sensation
- Values
- Cognitive dissonance
- Emotions
- Behavior
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16. Define values. Explain its sources and functions.

Values
Value is a framework of personal philosophy which governs and influences the individual’s
reactions and responses to any situations. In other words, value refers to the worth or excellence
or the degree of worth ascribed to an object. Values represent basic convictions of an individual
as to what is right, good or desirable. They imply enduring conviction and carry moral flavour.
There may be set of values which form a value system. This system represents an order of
priority of individual values in relation to their relative significance. It can be ascertained by
assessing the relative significance assigned by an individual to varied objects such as freedom,
pleasure, self-respect, honesty, obedience and equality. Culture is a source of values. It contains
as well as reinforces them. People learn to include values from their parents, teachers, friends,
media and all those whom they respect and thus imitate them.
Sources of Values
Ever wondered where do our values come from? There is no particular answer in regard
to the sources of values. However, many studies have pointed that major portion of values comes
from gene; with the minor portion coming from a number of factors like friends, teachers,
society, national culture and similar environmental influences.
One recent study conducted amongst twins pointed out that more than 40 percent of the
value you inherit is explained by genetics. Having said that, environmental factors are also the
critical sources of value.
Function of Values
The primary functions of values are listed below:
- Values provide goals or objectives to an individual which they aim to fulfill.
- Values are extremely crucial in creating sense of belongingness as they are shared in common.
Values, thus, provide stabilities and uniformities in group interaction.
- A number of rules are accepted and followed as they represent the values accepted by majority
of people. In this regard, value bring legitimacy to the rules that govern specific activities.
- Majority of people try to achieve same goals in different field of their life. It is entirely possible
that they seek to modify these rules as per their convenience. In this scenario, value helps to
bring adjustment between different set of rules.
- Values help to differentiate between what is desirable and undesirable as well as what is right
and wrong.
17. Define behavior as input-output system.
Behavior as Input-out System
Employee is considered as the “spinal cord” of every organization. Managers of every
organization must be familiar about behavior of employee. Human behavior is influenced by
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both internal and external factors. In this regard, it is considered as a system comprising input-
processing-output.
Understanding an individual behavior is a very difficult task. Therefore behavior can he
observed as input-output system.
Inputs: Stimuli form the inputs for the system and the information getting process or function is
the sensation. The event data from the environment are received and transformed to sensations
by feeling, hearing, seeing, smelling, tasting, etc.
Processing: Something happens to the inputs as soon as they are sent to processing. In
processing, three activities are mainly carried out enlisted as follows:
> Selecting information
> Organizing information
> Interpreting information
Outputs: Outputs are the behavioral response of individual. It is caused by inputs and processing
components of the individual behavior. The two key responses are covert and overt. The
situations in which outputs occur largely influence the working of the system as a whole. These
situations may include environmental factors, which affect, the psychomotor process.
18. What are attitudes? Describe the elements of attitudes.
Meaning of Attitudes
Attitudes are evaluative statements. They respond one’s feeling either favorably or unfavorably
to persons, objects or/and events. In other words, attitudes reflect how one feels about something.
For example, when someone says “1 like working in an agricultural farm.”; he is expressing his
attitude about his work. Attitudes are not same as values, but the two are interrelated.
Elements of Attitudes
The key elements of attitudes are explained briefly:
Cognitive: It is the opinion or belief segment of an attitude.
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Affective: It is the emotional or feeling segment of an attitude. Cognitive element sets the stage
for the more critical path of an attitude.
Behavioral: It is an intention to behave in a certain way towards someone or something.
Hence, in sum one can say that
Attitudes are related to the feelings and beliefs of people.
Positive attitudes respond to persons, objects or events.
Attitudes affect behavior either positively or negatively.
Attitudes undergo changes.
19. Discuss sensation, value and belief.
Sensation
Sensation can be defined as individual’s capacity to sense the world. Each and every motivated
individual senses the world, interprets it, responds to it and reacts to the results of his own
responses. Every individual has capacity to sense. How he/she senses these things or in which
way he senses these things affect his behavior. For example, if an individual senses cold, his
behavior is in regard to want of warm clothes. Similarly inside the
organization, how the employee sense the environment mould their behavior. Sensation has three
factors to work namely: stimulus, receptor and nervous system. Stimulus are the inputs that are
sensed and received by the receptor organ and transmitted to the nervous system for further
processing to draw out the meaningful result.
Values
Value is a framework of personal philosophy which governs and influences the individual’s
reactions and responses to any situations. In other words, value refers to the worth or excellence
or the degree of worth ascribed to an object. Values represent basic convictions of an individual
as to what is right, good or desirable; they imply enduring conviction and carry moral flavor.
There may be set of values which form a value system. This system represents an order of
priority of individual values in relation to their relative significance. It can be ascertained by
assessing the relative significance assigned by an individual to varied objects such as freedom,
pleasure, sell-respect honesty, obedience and equality. Culture is a source of values. It contains
as well as reinforces them. People learn to include values from their parents, teachers, friends,
media and all those whom they respect and thus imitate them.
Belief
Belief is an important factor causing individual behavior variation. Belief can be based on
knowledge, opinion and faith. They are acquired from parents, teachers, peer, reference group
member, etc. They assign meaning to individual’s day-to-day perceptions and activities and
serve in attempted solution of varied goals. An individual’s beliefs also exert a vital impact on
his motivation in two ways:
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i. He/she must believe that he is capable of performing the acts, which the organization expects
of him/her.
ii. He/she must believe that performance of acts desired by the organization will have positive
outcomes for him/her personally.
20. Explain the mental process.
Mental Process
Mental process is defined as the mechanism that receives information from environment
analyzes them and makes decision or develop attitude based on the analysis. Mental process is a
cognitive process that is not observable directly. For a good mental process, the following
elements are essential:
. Ability to perceive visible and invisible information from the environment
. Ability to generate meaning from analysis of information
. Ability to develop solution for solving problem
Mental process is a six step process which is explained below:
i. Analyze
Analyze is the first step in mental process. In this step, various aspects related to personal life is
critically examined so that essential elements are brought out.
ii. Research
Research is a systematic investigation into a subject to discover facts, theories, applications, etc. In
this regard, second step of mental process is essential to investigate the essential elements
brought out and change the belief system.
iii. Hypothesize
It is the third step in mental process. In this process a hypothesis is formed. This step is utilized
to “make sense” of how something works, what actions are appropriate, etc.
iv. Purpose
It is the- fourth step in the mental process. In this step a hypothesis is proposed for ourselves.
v. Decide
It is the second last step in mental process. In this step, a judgment is pronounced so that one can
come to a conclusion. To he precise, in this step one makes the decision to try its hypothesis.
vi. Initiate
It is the last step in the mental process. Initiate as the word itself suggests is beginning. One uses
this step to direct oneself to act on the hypothesis.
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3.0 Perception
1. What does the term ‘distinctiveness’ mean in attribution theory?
As one of the key elements of attribution theory, distinctiveness refers to the frequency in regard
to similarity of behavior of a person in different settings. To simplify it further, distinctiveness is
whether the observed person acts the same way in different types of situations. When a person
shows different behavior in different settings, the distinctiveness is high.
2. Define perception.
Perception is defined as a process by which an individual selects, organizes and interprets
information inputs to create a meaningful picture of the world. In other words, perception is a
process by which individual’s organize and interpret their sensory impression in order to give
meanings to their environment.
3. List out the characteristics of perception.
The factors that play important role in influencing perception in organization are enlisted as
follows:
- Factors in the situation
• Time
• Work setting
• Social setting
- Factors in the perceiver
• Attitudes
• Motives
• Interests
- Factors in the target
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• Novelty
• Motivation
• Background
5. What are stimuli in perceptual process?
Stimuli are the input in perceptual process. lii other words, the perception process begins with
the reception of stimuli. These stimuli are received through the five sensory organs from the
various sources. Stimuli in general are of two types:
- External: light, sound, etc.
- Internal: feeling of pain, disease, tension, hunger, thrust, etc.
6. Define the terms consensus.
Consensus refers to behavior of others in similar situation. In other words, it is defined as the
degree to which other people, if in the same situation would behave in a similar way to the
person being observed. When others behave differently in the given situation, consensus is
deemed as low.
7. What is attribution theory?
Attribution theory tries to explain how perception affects behavior in organizations. As per this
theory, human observe behavior and then attribute the causes to it. To be precise, as per this
theory, when people attach cause and affect explanation to their behavior, it is known as
attribution.
8. Define attribution errors.
An attribution error refers to the tendency of taking credit for success while blaming others or the
environment for failures. Attribution error mainly occurs from the tendency of rater to judge
behavior of others strictly and judges him loosely.
9. What is perception? Describe the attribution theory.
Perception
Perception is a process by which an individual organize and interpret their sensory impressions
in order to give meaning to their environment i.e. obtaining knowledge of external objects and
events by means of sense, The knowledge is obtained by interpreting the sensory input and the
sensory input supplied by sense organs and other receptors.
Attribution Theory
Attachment of cause and affect explanation by a human to their behavior is termed as attribution.
The perception of people depends on whether he attributes the observed behavior to internal
causes or external causes. In this regard attributions theory has been proposed to develop
explanations of the ways in which we judge people differently, depending on what meaning we
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attribute to a given behavior. Basically, the theory suggests that we observe an individual’s
behavior; we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused.
As per this theory, in making attributes people primarily focus on three major factors explained
below:
a. Consistency: Consistency points out to the repetition of the same kind of behavior. In other
words, consistency explains the extent to which an individual perceived behave in certain
manner on other occasions when s/he comes up with the same situation.
b. Distinctiveness: As one of the key elements of attribution theory, distinctiveness refers to the
frequency in regard to similarity of behavior of a person In different settings. To simplify it
further, distinctiveness is whether the observed person acts the same way in different types of
situations. When a person shows different behavior in different settings, the distinctiveness is
high.
c. Consensus: Consensus refers to the extent to which other individuals in the same situations
behave to the same way as the person under observation. In other words, consensus represents a
scenario where individual behave (in same way) with the similar situation.
10. Explain the steps involved in the perceptual process.
Steps Involved in Perceptual Process
Perceptual process consists of input and output variables. The output variables determine how
people show their behavior. Inputs are the objectives, events, people, etc. that are received by the
perceiver. It begins when environmental stimuli are received through people’s five sensory
organs i.e. ear, eye, nose, tongue and skin.
The inputs received are processed through three sub-processes explained as follows:
a. Selection: Human beings five sensory organs are constantly attached with stimuli. When
people get noticed, they are screened out. And the process of filtering information received by
people’s sense is called selective perception/attention. People are result-oriented; they can‘t
perceive all the inputs. People generally select the information either that is most important or
most threatening.
b. Organization Perceptual organization is a way of assembling the selected information
into a meaningful whole. The key elements of organization are
- Grouping: selected information are grouped on the basis of similarity or proximity.
- Closure: Missing parts are filled to make it complete and derive the proper meaning.
- Simplification: Simplification i.e. people just select important information and reject less
important information.
c. Interpretation: In order to give meaningful information, people generally interpret on
particular event If there is no interpretation perceived, information would be meaningless.
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The output of perception can be seen in the form of behavior and emotions. It may be the feeling,
action, attitude, positive, negative behavior.
11. Explain the factors affecting perception.
Factors Affecting Perception
The factors that influence perceptions can be categorized into three major types:
1. Factors in the perceiver: The key factors in the perceiver that affects the perception are
explained briefly.
a. Attitude: Attitude of an individual influences what he/s he perceives about other or event. For
example, a teacher who has negative attitudes towards students (male) with long hair and earring
will perceive them in a negative way.
b. Motives: What is the urgent needs and desire of an individual? What his motive are often
plays an important role in determining what he perceives.
c. Experience: Experience and knowledge serve as a basis for perception. One's successful
experience enhances the perceptive ability of an individual. On the contrary, failure erodes the
self- confidence,
d. Expectation: Individual often sees what they expect to see. In this regard, expectation is
another key factor that affects the perception.
2. Factors in the target: It refers to the factor associated with target to be perceived. They key
factors in the target are explained briefly.
a. Size: The principle of size says that the larger the object, the more is the probability that
it is perceived. Size attracts the attention of the individual. A full page spread advertisement
attracts more attention than a few lines in a classified section. The reason is not difficult to see.
The size establishes dominance and enhances perceptual selection.
b. Intensity: High intensity increases the changes of selection. If the message is bright, it
sentences are underlined. It gets more attention than in normal case. The greater the intensity of
stimulus, the more likely, it will be noticed. An intense stimulus has more power to ' push itself
our selection, filters then does the weak stimulus.
c. Frequency: The repetition principle states that a repeated external stimulus is more
attention- getting than single one. It is for this reason that advertises goes for repetitious
advertising to gain the customer's attention to their product.
d. Contrast: As per contrast principle, the external stimuli, which stands out against the
background will receive more attention. For example, plant safety signs with black lettering or a
yellow background or white lettering on a red background are more attention attracting.
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e. Movement: The movement principle says that people pay more attention to a moving
object than the stationery ones. People will be attracted more by a running train than one
standing on the platform.
3. Factors in the situation: The key factors in the situation category that impacts the perception
are explained briefly.
a. Time: Time associated with situation is one critical factor that affects perception. For
example, a student that study deeply from the beginning understands (perceive) the subject
matter easily and quickly.
b. Work setting: The work setting affects the perception in a major way. Peaceful work
setting enhances the perceptive ability of an individual. On the contrary, noisy and clumsy work
setting may erode the perceptive ability.
c. Social setting: Social setting -also affects the perception. Social surrounding related
individuals, occasion, culture, etc., impact the perception. For example, drinking alcohol is
perceived a part of life in Newar community. While for many other community, it is perceived as
a taboo.
12. What is attribution theory? Explain attribution errors.
Concept of Attribution Theory
Attachment of cause and affect explanation by a human to their behavior is termed as attribution.
The perception of people depends on whether he attributes the observed behavior to internal
causes or external causes. In this regard attributions theory has been proposed to develop
explanations of the ways in which we judge people differently, depending on what meaning we
attribute to a given behavior. Basically, the theory suggests that we observe an individual's
behavior; we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused.
Attribution Errors
An attribution error refers to the tendency of taking credit for success while blaming others or the
environment for failures Attribution error mainly occurs from the tendency of rater to judge
behavior of others strictly and Judges him loosely. Attribution errors are mainly classified into
three types.
• Fundamental attribution error: The fundamental attribution error is also called the
correspondence bias. It is the tendency to attribute other people's behavior to internal factors
such as personality traits, abilities and feelings.
• Self-serving bias: The self-serving bias is the tendency for individuals to attribute their
own success to internal factors and failures to situational factors: Self-serving bias tends to
increase as time passes after an event.
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• Optimistic bias: Optimistic bias is the tendency for individuals to view themselves as
relatively more successful than others. Moreover, they believe that cause of their success will
remain consistent, stable and expand.
13. How does the concept of perception apply in organizations?
Application of Perception in Organization
Perception applies in number of aspects in organization. Some of the most common ones are
explained briefly:
1. Employment interview: Interviewers make perceptual judgements that are often inaccurate.
Different interviewers try to see different things in the same candidate and thus, arrive at
different perceptions about the same candidate. A good candidate and a bad one may differ
markedly. Importantly, impression in the mind of interviewer weighs in the final selection of the
candidate, Information elicited early in the interview carries greater weight than the information
elicited later. That is why a good candidate is characterized more by the absence of unfavorable
characteristics than by the presence of favorable characteristics. In this way, it is clear that where
interview is an important input into selection decision, the perceptual factors influence the
decision that is to be selected. This, in turn, influences the quality of labor forces selected in an
organization.
2. Performance appraisal: Assessment of an employee's performance very much depends on the
perception -of the evaluator about the employee. Promotions, pay raises and continuation of job
are the most obvious and common outcomes of the employee's performance. Performance
appraisal is both objective and subjective. It may be objective when performance can easily be
quantified. For example, a salesman's performance can be assessed based on how many rupees of
sales he/she generated in his/her territory during a given period of time. However, many
employees' job is evaluated in subjective terms, An impressive amount of evidence demonstrates
that subjective measures are more judgmental. And judgement makes one's perception more
susceptible to distortions.
3. Performance expectation: New employees during their selection process acquire a set of
expectations both about the organization and about the job. In case, there is big difference
between what expected and what actually acquired, it results in increased employee absenteeism
and turnover.
4. Employee loyalty: While assessing employees, the managers also make another important
decision whether the employees are loyal to organization or not. Like effort, assessment of
loyalty is also a subjective aspect susceptible to perceptual distortions and bias. As an example,
an employee looking for greener pastures outside the organization may be labelled as disloyal to
the organization. As a resultant behavior, the organization may cut off his future advancement
opportunities.
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14. How does perception affect individual decision making? Illustrate with reference to the
various alternative decision making models.
Effects of Perception on Individual Decision Making
Individual can perceive differently for the same subject in different manner, which lead to the
best solution. Every decision requires interpretation and evaluation of information. Data are
typically received from multiple sources and they need to be screened, processed and interpreted.
The perceptions of the decision maker will give solution to that question.
Individual decision making is a crucial part of organizational behavior. For instance, top
managers determine their organization's goals. Similarly, non- managerial employees have to
make a lot of decision during their daily works as per the different situation in hand. It affects the
organization's long-term plans, its quality, performance and day-to-day operation. This all show
that perception plays a vital role in individual's decision process. It is further illustrated through
few decision making models
Alternative Decision Making Model
The main approaches to decision making may be studied in the following three dimensions:
1. Classical approach: This is also known as prescriptive, rational or normative model. It specifies
how decision should be made to achieve the desired outcome. Under this approach, decisions are
made rationally and are directed toward a single and stable goal. It is applied in certainty condition
in which the decision maker has full information relating to the problem and also knows all the
alternative solutions. It is an ideal way in making a decision? It is rational in the sense that it is
scientific, systematic and a step-by-step process. This model assumes the manager as a rational
economic man who makes decisions to meet the economic interest of the
organization, this model is based on the following assumptions:
• The decision maker has a clear, well-defined goal to be achieved.

• All the problems are precisely defined
• All alternative courses of action and their potential consequences are known.
• The decision maker can rank the entire alternatives on the basis of their preferred
consequences.
• The decision maker can select the alternative that maximizes outcome.
The classical model is supposed to be idealistic and rational but it is rarely found in practice.
2. Behavioral approach: This approach is also known as descriptive approach and administrative
model. The theory is proposed by Herbert A Simon, a well-known economist, in which he
attempts to explain how decisions are made in real life situations. Managers have limited and
simplified view of problems because they do not have full information about the problems, do
not possesses knowledge of all possible alternative solutions, do not have the ability to process
environmental and technological information and do not have sufficient time and resources to
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conduct an exhaustive search for alternative solutions to the problems. Therefore, this model is
based on two concepts:
a. Bounded rationality: Simon believed that managers are bound by limited mental capacity
and emotion as well as by environmental factors over which they have no control. Real life
challenges, time and resource limitations, political pressure and other internal and external
factors force the manager to work under the condition of bounded rationality. Therefore, the
manager cannot take a perfectly rational decision.
b. Satisfying: It is the selection of a course of action whose consequences are good enough.
Bounded rationality forces managers to accept decisions that are only 'good enough', rather than
ideal. Such managerial decisions become rational but within the limits of mangers' ability and
availability of information. Managers make decisions based on alternatives that are satisfactory.
The examples of satisfying decisions are fair price, reasonable profit, adequate market share,
proper quality products etc.
3. Implicit favorite model/Retrospective approach: This approach is applicable in non-
programmed decisions. In this approach, the manager first chooses an alternative solution to the
problem and highlights its strength, and compare with other alternatives and then identifies its
drawbacks. This is done with a view to proving that the alternative selected by the best solution
to the given problem. However, another alternative which seems to be similar to the implicit
favorite is short listed and is taken as second confirmation candidate. This approach can be
observed in the purchase of various favorite items in which a customer gives arguments in favor
of his choice on the basis of norms such as price, quality, appearance, easily availability, after-
sales service etc. to reject other items of same utility.
15. What is perceptual set? Discuss the principles of perceptual selection.
Perceptual Set
Perceptual set is an expectation of a perception based on past experience with the same or similar
stimuli. It presents a broad view about the environment and people which helps to guide an
individual's perception and behavior at work. The sources of perceptual sets are past experiences
and contents; past experience are the factors within a perceiver whereas contents are factors
outside the perceiver, which shape the perception and perpetual relation of a person.
Principles of Perceptual Selection
People are goal oriented and they have limited capacity to perceive. Therefore, they are always
selective. They select from among those physical stimuli which they can grasp at the moment in
time. Likewise, they select those stimuli which satisfy their needs, desires and expectations based
on their capacity. Some of the important principles of perceptual selection are given below:
1. Intensity: High intensity increases the changes of selection. If the message is bright, it
gets more attention than in normal case. Greater the intensity of stimulus, the more likely, it Will
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be noticed. An intense stimulus has more power to push itself our selection, filters then does the
weak stimulus.
2. Size: The principle of size says that the larger the object, the more is the probability that
it is perceived. Size attracts the attention of the individual. A full page spread advertisement
attracts more attention than a few lines in a classified section. The reason is not difficult to see.
The size establishes dominance and enhances perceptual selection.
3. Frequency/Repetition: The repetition principle states that a repeated external stimulus is
more attention- getting than a single one. It is for this reason there is repetitive advertising to
gain the customers attention.
4. Contrast: As per contrast principle, the external stimuli, which stands out against the
background will receive more attention. For example, plant safety signs with black lettering or a
yellow background or white lettering on a red background are more attention attracting.
5. Status: Status held by an individual also influences his/her perception about things or
events. Researchers suggest that people with high status often exert more influence on the
perception of an individual as compared to those holding low status.
6. Movement: The movement principle says that people pay more attention to a moving
object than the stationery ones. People will be attracted more by a running frail than one standing
on the platform.
7. Novelty and familiarity: This principle says that either a familiar or a novel (new) factor
in the environment can attract attention, depending on the circumstances. For example, people
would quickly notice an elephant walking along a city street. Someone is likely to notice the face
of a close friend among a group of approaching people.
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4.0 LEARNING
1. What is principle of intensity in learning?
Principle of intensity in learning states that an individual will learn more from a real thing
(primary) than from a substitute (secondary thing). As per this, a routine or boring experience
teaches less than a clear and dramatic learning experience.
2. Define learning.
Learning can be defined as relatively permanent change in behavior or behavior potential
resulting from direct or indirect experience. In other words, learning is any relatively permanent
change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience.
3. Enlist the major steps in learning process.
For learning process to be completed, the following steps are essential:
• A Stimulus
• Response Motivation or drive
Reward or incentive
• 4. What are the important theories of learning?

• Theories of learning help to explain how the process of learning occurs. There are four important theories
of learning enlisted as follows:
• Operant conditioning theory

• Cognitive theory
• Social learning theory
5. Define classical conditioning theory.
Classical conditioning theory was propounded by a Russian Psychologist Ivan Petrovich. As per
this theory, a formerly neutral stimulus when paired with an unconditional stimulus becomes a
conditioned stimulus that illicit a conditioned response.
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6. Define operant conditioning theory.

This approach to learning was proposed by B.F. Skinner. As per operant conditioning theory,
human behavior is a function of its consequences. Moreover, people learn to behave to get
something they want or avoid something they don't want.
7. Give the concept of cognitive learning.
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Cognitive theory of learning is also called as stimulus-stimulus theory of learning. This theory
primarily focuses on knowing the relationship between events and objects. As per this theory,
learning is considered as the outcome of deliberate thinking about the problem.
8. What do you mean by social learning?
Social learning theory proposed by Bandura is also known as observational learning. As per this
theory, new responses are learned through observing the behaviors of others.
9. List out the major steps of behavior modification.
The major steps of behavior modification are enlisted as follows:
• Identifying performance related behavior
• Measuring behavior
• Analyzing behavior
• Developing intervention strategy
• Improve employee skills

• Control employee behavior
• Identify skills
• A behavioral development
• Positive impact on job performance
12. Enlist the factors influencing learning.
The major factors influencing learning are listed as follows:
• Psychological factors
• Social factors
• Environmental factors
• Nature of learning material
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• Process of learning
• Personal factors
13. Give the names of major models of learning.
The names of major models of learning are enlisted as follows:
• Classical conditioning theory
• Operant conditioning theory
• Cognitive theory
• Social learning theory
14. Define the terms conditional and unconditional response.
Conditional response is a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus. Popularly referred as
UCR, unconditional response refers to an automatic and unlearned response triggered by
unconditional stimulus. For example, flow of saliva when we see our favorite food.
15. What are the components of learning? Explain the classical conditioning theory of
learning.
Components of Learning
The primary components of learning are discussed below:
 Change: One of the primary components of learning is change. Learning is change in
behavior. The change could either be good or bad from an organizational point of view:
 Relatively Permanent: The changing behavior must be relatively permanent. In that regard,
for a learning to occur, the change in behavior must be relatively permanent.
 Experience: It is important to have some form of experience for learning. Hence when
someone develops ability based on his maturation, diseases, damages, etc. it is not called
learning.
 Reinforcement: The learned behavior will eventually disappear if reinforcement do not
arrive, Reinforcement hence, is another primary component of learning.
Classical Conditioning Theory of Learning
It is a type of conditioning where an individual respond to some stimulus that would not
invariably produce such a response. Classical conditioning grew out of experience to teach dogs
to salivate in response to ringing of the bell, conducted by Russian psychologist, Wan Pavlov.
A simple surgical procedure allowed Pavlov to measure accurately the amount of saliva secreted
by a dog. When Pavlov presented the dog with a piece of meat, the dog exhibited a noticeable
increase in salivation. When Pavlov withheld the presentation of meat and nearly rang a bell, the
dog has no salivation. Then Pavlov proceeded to link the meat and the ringing of the bell. After
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repeatedly hearing the bell before getting the food, the dog began to salivate nearly at the sound
of the bell even if no food was offered. In effect, the dog learned to respond that is to salivate to
the bell.
The meat was unconditioned stimuli. It invariably caused the dog to react in a specific way.
Whenever, the bell was the artificial stimulus or conditioned stimulus the reaction took place.
While it was originally neutral, when the bell was paired with the meat (an unconditioned
stimulus), if eventually produced a response when presented alone. It is the conditioned
response. This describes the behavior of the dog salivating in reaction to the bell alone.
Using these we can summarize the classical conditioning. Learning a conditioned response
involves building up an association between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned
stimulus.
Using the paired stimulus, 40ne compelling and other one neutral, the neutral one becomes a
conditioned stimulus and hence takes on the properties of the unconditioned stimulus.
Classical conditioning is passive. Something happens and we behave in a specific way. It is

elicited in response to a specific, identifiable event. As such, it can explain simple reflexive
behaviors. But most behavior particularly the complex behavior of individuals in organization is
emitted rather than elicited. It is voluntary rather than reflexive. For example, employees choose
to arrive at work on time, ask their superiors for help with problems. The learning of these
behaviors is better understood by looking at operant conditioning.
16. What is learning? What are the factors influencing learning?
Meaning of Learning
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Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience. We
can say that the changes in the behavior indicate that learning has taken place and that learning is
a change in behavior.
Factors Influencing Learning
There are lots of factors that influence learning. Some of the most common are explained briefly.
1. Psychological factors: The Psychological factors that influence learning includes an
individual's interest, values, perception, beliefs, needs and
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5.0 PERSONALITY
1.What do you mean by agreeableness personality?
Represents to the ability of an individual to get along with other. People with agreeableness
personality are caring, empathetic polite, etc. in nature.
2. What is personality?
Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychological systems
that determine his -unique adjustment to his environment. In other words, personality is a
stable set of personal characteristics and tendencies that determine the commonalities and
differences in people's thoughts, beings and actions.
3. Enumerate the major determinants of personality.
The major determinants of personality are enlisted as follows:

Nature (Inborn factors)
 Biological determinants
 Heredity
 Brain
 Physical features
Nurture (Environmental and situational factors)
 Cultural factors
 Family and social factors
 Situational factors
4. Differentiate between extrovert and introvert personality type.
The persons with extrovert personality type are the one who are outgoing, talkative, social
and assertive in nature. On the contrary, introvert is exactly opposite to extrovert. Person's
with introvert personality are quite, shy and cautious in nature.
5. Contrast between thinking and judging types of personality.
Thinking and judging types of personality are contrasted as follows:

Thinking Personality Judging Personality
Individual with thinking personality use Individual with judging personality prefer
reason and logic to handle problem. their world to be ordered and structured.
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6. State Big Five personality traits.
The big five personality traits are enlisted as follows:

 Conscientiousness
 Emotional stability
 Openness
 Agreeableness
 Extroversion
7. Enlist the major personality attributes influencing organizational behaviour.
The major personality attributes influencing organizational behaviour are enlisted as follows:
 Locus of control
 Machiavellianism
 Self-monitoring
 Risk taking
 Personality type
 Self-esteem
8. What is personality? What are its major determinants?
Concepts of Personality
Personality is the major factor that influences individual behaviour in an organization. To
understand the behaviour of an individual or a person, one must be familiar about personality.
By understanding the personality, behavior can be directed and controlled. Personality does
not mean handsome and ugliness of human being. Instead, it is the aggregate form of traits,
qualities and features of an individual. It is concerned with reaction and interaction of
individual and situation. Thus, personality represents personal characteristics that lead to
consistent patterns of behaviors.
Major Determinants of Personality

Is the personality predetermined at birth itself? Or is it the result of Individual’s interaction
with one's environment? Strictly speaking, there is no clear-cut answer to this question.
Different thinkers of personality have listed different determinants I of personality. In this
regard, the major determinants of personality are explained briefly:
i. Heredity factors: Personality is the aggregates form of traits, qualities and features of
human beings. Individuals have unique genes and chromosomes. Most of the characteristics
of our parents are transmitted to us through genes and chromosomes. Thus, heredity approach
says that personality is the muscular structure of genes.
ii. Environmental factors: Personality is influenced by environmental factors also. For
example, Le us suppose, someone is grown in an open society where talking with strangers
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without a feel of shyness is common norm. Such environment is instrumental in developing a

personality that can speak with confidence. On the contrary rural children may hesitate in
talking with anyone as they are brought up in a narrow society.
iii. Situational factor: Another key determinant that shape personality is situation. Situation
affects heredity and environment traits of people changes as per situation.
iv. Experience in life: Whether one trusts or mistrusts others, is miserly or generous, has a
high or low self-esteem, and the like is at least partially related to the past experience the
individual has had. For example, a person who has been betrayed time and again would take
time to trust a new person. His personality will develop in such a way that he will look to
people with a suspect eye.
9. What determines the personality of a person? Discuss the major personality attributes
influencing organizational behaviour.
Determinants of Personality of a Person
Please seer Q.No.8
Major Personality Attributes Influencing 0B
The major personality attributes or traits that influence organizational behaviour are
explained as follows:
i. Locus of control: This concept denotes whether people believe that they are in control of
events or events control them. Those who have an internal locus of control (internals) believe
that they control and shape the course of events in their lives, while those who have an
external locus of control (externals) believe that events occur purely by chance or because of
factors beyond their own control. Internal, as compared to externals, seek more job related
information, try to influence, other at work, seek opportunities for advancement and rely
more on their own abilities and judgment at work.
ii. Machiavellians: Manipulation of others as a primary way of achieving one's goals is what
Machiavellians is all about. Individuals high on the Mach scale, a scale developed to measure
the extent to which an individual tends to be Machiavellian tend to be cool, logical in
assessing the system around them. Moreover, they are willing to twist and turn facts to
influence others and try to gain control of people, events, and situations by manipulating the
system to their advantage. Machiavellian may fool-a few people for a short time, but in the
long run, they tend to be distrusted and disliked by many in the system and hence may
become ineffective.
iii. Self-esteem and self-concept: Self-esteem denotes the extent to which individuals
consistently regard themselves as capable, successful, important and worthy individuals. This
is an important personality factor that determines how managers perceive themselves and
their role in the organization. Self-esteem is important to self-concept, that is, the way
individual define themselves as to who they are and derive their sense of identity. High self-
esteem provides a high sense of self-concept; high self-concept in turn, reinforces high self-
esteem. Thus, the two are - mutually reinforcing. Individuals high in self-esteem will try to
take on more challenging assignments and be successful, thus enhancing their self- concept,
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that is they would tend to define themselves as highly valuable and valued individuals in
organization system. The higher the self, concept and self-esteem, the greater will be their
contributions to the goals of the organization; especially when the system rewards them for
them contributions.
iv. Tolerance for ambiguity: This personality characteristic indicates the level of uncertainty
that people can tolerate without experiencing undue stress and can still function effectively.
Managers have to work well under conditions of extreme uncertainty and insufficient
information, especially when things are rapidly changing in the organization's external
environment. Managers who have a high tolerance for ambiguity can cope well under these
conditions.
v. Risk taking: People differ in their willingness to take risks: Individuals can be high risk
taking and low-risk taking. High-risk taking managers tend to make quick decision with less
information. However, demands of the job determine the degree of risk taking.
vi. Personality type: Individuals can have type A personality or type B personality. Type A
persons feel a chronic sense of time urgency are high achievement oriented, exhibit a
competitive drive and are impatient when their work is slowed down for any -reason. Type B
persons -are easy going individuals who do not experience the competitive drive. Type A
individuals are significantly more prone to heart attack than type B persons. While type A
persons help the organization to move ahead in a relatively short period of time they may also
suffer health problems, which might be detrimental to both themselves and the organization
in the long run.
10. Differentiate between personality and behaviour. Explain the approaches you would
follow for matching personality and jobs.
Differentiation between Personality and Behaviour
Personality and behaviour are differentiated below.
Personality Behaviour
Personality is defined as the Behaviour is the outcome of external
characteristic patterns of behaviour and stimulus and internal cognitive or
modes of thinking that determine a mental process.
person's adjustment to the environment.
Personality cannot be easily predicted Behaviour can be predicted and can also
and measured. be measured in some extent.
Personality is the source of new Behaviour is the result of new

information received and interpreted by information
an individual. received and interpreted by an
individual.
Personality mainly is the result of Behaviour is resulted from motivation

individual characteristics. and the result of situation.
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Approaches for Matching Personality and Jobs

Personality and jobs are matched to ensure personality-job fit. When a job is assigned as per
the personality of the individual, high performance can be expected. So, a rational manager
should always think of personality of the employee while assigning him any task.
Organizations operate in a dynamic and complex environment. They want employees who
can readily change tasks and move between teams. They aim for a personality- organization
fit. Organization should select those employees who fit better with organization's culture.
This leads to high satisfaction and low turnover.
Some of the approaches that are followed for matching personality and jobs are explained
below:
i.Realistic: It prefers physical activities that require skill, strength and coordination. The
personality characteristics of realistic are shy genuine, stable conforming etc. Their
matching jobs are drill, press, etc.
ii. Investigative: It prefers activities that involve thinking organizing and understanding.
The personality characteristics tare analytical, original curious, independent etc. - Their
matching job are news reporter, mathematician, etc.
iii. Social: It prefers activities that involve helping and developing others. The personality
- characteristics are sociable, friendly, cooperative, understanding, etc. Their matching
jobs are teaching, counsellor, social worker etc.
iv.Conventional: It prefers rule regulated, ordering and unambiguous activities. The
personality characteristics are conforming, efficient, practical, unimaginative, inflexible,
etc. Their matching jobs are accountant, bank teller, manager etc.
v. Enterprising: It prefers verbal activities where there are opportunities to influence other
and attain power. The personality characteristics are self-confident, ambitious, energetic
dominating, etc. Their matching jobs are lawyer, P/R officer, and small business manager.
vi. Artistic: It prefers ambiguous and unsystematic activities that allows creative
expression. The personality traits are imaginative, idealistic, etc. Their matching jobs are
painter, musician, writer, etc.
Thus, if jobs are matched to personality attributes, employee will be more motivated towards
the job given to him. Therefore, a rational manager should be conscious regarding the type of
the job and personality of the employee.
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6.0MOTIVATION
1. Enlist the motivational factors in Herzberg's two-factor theory.
The key motivational factors as per Herzberg are listed as follows:

 Achievement
 Recognition
 Work itself
 Responsibility
 Advancement
 Growth
2. What is motivation?
Motivation is a process that starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or needs

that activates behaviour or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive. In other words,
motivation represents those psychological process that cause the arousal, direction and
persistence of voluntary actions that are goal directed.
3. Point out the importance of motivation.
The primary importance of motivation is enlisted as follows:

 Motivation helps to create employee that are productive and creative in nature.
 Motivation helps to reduce turnover and absenteeism associated with employee.
 Motivation is important in maintaining good industrial relation in workplace.
Need refers to the state of felt deprivation. As per Maslow, the different types of needs are
enlisted as follows:
 Physiological needs
 Safety needs
 Social needs
 Esteem/ Ego needs
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5. Sketch the motivation process.
The motivational process is showcased as following:
6. Enlist the salient features of motivation.
The salient features of motivation are enlisted as follows:

 Motivation is continuous in nature.
 Motivation can either be positive or negative.
 Motivation is one complex entity.
 Motivation is system oriented.
 Motivation is goal focused.
The relationship is showcased as follows:

P=f(A+M+O)
where, P: performance;
f: function;
A: ability;
M: motivation;
O: opportunity
8. What are the various kinds of employee motivation?
The various kinds of employee motivation are enlisted as follows:

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 Positive motivation: Influence others to do your will through the possibility of gain
and reward.
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 Negative motivation: It is based on force and fear.

 Extrinsic motivation: It is based on external motivators which employees enjoy.
 Intrinsic motivation: It is based on employees internal feeling of having accomplished
something substantial.
 Self-motivation: Motivation due to oneself.
9. Differentiate between positive and negative motivation.

Positive Motivation Negative Motivation
Positive motivation is an attempting to Negative motivation is a process of

influence others to do your will through the attempting to influence others to do your
possibility of gain or reward. will through possibility of force and fear.
Positive motivation is also known as Negative motivation is also known as fear

incentive motivation. motivation.
10.Contrast intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are contrasted as follows:
Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation refers to internal desire Extrinsic motivation occurs when person is
to perform a particular task. motivated to perform a behaviour to earn a
reward or avoid punishment.
11. Explain in short about self-motivation.
Self-motivation is the force that drives a person to do things without another's prodding or
supervision. Among all kinds of motivation, self-motivation is deemed as the best one.
12. What do you mean by biological needs and security needs?
Biological needs also known as physiological needs are the basic needs essential to survive.
For example: food, shelter, clothing, water, air, sleep, sex, etc.
Security need also known as safety needs refers to protection against deprivation, danger and
threat on or off the job.
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13. What do you mean by social needs, esteem needs and self-actualization needs?
Social need or affiliation needs refers to affection, sense of belongingness, acceptance and
friendship. Esteem needs are psychological in nature and represent the higher level needs.
These needs include internal factors such as self-respect, autonomy and external factors such
as status, recognition, etc.
Self-actualization needs are the highest level of need as per Maslow. Self-actualization needs
are primarily related to personal growth, self-fulfillment and the realization of one's full
potential.
14. List the hygiene factors.
The key hygiene factors as per Herzberg are listed below:

 Company policy and administration
 Relationship with supervisor
 Work conditions
 Salary
 Relationship with peers
 Personal life
 Relationship with subordinates
 Status
 Security
15. Point out the weakness of need hierarchy theory.
The key weakness of need hierarchy theory is enlisted as follows:

 Need hierarchy theory is not universal in nature.
 It is not fully comprehensive.
 Need hierarchy theory ignores simultaneous emergence of needs.
 It ignores complex human behaviour.
16. Point out the weakness of two-factor theory.
 The key weaknesses of two-factor theory are pointed as follows:

 Two-factor theory drew conclusion from a limited experiment covering engineers and
accountant.
 There may not be -any direct cause and effect relationship between satisfaction and
performance.
 Two factor theory ignores situational variables.
 The methodology used in two factor theory creates a bias among human beings at the
time of giving answers.
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17. List out the weakness of achievement theory.
The primary weaknesses of achievement model are enlisted as follows:

 It is very difficult to teach or incorporate achievement motivation among the
employees. This is so because acquisition of motives occurs in childhood.
 Achievement motivation moreover is a temporary encouraged feeling, hence, even if
it is created through training it won't last for long.
18. Point out the weakness of equity theory.
The key weaknesses of equity theory are enlisted as follows:

 Equity theory overemphasizes conscious process and narrows 'its emphasis on visible
rewards.
 Assessment of perception of employee is very difficult.
 Moreover, equity theory is not precise enough to predict the probable actions.
19. Point out the limitations of expectancy theory.
The key advantages of equity theory are enlisted as follows:

 It explains that everyone in the organization needs to understand the basis for rewards.
 It explains the multifaceted view people have towards rewards.
 It establishes the fact that people base their actions on their perceptions of reality.
21. State the characteristics of goal setting theory.
The primary characteristics of goal setting theory are enlisted as follows:

 It suggests goal to be specific and clear.
 Goals should be challenging and realistic in nature.
22. What is employee involvement program?
Employee involvement program is one of the widely used technique of motivation for
performance. Also popularly known as participative management, employee involvement
program focuses on involvement of employee in management activities. Employee
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involvement program is based On the viewpoint that effective results can be achieved with
the help of employees if they are given participation in management.
23. Explain the equity theory with its positive and negative aspects.
Equity Theory of Motivation

Equity theory of motivation was developed by J, Stacy Adams in 1963. It is a cognitively
based motivation theory. This theory is based on the notion that people want to be treated
fairly in relation to other for motivation. According to the equity theory of motivations, input
and outcome ratio will help the individual to have an idea of being in a situation of equity or
inequity. Inputs are the individual's responsibility and other factors that they put into the job,
whereas outcomes are the promotion, pay raise, recognition of the work done, etc. in
exchange for the input. Thus, the equity theory states that an individual compares his input/
outcomes to that of the other working in the same position in the organization or in other
organizations and tries to establish equity. In the process of comparison, if the individual
perceives any sort of inequity he or she will change his or her behaviour at work.
Positive Aspects
Some of the key positive aspects associated with equity theory are listed below.
 It helps in finding the equity between the groups so that group motivation is enhanced.
 It helps in providing the fair pay to the employees per their personal capabilities.
 It also determines how input and outcomes of a person can be matched.
Negative Aspects
Some of the key negative aspects associated with equity theory are listed below.
 It cannot provide the ideas regarding how to change the 'input and outcome of
individual.
 The equity between input and output is almost impossible to gain as it depends upon
the personal perception of employees.
 The input cannot be changed easily. Moreover; change in outcome can become
conflicting.
 The equity theory is useful only for the company having very small number of
employee.
24. Define motivation. Explain the motivation process.
Motivation
Motivation originally comes from the Latin root word Moreover, which means "to move", It
is derived from the word motive. Motive may be defined as an Inner State of our mind that
activates and directs our behavior. Motivation is a process that starts with a physiological or
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psychological deficiency or needs that activates behavior or a drive that is aimed at a goal or
incentive. In other words, motivation represents those psychological process that cause the
arousal, direction and persistence of voluntary actions that are goal directed.
Motivation is one's willingness to exert efforts towards the accomplishment of his/her goal.
Job performance is a function of employee ability plus motivation. Employee may possess
necessary skills and abilities. But without lack of motivation employee cannot perform their
work effectively. A well- motivated employee can contribute more to an organization. Thus,
the duty of every rational manger is to create an environment to motivate the entire employee.
Motivation Process
Referring to the given figure, an unsatisfied need is the Starting point in the process of motivation. It is the
deficiency of something within the individual and provides the spark begins the chain of events leading to
behaviour.
An unsatisfied need causes tension i.e. physical and psychological within the individual; lead, 'the individual to
engage in some kind of search behaviour (seek a means) to satisfy the need and thereby reduce the tension. For
example, a thirsty person needs water which leads to tension. He is then driven by thirst and motivated by a
desire for water in order to satisfy the need. Thus, the continuous process begins, with an unsatisfied need and
ends with the need satisfaction, with goal directed behaviour as a part of the process.
Expectancy Model of Motivation

One of the most descriptive and logical explanations of -motivation is offered by Victor
Vroom in his Expectancy Theory. It is a cognitive process theory of motivation. The theory is
founded on the basic notions that people will be motivated to exert a high level of effort when
they believe there are relationships between the effort they put forth, the performance they
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achieve, and the outcomes they receive.

The relationships between notions of effort, performance, and rewards are depicted in the
following figure.
Thus, the key construct in the Vroom's expectancy theory Of motivation are:
i. Valence: Valence, according to Vroom, means the value of strength one places on
a particulars outcome or reward.
ii. Expectancy: It relates efforts to performance.
iii. Instrumentality: By instrumentality, Vroom means the belief that performance is
related to rewards
Thus, Vroom's motivation can be expressed in the form of an equation as follows:
Motivation =Valence* Expectancy* Instrumentality
As the model is multiplicative in nature, all the three variables must have high positive values
to imply motivated performance choices. If any one of the variables approaches to zero level,
the possibility of these motivated performance also touches zero level. Expectancy and
instrumentality are attitudes, or more -specifically; they are cognitions. As such, they
represent an individual's perception of the likelihood that effort -will lead to performance and
performance will lead to the desired outcomes. Similarly, on the other hand/ it can be used to
define what is termed a strong situation. Strong situations act to have base is a strong
influence on the behaviour of individuals, often overriding their personalities, personal
_preferences, and other dispositional variables.
26.How could a manager apply the concept of management by objectives (MBO) to

motivate employees at work? Explain.
MBO as a Significant Tool of Motivation
The term 'management by objectives' (MBO) was first coined by Peter Drucker in 1954,
Drucker fried to attach MBO level to result-oriented evaluations. He proposed MBO as a
means of using goals to motivate people rather than to control them. Management by
objectives can simply be defined as a program that encompasses specific goals, anticipatively
set, for an explicit time period, with feedback on goal progress.
MBO provides specific objectives for each succeeding level (i.e., divisional, departmental,
individual in the organization). In other words, MBO is a process by which objectives
cascade down through the organization as depicted in the following figure.
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An MBO program or process consists of four common ingredients are explained below.
i. Specificity: The objectives in MBO should be clear and precise that can be measured and
evaluated. To state a desire to cut costs, for example, may not be enough. 'Instead, to cut
costs by 5 per cent will be more clear, exact and measurable objective.
ii. Participative decisions/Objectives: An MBO goals are not imposed on people. The
superior and subordinates jointly set objectives to be attained.
iii. Explicit time: Each objective is to be completed within a specific time period, be it three
months, six months or a year.
iv. Performance feedback: The final ingredient in an MBO programme is feedback. It
includes -continuous and systematic measurement and review of performance. Based on
these, corrective actions are taken to achieve the planned objectives.
27.0ne of the major challenges faces by modern manager is to motivate the employees in
the organization. In the context of this statement, discuss McClelland's theory of
motivation and its application.
McClelland's Theory of Motivation
In the early 1950s, David C. McClelland and his associates began to study three needs that
motivate -human behaviour i.e. power, affiliation and achievement. McClelland believes that
each person has a need for all three but there is difference in the degree to which the various
needs motivate their behaviour.
Applications of McClelland's theory
i. Need for Achievement [n Ach]: Need for achievement explains the drive to excel, to
achieve in relation to a set of standard, and to strive to succeed. In other words, need for
achievement is behaviour directed toward competition with a standard of excellence.
McClelland found that people with a high need for achievement perform better than those
with a moderate or low need for achievement, and noted regional/ national differences in
achievement motivation. Through his research, McClelland identified the following three
characteristics of high need achievers:
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a. High-need achievers have a strong desire to assume personal responsibility for performing
a task or finding a solution to a problem.
b. High-need achievers tend to set moderately difficult goals and task calculated risks.
c. High-need achievers have a strong desire for performance feedback.
ii. Need for Power [n Pow]: The need for power is concerned with making an impact on
other, the desire to influence other, and the desire to make a difference in life. People with a
high need for power are people who like to be in control of people and events. This results in
ultimate satisfaction in man.
People who have a high need for power are characterized by:
a. A desire to influence arid direct somebody else.
b. A desire to exercise control over others.
c. A concern for maintaining leader-follower relations.
iii. Need for Affiliation [n Aff]: The need for affiliation is defined as a desire to establish and
maintain friendly and warm relations with other people The need for affiliation, in many
ways, is similar to Maslow's social needs. The people with high need for affiliation have
these characteristics:
a. They have a strong desire for acceptance and approval from others.
b. They tend to conform to the wishes of those people whose friendship and companionship
they value.
c. They give value and feeling to others.
28. Write a brief concept of job satisfaction. How does job satisfaction affect employee
performance? How can you measure whether an employee is satisfied at job or not?
Concept of Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction is a general attitude of an individual in regard to job. It is based on the
difference between the amount of reward workers receive and the amount they believe they
should receive, Management should place employees properly according to their merit,
attitudes, interest and competencies. The well placed employees take pride, interest and
initiatives in their work and derive job satisfaction and thereafter leads to realization of
individual and organizational goal.
There are different ways to express job satisfaction. Some of them are given below.
Employee can express dissatisfaction in following way:
IV.
Exist Leave the organization
Noise Though active a constructive attempt to improve conditions
Loyalty passively waiting for condition to improve
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Neglect allowing condition to worsen.
Effect of Job Satisfaction on Employee Performance

The effects of job satisfaction on employee performance are following:
Satisfaction and Productivity
Usually job satisfaction is positively related with an employee's performance. L example,
happy organizations are more productive.
Satisfaction and turnover
Usually they are negatively related. Less turnover because of recognition, praise rewards etc.
given to them. Approaches to Measure Employees' Job Satisfaction There are two major
approaches by which we can measure whether an employee is satisfied at job or not. They are
briefly explained as follows.
i. Single global rating: It is nothing more than asking individuals to respond to one question,
such as "all things considered, how satisfy are you with your job?" Respondents theft reply
by circling a number between I and 5 that corresponds to solution from "highly satisfied" to
highly dissatisfied.
ii. Summation score: It identifies key elements in a job and asks for the employee's feeling
about each; typical factors to be included are nature of the work, supervision, present pay,
promotion, opportunities and relations with co-worker.
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7.0 GROUPS AND TEAMS IN ORGANIZATION

1. Define virtual team.
A team that consists of members who are separated by distance and connected by a computer is
termed as virtual team. Members in virtual team communicate with each other online through
internet.
2. What do you mean by group?

A group is defined as two or more individuals interacting and interdependent, who have come
together to achieve particular objectives. In other words, a group is the largest set of two or more
individuals who are jointly characterized by a network of relevant communication, a shared
sense of collective identity and one shared dispositions with associated normative strength.
3. What are the important features of group?

The primary features of a group are enlisted as follows:
 Collection of two or more people
 Common goals or interest
 Interaction and interdependence
 Collective identity
 A stable structure
 Group norm and value
4. Define formal group.

When a group is defined on the basis of organizational structure with designated work
assignments establishing task, it is termed as formal group. Formal group are created deliberately
to perform the assigned task by managements. Formal group are mainly classified into two
categories namely: command group and task group.
5. Define informal group.

When a group evolves spontaneously without being shown in the organization’s structure, with
primary objective of fulfilling personal and social needs of its members, it is termed as informal
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group. Informal group is further classified into two groups namely: interest group and friendship
group.
6. What do you mean by group dynamics?

Group dynamics refers to the social process by which people interact face-to-face in small
groups. As the word dynamics comes from the Greek word meaning force, group dynamics
refers to the study of forces operating within a group. Group dynamics is relevant in both formal
and informal groups.
7. Define self-managed work team.

Self –managed work team refers to self-organized, semi-autonomous small group of employees
whose members determine, plan and manage their day-to-day activities and duties under reduced
or no supervision. Self-managed work teams are primarily based on work process rather than
specialized departments as core work units.
8. List out the five major stages of group formation process.

The major stages of group formation are enlisted as follows:
 Forming
 Storming
 Norming
 Performing
 Adjourning
9. State any four reasons why people join group.
From employees’ point of view Form organizational point of view
Security Socialization of new employee

Status Getting the job done
Self-esteem Decision making
Affiliation Communication
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10. What is a cross functional team?

When a team is formed drawing members from different departments or functional areas, it is
termed as cross functional group. Cross functional team are formed to solve problems that are
normally unsolved by individuals departments. Once the problem is solved, cross-functional
team normally disbanded.
11. Enlist few salient characteristics of a team.

The salient characteristics of team are enlisted as follows:
 Team is generally small in size.
 Team is generally formed to bring revolutionary change.
 Team is associated with common goal.
12.Mention the major factors affecting inter-group relations.

The major factors affecting inter-group relations are enlisted as follows:
 Composition of group (homogenous or heterogeneous)
 Size
 Frequency of interaction among group members clarity in goal (clear or ambiguous)
 Development time
13. State the contingency variables affecting group behavior.
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The key contingency variables affecting group behavior are enlisted as follows:
a. External conditions imposed on the group
 Organizational strategy
 Formal regulations
 Authority structure
 Organizational structure
 Human resource selection process
b. Group numbers resources
 Abilities
 Personality
c. Group structure
 Formal leader
 Roles
 Norms
 Group status, size and composition
14. What is social-loafing?

Social loafing is the tendency of group members to do less than they are capable of as
individuals. Socials loafing explains the negative side if group size. As per social loafing,
increase in group size is inversely related to individual performance.
15. What are the issues related to group decision making?

The major issues related to the group decision making are enlisted as follows:
 Issues of time constraints
 Issue of group polarization
 Issue of group thinking
 Issue of real participation
 Issue of cost vs. benefit
16. Enlist the types of group in organization.
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The major types of group in an organization are enlisted as follows:

 Formal group
 Command group
 Task group
 Informal group
 Interest group
 Friend group
17. State the major causes of group shift in group decision making process.
The major causes of group shift in group decision making process are enlisted as follows:
 When the group members exaggerate the situation.
 When group tasks extreme decision with excitement.
 When group members are influenced by extreme versions and altitudes.
18. Explain the nature and significances of informal groups.

Nature and Significances of Informal Groups in Organization
Informal groups are neither formally structures nor organizationally determined. It is based on
personal interaction, sentiments and social activities. It has members with common objectives or
similar need for social affiliation and friendship. It quickly adapts to environmental changes but
resists to the change within the group. Some of the key points that explain the significance of
informal groups in organization are explained briefly.
1. Compensation for the low capacity manager’s ability: managers may not be capable in all
the fields. In same, he may snag the ability. Especially, in planning and other decision making
his snags (i.e. low capacity) can be compensated by his subordinates informally, if he has the
goes relationship with informal group.
2. Useful channel of communication: Communication through informal group is faster than
formal. Any information through the channel of informal groups spreads quickly. Thus the
informal group proves to be very useful channel for effective communication.
3. Compel managers to plan and act cautiously: informal groups induce the managers to
plan and act cautiously because of weak plan and action is always undermined by the groups.
4. Provides sense of belongingness and security: informal group provides satisfaction and
stability of work team to attain a sense of belongingness and security. A new employee will
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remain an isolate until the group accepts him as a member he attains a sense of belongingness
and security.
5. Greater performance and supervision: Informal groups help get the jobs done or control
performance. If the manager feels that his work team is co-operating him, he has less need for
checking frequently and confidently delegate and decentralize work. The informal group
supports leads to general supervision instead of close supervision, which enhances the
productivity of the employees later on.
6. Reduced frustration and allied employee: Informal groups are the safety value for the
frustration and allied employee because if any employee feels irritated with his superior’s
behavior, he can talk it to his group members and can dissipates his unpleasant feelings.
20. What do you mean by group? What are the reasons for joining groups? Explain.
Meaning of Group
Group is a collection of two or mare individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come
together to achieve particulars common objectives. A group is an aggregation of people who
interact with each other, are aware of one another, have common objectives, and perceive
themselves to be a group.
Mere collection people cannot constitute a group. For example, a crowd in front of a shop in the
market watching will not be called as group because people do not interact with one another, and
also do not share a common purpose.
Reason of People Forming and Joining Group
People form and become members of a group for a variety of different reasons. Some of them are
explained below.
1. Safety and security: Groups provide protection to their members from outside pressures.
That is why workers join trade unions to feel safe and secure.
2. Relatedness or belongingness needs: People being social belong, relating to groups
satisfies a numbers of their social needs. In every organization, there are many persons who are
very isolated or who prefer to be absent from work most of the times. Studies shows, such
phenomena occur more where people are unable to belong to groups.
3. Esteem needs: when one member of a group and does some good piece of work, gets
praised from other. This is turn, brings a sense of recognition to the group members, on the one
hand, and a sense of fulfillment of one’s need for growth towards achievement of work and
better prospects, on the other side.
4. Power: one of the appealing aspects of group is that they represent power and also offer
power to their members. Workers enjoy much greater power by joining groups than they do as
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individuals. This is because of at least two reasons: (i) there is strength in numbers, and (ii)
united we stand, divide we fall.
5. Identity: as a member of a group, and individuals gets identity who am I? In practices we
understand ourselves through the behavior of other towards us. For examples, when people
praise, we feel great, if others laugh at us, we see ourselves as the funny ones.
21. What are the stages of group development? Describe with suitable examples.
Stages of Group Development
The most widely accepted stages of group development are explained below
1. Forming stages: The first stage for almost every group is an orientation stage. This stage
is marked by a great deal of caution, confusion, courtesy and uncertainty about the group’s
purpose, structure, and leadership. The formal leader exerts a great influence in structuring the
group and shaping member expectations. This stage is complete when members of the group
have begun to think of themselves as part of a group.
2. Storming stage: this stage is characterized by conflict, confrontation, concern and
criticism. Struggles for the individual power and influences are common. In case, the conflict
becomes extremely intense and dysfunctional; the group may dissolve or continue as an
ineffective group that never advances to higher levels of group maturity.
3. Norming stage: this is the stage in which close relationship among the members develops.
The group develops cohesiveness. The group now assume to certain identity and camaraderie.
4. Performing stage: this is the highest level of group maturity. This state is marked
teamwork, role clarity, and task accomplishment. Conflict is identified and resolves through
group discussion. The members of this group are aware through group discussion. The members
of the group are aware of group’s process and the extent of their own involvement of the group.
5. Adjourning stage: this stage is recognized as the last stage of group i.e. completing every
task and the group will be automatically adjourned. Groups are adjourned for two reasons. First,
the group has completed its task. Second, the members decide to disband and close the group
with sentimental feeling.
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22. Why should managers be aware of the informal group? Describe the element of group
cohesiveness.
Reasons For Aware of Informal Group
A manager should be aware of the informal group in regards to both positive and
negative aspects. The rational manager should focus on negative side than positive because
negative aspects of informal groups are more dangerous and create problems to entire
organization.
Some of the key reasons that highlight the necessity of being aware about informal groups are
listed below.
 Informal group can have unfair views to the management.
 Unnecessary politics may arise in organization.
 Informal groups may end at any time.
 Informal group may not have best leadership to energize and synergize the work
efficiency.
 Informal groups can create the ethnical confusion in organization as views are interacted
to produce contrast views.
 Informal group sometimes is translated in organizational activities.
Element of Group Cohesiveness
Group cohesion means the degree to which the group members are attracted to each and
remain within the group. It is usually reflects by its resistance to disruption by outside forces.
Group cohesive develops out of the activities, interaction, and sentiments of the members.
The key elements of group cohesiveness are explained briefly.
1. Group size: one of the important and necessary conditions for the existence of the group is that
members interact and communicate with each other. If the group is so large that members do not
get to know each other, there is a little likelihood that the group will be high in cohesiveness.
This is a logical assumption that would be made by those who understand the difficulties of
communication I large groups. Research studies have found that inverse relationship does not
exists between the size of the group and the group cohesive. As the size increases, its
cohesiveness decreases.
2. Member similarity: the degree of cohesiveness will be high when group members are similar
in age, backgrounds and values. In other words, homogeneous group will be more cohesive than
heterogeneous group. It is because of more trust and less conflict among the group members with
homogeneous character.
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3. Member interaction: when member interact frequently, there trends to be more group of
cohesive because they got chance to share ideas and views in order to avoid the situation of
misunderstanding and conflict.
4. Groups success: A successful group tends to be more cohesive than a group of repetitive
failure records. Group members of the succession group believe that, because of their successive
records in the past, they will remain successful in the future too.
23. Explain the concept of self-managed work team and discuss the major issues in
managing work teams.
Self-managed Work Team
Self-managed work team refers to self-organized, semi-autonomous small group of employees
whose members determine, plan and managed their day-to-day activities and duties under
reduced or no supervision. Self-managed work teams are primarily based on work process rather
than specialized departments as core work units. Typically, self-managed teams are group of 10-
15 employees who perform related or interdependent jobs. They select their own members and
evaluate each other's performance. It increases productivity and satisfaction. However, the
effectiveness of self-managed teams is dependent on situation. They have reduced the
importance of supervisor position. Due to this reason, many companies in U.S. Europe, Japan are
putting to their effort to developed self-managed team in their organizations.
Major Issues in Managing Work Teams
The major issues that need to be addressed in managing work-team are explained below.
1. Facilitate the adoption of TQM
The TQM requires encouragement to employee by management to share ideas and implement
improvements. Team provides the vehicle for employees to share ideas and to implement
improvement. The issue is how to make the work teams effective for quality problem solving,
especially in terms of size, ability, resources, mobilization etc.
2. Workforce diversity on team performance
The strongest case for diversity on work teams is when these teams areengaged in problem-
solving and decision-making tasks. Diverse groups have more difficulty working together and
solving problem but this dissipate with time.
3. Increasing team effectiveness
An important issue is how to increase and maintain team effectiveness. For this, the following
things should be taken into considerations.
• Prepare member to deal with the problem of maturity- remind them that they are not unique.
• Offer refresher training
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• Offer advanced training

• Encourage team to treat their development as a constant learning experience.
24. Elucidate the concept of group dynamics and state how group norms are developed and
enforced.
Concept of Group Dynamics
The social process by which people interact face to face in small group is called group dynamics.
The word 'dynamics' comes from the Greek word meaning 'force', hence group dynamics refers
to the study of forces operating within a group. Two important historical landmarks in our
understanding of small groups are the research of Elton Mayo and his associates in the 1920s and
1930s and the experiments in the 1930s of Kurt Lewin, the founder of the group dynamics
movement. Mayo showed that workers tend to establish informal groups that affect job
satisfaction and effectiveness. Lewin showed that different kinds of leadership produced
different responses in groups.
Groups have properties of their own that are different from the properties of the individuals who
make up the group. The special properties of groups are illustrated by a simple lesson in
mathematics. Suppose we say 'one plus one equals three.' In the world of mathematics that is a
logical error. But in the world of group dynamics it is entirely rational to say 'one plus one equals
three'. In a group, there is no such thing as only two people, for no two people can be considered
without including their relationship, and that relationship is the third element in the equation.
Development and Enforcement of Group Norms
Group norm is standard of behaviour. In other words, groups norm is a rule that tells the
individual how to behave in a particular group. Thus, group norms identify the stai1dards
against which the behaviour of group member will be evaluated and help the group members
know what they should or should not do. Norms could be formal or could be informal.
According to Schein, there are pivotal and-relevant group norms while the pivotal norms are
confirmed by every member of the group, the relevant norms are desirable to be confirmed by
the members. With increase in the size of the group, the acceptability of norms tends to lessen.
Small deviation of norms is allowable. However in case of extreme deviation, the deviator gets
punished. For example, when the union is on strike, if its member attending to work are punished
by being boycotted by the group. Hence, norms serve as the basis for behaviour of group
members. They predict and control the behaviour of member in groups.
10
LEADERSHIP
1. What is charismatic leadership?
Charismatic theory of leadership primary focuses on the ability of a leader. As per this theory,
effectiveness of leadership depends upon leader's ability to communicate new vision to its
followers and make them aware of the value associated with goals.
2. What is leadership?
Leadership is defined as influence that is, the art or the process of influencing people so that they
will strive willingly and enthusiastically forward the achievement of group goals. In other words,
leadership is the ability to influence people and provide an environment for them to achieve team
or organizational objectives.
3. What does a leader do in a group?
Some of the key functions accomplished by leader in a group are enlisted as follows:
• Leader acts as representative of follower
• Leader develops teamwork, motivates them
• Leader uses power properly for the achievement of group goals.
• Leaders manage resources of the organization in an efficient manner.
4. What do you mean by attribution theory of leadership?

Attribution theory of leadership is related with cause and effect relationships. As per this theory,
people attribute event with a specific success. According to this theory, success of an
organization generally depends upon the capabilities and motivation of the leader.
5. What do you mean by transactional theory of leadership?

Transactional theory of leadership explains the exchange relationship between leaders and
followers. As per this theory, transactional leadership takes place when leaders and their
followers are in some type of exchange relationship that satisfies need for one or both parties.
6. What do you mean by transformational theory of leadership?
1
One of the widely recognized theories of leadership is transformational theory. As per this
theory, leaders guide their subordinates through establishment of goals which can be achieved
through role identity and task environment.
7. Define behavior theories of leadership.

A behavior theory insists that success of leaders depends upon their behavior. As per this theory,
leadership can be identified by reference to their activities and ,relation to their follower.
8. List the various theories of leadership.

There are number of 'leadership theories. Some of the widely accepted theories of leadership are
enlisted as follows:
• Trait theories of leadership
• Behavioural theory of leadership
• Contingency theory of leadership

• Charismatic theory of leadership
• Attribution theory of leadership
• Transactional theory of leadership
• Transformational theory of leadership
One of the earliest theories to be developed is trait theories of leadership. Trait theory suggests
the fact that leaders are born, not made. As per trait theories of leadership, personal
characteristics like physical, personality, and mental are associated with leadership success.
10. What do you mean by contingency theories of leadership?

One of the widely accepted theories of leadership is contingency theory. As per contingency
theory, leadership effectiveness is related to the interplay of a leader's traits or behaviors and
situational factors.
11. Differentiate between leaders and managers.

2
Leaders Managers
An individual turns into leader based on his An individual becomes manager based on his
personal attributes. position.
Formal rights are not available to a leader. Manager is provided numeral formal rights due
to his position.
12. Define path-goal theory of leadership.

One of the key contingency theories of leadership is path-goal theory of leadership. According to
path-goal theory ·of leadership, the primary job of leader is to provide path for their followers. In
this reference, leader has to provide followers with the information, support or other necessary
resources essential in achievement of goals.
13. Define leadership. Explain the behavioral approaches of leadership

Meaning of Leadership
Leadership is defined as influence that is, the art or the process of influencing people so that they
will strive willingly and enthusiastically forward the achievement of group goals. In other words,
leadership is the ability to influence people and provide an environment for them to achieve team
or organizational objectives.
A key to effective leadership is helping followers to achieve their respective essential goals as
well as their maximum potentialities. Dynamic leader, therefore, should have the ability to
awaken in other the desire to follow a common objective. Leadership as a function is explained
by below given equation.
L = F (1, F, S)
where, I, F, S are the variables.
Behavioural Approaches of Leadership
Among the various approaches of leadership, behavioural approach is one of the widely accepted
ones.
This approach is based on the promise that effective leadership is the result of effective role
behaviour. Success in leadership depends more on what the leader does than on his traits. A
leader uses technical, conceptual and human skills to influence the behaviour of his subordinate.
Leadership therefore, becomes a dynamic interaction between the leader and the led.
The behavioural approach is useful as it suggests the functions and activities of a leader. Three
important theories included in behavioural approach are discussed below.
3
Ohio State Studies:

In 1945, a group of researchers at Ohio state university began extensive investigations of
leadership. The central focus of their work was to study in depth the work of a leader. Their
effort uncovered many things concerning leadership behaviour. The most publicized aspect of
Ohio state leadership was the isolation of two dimensions of leadership behaviour:
1. Initiating structure: A high initiating structure score indicates that leaders structures their and
subordinates role towards the attainment of goals. They are actively involved in planning work
activities, communicating pertinent information and scheduling work.
2. Consideration: A leaders who were high on the consideration dimension reflected that they
had developed a work atmosphere of mutual trust, respect for subordinate's ideas and
consideration of subordinate's feelings. Such leaders encouraged good superior subordinate
rapport and two-way communication. A low consideration score indicates that leaders are. more
impersonal in their dealing with subordinates.
University of Michigan Studies
The study showed that Employee-Oriented Leaders (EOL) were associated with higher group
productivity and higher job satisfaction on the other hand, Production-Oriented Leader (POL) tend
to be associated with low group productivity and lower job satisfaction.
Where,
Employee-oriented leaders (EOL)- one who emphasizes interpersonal relation
Production-oriented leaders (POL)- one who emphasizes technical or task aspects of the job
The Managerial Grid:
The concept of managerial grid was created by R.R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton of USA. They
emphasize that leadership style consists of facts of both task oriented and relation oriented
behavior in varying degrees.
To explain the concept they have used two phrases:
1. Concern for production means the attitude of the supervisors towards a variety of factor
concerning production, such as product, procedures, and processes, quality of staff service,
workload, efficiency and quantity of production.
4
2. Concern for people includes degree of personal commitment toward goal achievement,
maintaining the self-esteem of workers, responsibility and conductibility based on trust rather
than on force and satisfying interpersonal relations.
5
14. How does the contingency model of leadership apply to leadership styles?
Contingency Model of leadership
According to the contingency model of leadership, the success of leadership depends upon the
situation in which the leader operates. This model was developed by Fred E. Fiedler. According
to him, a leader's effectiveness depends upon the following three situational factors.
a. Leader-followers relations that is the degree of followers trust, confidence and respect for the
leader.
b. Task structure, power, that is the nature of task performed by the subordinates.
c. Leader position power, power that is, the degree associated with the position or status held by
the leader in the organization.
The most favourable situation for leaders to influence their group is one in which:
• they are well liked by the members,
• the task performed is highly structured
9 and the leader has enough power attached to his/her position in the organization. On
the other hand, the most unfavourable situation for leaders is one in which:
10 they are disliked,
11 the task is highly unstructured and
12 little power is attached to the leader's position.
Findings of the Fiedler Model
6
Based on the Fiedler's model one can draw three major conclusion.
1. Situation I is the most favourable situation for leader while situation 8 is the least favourable
one.
ii. Leader that is task-oriented in nature performs best at situation I, II, III and VIII.
iii. Leader that is people-centered performs bests at situation number IV, V, VI, VII.
15. A good leader needs not to be a good manager but an effective manager must have
many of the qualities of a good leader.'' In this context, distinguish between manager and
leaders.
Managers and leaders are distinguished in the following table.
Managers Leaders
Managers initiate the thinking process and Leaders originate the thinking and focuses on
focuses on things. people.
Managers provide direction on operational Leaders provide vision and help to create the
plans. future.
A manager is appointed and after that gets a A leader’s emergence depends on a number of
position. situational factors.
7
A manager seeks those objectives which his A leader generally seeks those objectives,
subordinates do not regard as their own. Thus which are the objectives of his subordinates.
there is clash of objectives. Thus, there is mutuality of objectives between
leader and his followers.
Managers ensure that employees reach their Leaders ensure that employee reach their goal
goal by controlling their behaviour i.e. they by motivating and inspiring them and tap their
monitor the result by means of reports and needs values and emotions.
meetings and note derivations from the goals.
Decision methods related to managers are Decision methods related to leaders are based
based on policies rules and procedures. on values and principles.
To conclude, managers administer, maintain, To conclude, leaders innovate, develop,

control intimate and accept the status quo. inspire, originate and change the status quo.
16. What are leadership styles?

Leadership Styles
A leader's typical way of behaving towards group members is termed as leadership style. It refers
to the behaviour exhibited by a leader during supervision of employees. The style represents the
leader's predominant way of acting with his group. Although, the style varies with leader,
organizational researchers have listed the following three basis styles:
1. Autocratic style: The autocratic leader assumes full responsibility for deciding on the group's
project by assigning tasks to members and permitting no participation in decision-making
process. He centralizes authority and decision-making in himself and exercise complete and full-
fledged control over his subordinates. He sets group goals and structures the work. He gives
orders and the subordinated are expected to obey them. Communication tends to be one way i.e.
downward.
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An advantage of autocratic leadership is that the decisions are very speedy. It is most suited at
the time of crisis or when the subordinates are inefficient.
2. Democratic style: Democratic style is widely known as participative or employee-oriented
leadership styles. The essence. of this style is the consultation, the leader consults the
subordinates. Before arriving at decisions, participative leadership styles take into consideration
the wishes and suggestions of the subordinates as well as the leader. All members qf the group
are seen as important contribution to the final decision. The communication is two ways i.e.
upward as well as downward
Some of the major advantages of democratic style of leadership are explained as follows:
• Increased member's moral and support for the final decision and better decisions through
shared information.
• Ideas among group members participating in decision-making can lead to improve manager/
worker relations.
• High satisfaction and decreased dependence on the leader
• Multi directional communication permits fruitful exchange of ideas and information between
the leader and the led and helps in encouraging member commitment to the decision.
3. Free rein style: Free rein style of leadership is also known as Laissez faire style. It goes a step
further of democratic style and turn an entire problem or project over subordinates. Subordinates
are asked to set their own goals and develop plans for achieving them. Thus, in this type of
leadership style, a manager avoids power and relinquishes leadership position. The leader is a
silent spectator. In essence, this approach is characterized by the absence of any active leadership
in the group. It is the total abdication of responsibility. The leader merely functions as a group
member, providing only as much advice and direction as requested. There is very little control or
influence over group members of the leader.
17. How does a leader influence the behaviour of followers towards goal achievement?
Explain with reference to the path-goal theory of leadership.
Path-Goal theory is another very popular contingency model developed by Robert J. House, Path
goal theory finds its inspiration in both the Ohio state leadership and expectancy theory of
motivation. Path-Goal theory tries to explain the effectiveness of leadership as a function of the
situation. The key aspects of path-goal theory of leadership are summarized through the
following points.
Path-Goal Theory of Leadership
One of the key contingency theories of leadership is path-goal theory of leadership. According to
path-goal theory of leadership, the primary job of leader is to provide path for their followers. In
9
this reference, leader has to provide followers with the information, support or other necessary
resources essential in achievement of goals.
a. The leader can improve subordinate's motivation by making the rewards for performance more
attractive. By giving raises, promotions and recognition, the Leader can increase the
subordinates' valence (i.e. preference) for goal achievement.
b. If the worker's assignments are poorly defined the leader can increase motivation. by
providing structure in the form of helpful supervision, subordinate training and goal clarification.
Reducing the ambiguity of the job makes it easier for the subordinate to pursue the goals.
Expectancy (i.e. likelihood of attaining the first level outcome) should increase.
If we analyze the above two steps together, we can see that in the first step valence is increased
and in the second expectancy is increased. Now, as per the, expectancy theory of motivation,
Motivational Force= Valence x Expectancy.
It is thus obvious that path goal theory is designed to increase worker motivation.
• It encourages the leader to' analyze the situation in determining the right degree of each
concern for structure and concern for people - that will be required.
c. If the work of the subordinates is already greatly structured, as in the case of assembly line
worker or mechanist, the leader should refrain from introducing any more structure. Such action
will be viewed as unnecessary and overly directive. Instead of worrying about the work, the leader
should be concerned with the personal needs of the people by giving them attention,
.praise and support. '
In this regard, path-goal theory provides three important benefits:
• It helps integrate expectancy theory and contingency leadership
• It reemphasizes the importance of high leader concern for both the work and the people:
18. Discuss the different leadership styles with their characteristics and the situations of
their applicability.
19.
Leadership Style
A leader's typical way of behaving towards group members is termed as leadership style. It refers
to the behaviour exhibited by a leader during supervision of employees. The style represents the
leader’s predominant way of acting with his group. Although, the style varies with leader,
organizational researchers have listed the following three basis styles:
10
1. Autocratic style: the autocratic leader assumes full responsibility for deciding on group’s
project by assigning tasks to members and permitting no participation in decision-making
process. He centralizes authority and decision making himself and exercise complete and full-
fledged control over his subordinates. He sets groups goals and structures the work. He gives
orders and the subordinated are expected to obey them. Communication tends to be one way i.e.
downward. The situation of autocratic style applicability are discussed below :
• When the subordinates are inexperienced.
• When the subordinates lack proper training.
• When the subordinates are unable to understand company goals.
2. Democratic style: democratic style is widely known as participative or employee-oriented
leadership styles. The essence of this style is the consultation, the leader consults the
subordinates. Before arriving at decisions, participative leadership styles take into consideration
the wishes and suggestions of the subordinates as well as the leader. All members of the group
are seen as important contribution to the final decision. The communication is two ways i.e.
upward as well as downward. The situation of democratic style applicability are discussed
below:
• When the subordinates are motivated experienced and competent.
• When the leader loves to participate subordinates in decision making.
• When the objectives of the organization are totally transparent to the subordinate.
• When reward and involvement are means of motivation.
3. Free rein style: free rein style of leadership is also known as laissez faire style. It goes a
step further of democratic style and turn an entire problem or project over subordinates.
Subordinates are asked to set their own and develop plans for achieving them. Thus, in this type
11
of leadership style, a manger avoids power and relinquishes leadership position. The leader is a
silent spectator. In essence, this approach is characterized by the absence of any active leadership
in the group. It is the total abdication of responsibility, the leader merely functions as a group
member, providing only as much advice and direction as requested. There is very little control or
influence over group members of the leader. The situation of free rein style applicability are
discussed below:
• When the subordinates graciously accepts the organizational goals.
• When the leader is ready to delegate decision making fully.
• When the sub-ordinates are ready to assume responsibilities.
19. Leadership is a process of influence to the people in organization to regulate their

behaviour as desired by the leaders. But people are most difficult to understand and getting
complex than the earlier days because of the education and rising expectations.” In line
with the above statements explain the emerging approaches and current issues in
leadership.
Emerging Approaches and Current Issues in Leadership
Leadership is a term that conjures up different images in different people. For some it means
charisma, while to many, it means power and authority. Leadership skills emerge out of
spontaneity needs.
Leadership plays a crucial role in organizational dynamics. It fills many of the voids left in
conventional organization design, allows for greater organizational flexibilities and
responsiveness to environmental changes. It provides a way to co-ordinate the effort of diverse
groups within the organization, and facilitate organizational membership and personal needs
satisfaction. It is the quality of managerial leadership that often differentiates effective and
ineffective organizations. A rational leader should know different emerging approach of the
leadership and about current issue in leadership so that they are well equipped to adjust and adapt
accordingly.
Emerging Approaches of Leadership
There are different approaches emerging in the field of leadership. Some of them are explained
briefly.
1. Attribution theory of leadership: it deals with people trying to make sense out of cause-
effect relationships. When something happens, they want to attribute it to something. This theory
tells that the leadership is merely an attribution that people make about other individuals.
Effective leaders are generally considered consistent or unwavering in their decisions.
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2. Charismatic leadership theory: Followers make attributions of heroic or extraordinary

abilities when they observe certain behaviours. Some examples of charismatic leaders are John
F. Kennedy, Martin Luther Kin, Jr. Walt Disney, Ted Turner, Barack Obama, etc. They are
found to have extremely high confidence, dominance and strong convictions in his or her beliefs.
3. Transactional or transformational leadership: Transactional leaders guide or motivate
their followers in the direction of the established goals, clear roles and task requirements.
Transactional leader, inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests for the good of the
organization. They are capable of having a profound and extraordinary effect on his or her
followers. Transformational leadership is about leading, changing the organizational strategies
and culture so that they have a better fit with the surrounding environment. They are change
agents who energies employees and direct them to a new set of corporate values and behaviours.
4. Visionary leadership: Visionary leadership refers to the ability to create and articulate a
realistic, credible, attractive vision of the future for an organization unit. This vision, if properly
selected and implemented, is so energizing that leads to great success of the organization. A
vision has clear and compelling imagery that offer an innovative way to improve, which
recognizes and draws on traditions, and connects to actions that people can take to realize
changes. Vision taps people’s emotions and energy. A properly articulated vision creates the
enthusiasm that people have for spotting events and other leisure time activities, bringing the
energy and commitment to the workplace.
Issues in leadership
Some of the contemporary issues in leadership are explained briefly.
Gender issue: Research has shown that regardless with gender, people with leadership traits-such
as intelligence, confidence and sociability- more likely to be perceived as leaders. However,
there are some differences in leadership styles. For example, males tend to use a directive
command and control style, while females tend to adopt a more democratic leadership style.
Biological basis for leadership: There is an increasing evidence indicating that leadership has
biological roots. Two chemicals-serotonin and testosterone are found to have profound affect on
becoming a leader. Increased levels of serotonin appear to improve sociability and control
aggregation. Higher levels of testosterone increase competitive drive and they are found higher
in the players of tennis.
National culture and its effect on the choice of leadership style: National culture affects
leadership style. Leaders cannot choose their styles at will. They are constrained by the cultural
conditions that their subordinates have come to expect. For example, an autocratic style is
compatible with high power distance and participation style is compatible with low power
distance.
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Popularity of empowerment: Empowerment is putting employees in charge of what they do. The
problem with the current empowerment movement is that it ignores the extent to which
leadership can be shared and the conditions facilitating success of shared leadership.
Moral dimension to leadership: Leadership is not value free. So we should look at the moral
content of a leader’s goal and the means he/she uses to achieve these goals.
20. Who is leader? Write about trait theory. Explain the traits that a leader should possess.
Meaning of Leader
A person is said to be a leader when he is able to influence others and make them accept his guidance, suggestions
and directions. A manager is said to be a leader of the organization. s/he will be a successful manager only if s/he is
able to influence the attitude and behaviour of the subordinates. Trait Theory
Trait theory is the traditional theory of leadership which rests the assumptions, that individual is
more important than the situation and consequently if we can identify the distinctive traits of
successful leaders, we can have clue to leadership problem. According to this theory, it is believed
that leader, possess certain in born special traits. Thus, an effective leader is supposed to poses
certain abilities such as to probe other’s minds, to predict future events, to command predictable
obedience etc. leadership under this theory is generally thought in terms of personal quality rather
than as an organization function.
The following are the characteristics of trait theory:
 Psychological characteristics: Age, height, weight

 Background characteristics: education, experience, social status, mobility
 Social characteristics: tact, diplomacy, prestige, supervisory, ability, cooperativeness and
popularity
 Task related characteristics: initiative, persistence, need for achievement, responsibility
 Intelligence characteristics: ability, judgement, knowledge
 Personality characteristics: self confidence, enthusing, decisiveness, aggressiveness and
extroversion, decisiveness, alertness, dominance, authoritarianism, independence etc.
Predicting successful leaders on the basis of traits alone is not a correct approach.
Qualities of a Successful Leader
The key qualities essential to be successful leader are explained briefly.
14
1. Intelligence: A successful leader must have above average knowledge and intelligence.
Mental ability to think precisely analyze accurately, Interpret clearly and consciously are
necessary to consider the problems in the right perspective.
2. Maturity: A leader should posses a high level of emotional stability and cool
temperament. He needs to have a high degree of tolerance.
3. Sound health: Sound physical and mental health is essential to bear the burden of
leadership. Sound health includes physical stamina, nervous, energy, mental vigour and
important leadership qualities.
4. Self confidence: He should have confidence in himself and a strong will power.
5. Empathy: The leader must have the ability to see things from other’s point of view. He
must respect the viewpoints and feeling of others.
6. Foresight and vision: He should have the capability to look forward and anticipate the
events. He should have a high degree of imagination, moral courage, breadth and determination.
7. Decisiveness: A leader must have sound judgement and the ability to take quick decisions.
8. Human relations approach: A leader must have the capacity to understand people, work
9. with them and gain their confidence, loyalty and voluntary cooperation. He must be able to
motivate people towards higher performance.
10. Responsibility: A leader should be a responsible person and must be willing to assume responsibility for
the consequences.
Objectivity: A good leader should be fair and objective in dealing with subordinates. He
must be free from bias and prejudice.
15
COMMUNICATION
1. Define communication.
Communication is the process by which a person, group or organization [the sender] transmits
some types of information [the message] to another-person, groups or organization[the receiver].
In other words, communication is the transmission and reception of ideas, feelings and attitudes,
both verbally and non-verbally, which gives rise to a response.
2. Enlist the key function of communication.

The key features of communication are enlisted as follows:
 Communication is essential for manager to control subordinate’s behaviour.
 Communication is often used by organization to motivate workers to give their
best performance.
 Communication provides opportunity to employees for emotional expression of their feelings.
 Communication is key way to provide essential information for employee.
3. State the basic elements essential for a communication.

The basic elements essential for a communication are enlisted as follows:
 Sender[source]
 Encoding
 Transmission
 Decoding
 Receiver
 Feedback
 Noise
1
4. What do you know by non-verbal communication?

The communication process that involves all elements of human communication but oral and
written is termed as non-verbal communication. Some of the common forms of non-verbal
communication in organizations are enlisted as follows:
2
 Human elements [facial expressions, body language, etc.]

 Environmental elements [office design, building architecture, etc.]
5. Differentiate between formal and informal communication.

Formal communication Informal communication
Communication through the channels of Communication based on social

communication established formally by the relationship rather than the organizational
management in an organization is termed structure or job descriptions is termed as
as formal communication. informal communication.
Formal communication is controlled by the Informal communication is not controlled

management. by the management.
6. Point out the different formal networks of communication.

The different formal networks of communication are enlisted as follows:
 Chain network
 Wheel network
 Circle network
 All channel network
7. Point out the different informal networks of communication.

The key informal networks of communication are enlisted as follows:
 Single strand: Each tells one another.
 Gossip: One tells all.
 Probability: Each randomly tells others.
 Cluster: Some tells selected others most typical.
8. What is oral communication?
3
Oral communication is the most popular method of communication. It is also known as verbal
communication. Oral communication is done with the help of spoken words. Oral
communication may be face to face or through mechanical devices like telephone or computer.
9. What is written communication?

When communication is conducted on written form such as letters, proposals, telegrams, faxes,
brochure, etc. it is known as written communication. Written communication is verifiable and
tangible in nature hence, carries a major significance in today’s business world.
10. List out the current issues in communication.

The current issues in communication are listed as follows:
 Gender issue
 Politically corrected communication Cross culture
 Electronic communication
 Privacy
 Silence as communication
11. List out the means of communication frequently used in offices.

The means of communication frequently used in offices are enlisted as follows:
 Based on methods used

 Oral
 Written
 Non-verbal
 Based on direction
 Vertical
 Horizontal
 Diagonal
 Based on relationship
 Formal
4
 Informal
12. Point out the merits of written communication.

The key merits of written communication are enlisted as follows:
 Written communication is permanent in nature and hence can be used for future
reference.
 Written communication minimizes the chances of misinterpretation, misrepresentation
and distortion of information.
 Written communication can be used as an evidence of events and activities.
 Written communication is usually formal and authoritative in nature.
13. Point out the demerits of written communication.

The key demerits of written communication are enlisted as follows:
 Written communication is time consuming and expensive in nature.
 Written communication is often rigid and formal than necessity.
 Written communication often lacks the immediate feedback. Hence, does not know if the receiver has
understood or not.
The key merits of oral communication are enlisted as follows:

 Oral communication is least time consuming and inexpensive in nature.
 Oral communication is direct and simple in nature.
 Oral communication provides immediate feedback.
 Oral communication generally helps to minimize delays and other unnecessary
formalities.
15. Point out the demerits of oral communication.

The key demerits of oral communication are enlisted as follows:
 Since there is no any provision of keeping any formal record, oral communication is
often devoid of proof and hence may generate conflict.
5
 It is very difficult to carryout oral communication in case of lengthy and distance

communication.
 Barriers of communication are stronger in oral communication.
16. List out the advantages of grapevine communication.

The key advantages of grapevine communication are enlisted as follows:
 Grapevine communication helps employees to have sense of their workplace.
 Grapevine communication is a key way to communicate organizational stories and
culture.
 Grapevine communication helps to relieve anxiety and develops affiliation.
17. List out the disadvantages of grapevine communication.
The key disadvantages of grapevine communication are enlisted as follows:

 Grapevine communication is a key way to spread false rumours and destructive information on organization.
 Moreover, it is difficult to identity individual for false information spreading.
 Grapevine communication often generates negative attitude towards management.
18. List the barriers for effective communication.
The key barriers for effective communication are enlisted as follows:

 Human barriers: Emotions, mental abilities, biasness, etc.
 Semantic barriers: Word interpretations, language translation, etc.
 Physical barriers: Geographical distance, mechanical failures, etc.
 Organizational barriers: Organizational structure, status, position, etc.
19. Sketch the communication process model.

It is sketched as follows:
6
20. What is lateral communication?

Lateral communication refers to the type of communication that takes place at same levels of
hierarchy in an organization. For example, when communication takes place between managers
at same levels, it is termed as lateral communication.
21. What is upward communication?

When the communication flows from lower level of organizational hierarchy to upward level it is
known as upward communication. Subordinate often use upward communication technique to
convey performance feedback and any probable problems to their superiors.
22. What do you mean by star [wheel] network?

The communication network in which all communication passes through central authority just
like the hub of a wheel is known as star[wheel] network. In star network workers do not
communicate with each other.
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23. Define chain network.

The communication network that rigidly follows the formal chain of command is known as chain
network. For example, when a senior manager communicates to manager whom then
communicates to assistant manager and management trainee.
24. What do you mean by circle network?
The communication network where each member can communicate to the adjoining member is
known as circle network. In this network, information flows in a circle so that each member is in
a position to communicate with two persons.
25. What do you mean by all channel network?
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When there is no restriction in the flow of communication among the member, such
communication network is known as channel network. All channel network allows all group
members to actively communicate with each other.
26. Define communication and describe its purpose and functions.

27. Communication
28. Communication is the exchange of facts, opinions, ideas and other information from one
person to another of common interest. It is essential to impart a complete understanding of the
subject matter of information.
29. According to Keith Davis, "Communication is the process of passing information and
understanding from one person to another."
30. Purpose and Function of communication
31. The purpose and functions of organizational communication can be described as follows:
a. Achieve coordinated action: Like the human nervous system coordinates responses by sending
message to the various parts of the body, communication coordinate the actions of the parts of an
organization.
b. Information sharing: It is the second purpose of organizational communication. It works in
two ways : (i) first, it gives organizational members a sense of purpose and direction towards
organizational goals, and (ii) second, it gives a specific task direction to individuals.
c. Expression of feelings and emotions: People in organizations use communication to exchange
emotions (e.g, happiness, anger, displeasure, confidence, fear etc)
d. Control: Communication helps to control the behaviour of members in many ways. It is done
through using authority, formal guidelines, job description etc. Both formal and informal
communication helps to control employee behaviour.
e. Motivation: Proper communication helps employee to understand expected behaviour,
performance standards, new goals/policies etc. All these activities (a core function of
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communication) ultimately help to increase the employee motivation because it eliminates

confusion and misunderstanding.
32. What is communication process? Point out the major elements.

Communication Process
Communication is the process by which a person, group or organization(the sender) transmits
some type of information (the message) to another person, groups or organization(the receiver).
In other words, communication is the transmission and reception of ideas, feelings and attitudes,
both verbally and non-verbally, which gives to a response.
Elements of Communication Process
The key elements of communication process are explained briefly.
i. Source (Sender): The process of communication begin with source(sender). A source could be
anyone such as an individual, group or organization that is interested in communicating some
thing.
ii. Encoding: Encoding, is the best process converting a communication message into symbols
that can be transmitted. The transmitted symbols could be sound, word, number, pictures etc.
iii. Transmission: Transmission refers to the process that sends the transmitable symbol from
source to the receiver. The medium of transmission connects the sender with receiver. Face to
face verbal communication, use of mass media etc. are some of the widely used medium.
iv. Decoding: Decoding refers to the process by which the receiver draws meaning from symbols
encoded by the receiver. One's knowldege,attitude, cultural background, etc influence the ability
of an receiver to encode the message.
v. Receiver: The receiver refers to any individual group or organization that receives the encoded
symbols and decodes them.
vi. Feedback: The response of the receiver to the message communicated to him is known as
feedback. Feedback enables the sender to check if the message received has been properly
understood or not.
vii. Noise: Any kind of internal or external disturbance that interferes that communication
process is known as noise.
33. Explain the barriers for effective communication. How they can be minimized?
Barriers to Effective Communication
There are several barriers that distort the communication process. These barriers generate
confusion and misunderstanding in the organizations by creating bottlenecks, delays and
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distortions of the information. Several organizational problems relating to smooth working and
human relations exist today due to these Barriers: Some of the key classification of such barriers
are explained below:
i. Human barriers: Barriers related with the human that are part of communication process is
termed as human Barriers. Also known as personal Barriers they arise from social values,
emotions, judgements and lead to a psychological distance.
ii. Semantic barriers: One of the most common communication Barriers is semantic Barriers.
Semantic refers to that branch of science that deals with the study of communication symbols. In
this regard, semantic Barriers arise when there is discrepancy in meanings which different people
attach to different things.
For example,
round: shaped like a ball
round: related to time, 'as round as clock'
Hence, a word round could be understood in two different way which creates distort.
iii. Organizational Barriers: In many cases organizational system and belief itself creates problems
in the flow of information. Some of the key organizational Barriers are listed as follows:
 Organizational policy
 Organizational rules and regulations.
 Lengthy scalar chain
 One-way communication system
 Lack of confidence in subordinates.
iv. Physical Barriers: Internal structure of the organization and layout of machine create Barriers
in the communication process. Some of the key physical Barriers are enlisted as follows.
 Physical distance
 Hierarchy structure
 Office design
 Noise
v. Technological Barriers: Technological Barriers occur due to defect in technology used and
overload in information. In these cases receiver cannot respond leading to communication
problem. Some of the common technological Barriers are listed as follows:
 Mechanical Barriers
 Loss of transmission
 Information overload
 Insufficient period allowed.
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Overcoming Communication Barriers

Use of simple language: Experience suggests that complex language, technical terms, and jargon
make communication difficult to understand and frustrating to the listener. It is not true that
complex ideas require complex words to explain them. Hence, while preparing the
communication message, its language should be relatively simple and the ability of the receiver
to interpret the message accurately should be kept in view. Efforts should be made to explain
abstract ideas and avoid the vague expressions.
Regulating the Flow of Communication: Priority of message to be communicated should be
determined so that the managers may concentrate on more important messages of high priority.
Similarly, the message received should be edited and condensed, to the extent possible, to reduce
the chances of overlooking or ignoring important messages.
Give constructive feedback: Communication is complete when it receives feedback. Feedback
may include the receivers response in terms of acceptance and understanding of the message,
his/her action, and the result achieved. Thus a mechanism of providing constructive feedback
helps to overcome communication Barriers.
Repetition: Repetition of message helps improve effectiveness of communication. It helps the

listener interpret message that are ambiguous,unclear, or too difficult to understand the first time
they are heard. Repetition also helps avoid the problem of forgetting. A popular strategy to help the
managers remember the main points is "Tell them what you're going to tell them, then tell them
what you've told them."
Restraint over emotions: Strong feelings and emotions on the part of either the sender oe receiver
of the message distort the meaning of the message. One may, therefore defer the communication
for sometime. He/She should respond to communication with a composed mind only.
Mutual trust and faith: Communication becomes effective having mutual and faith between the
sender and receiver of the message. The honesty of the purpose is the best means breeding trust
and faith between the two parties, i.e sender and receiver.
Active listening: Misunderstanding and confusion are often caused by the half-hearted attention
to the communication. Therefore, a receiver listener needs to be patient mentally well composed,
and avoid distractions while receiving the message. He/She should seek clarification, if
necessary, on the message. At the same time, the sender of the message must also no be prepared
to listen to what the receiver has to say, and respond to his questions, if any.
34. Give a short explanation of current issue in communication that are very common in
Nepalese organization.
Issues Confronted By Organization in Communication
The key issues confronted by organization in communication are explained briefly.
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Communication barriers between men and women

According to Tannin's research, men use talk to emphasize status, while women use it to create
connection. Men are often more direct than women. Men frequently complain that women talk
on and on about their problems, while women criticize men for not listening. When men hear
about a problem, they frequently assert their desire for independence and control by offering the
solutions. Women usually present the problem to gain support and connection, to promote
closeness with men but not take his advice this creates a distancing between them.
Politically correct communication
There are many words when used directly gives a different meanings and insults others. Thus,
over the period of time there has been the development of politically correct words and
sentences. One must be sensitive about the choices of words. Having said that, one must be
aware about the demerits of misinterpretation using politically correct words.
For example:
Traditional word Politically correct word
Dwarf Vertically challenged
Cross-cultural communication
Cross-cultural communication has been another current issues in communication. Language
differ as per culture. The same word means different things to different people. A gesture that is
understood and acceptable in one culture may be meaningless and disgusting in another culture.
The tone of language also differs in different culture. In some culture,more formal languages are
used, while in some culture, frequently in formal languages are used. This is due to cross-cultural
effect. People from different culture also view the world in different ways. Thus due to cross
cultural effect there may cause barriers in communications.
Electronic communication
Organizational boundaries become less relevant as a result of electronic communication.
Electronic communication such medium as cellular phones, email, etc. now allows accessing the
desired person at any time and at any place of the world. The line between an employee's work
and non-work life is no longer distinct. Networked computers in an office allow the employees to
share the files and jump vertical levels within the organization.
Electronic communications have revolutionized both the ability to access other people and to
reach them almost instantaneously. Unfortunately this access and speed have come with some
costs. Electronic mail, for instance, does not provide the non-verbal communication components
that face-to-face meeting does.
35. Why is communication important?
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The importance of communication in an organization is explained through following points.

1. Basis of decision-making: Communication is essential for decision making and planning. The
quality of managerial decisions depends on the quality of communication. At the same time,
decision and plans of management need to be communicated to the subordinates. Effective
communication is also helpful in the proper implementation of plans and policies of the
management. It is the basis of effective leadership because it makes the leader's idea and
opinions known to the subordinates.
2. Facilities co-ordination: Communication is the most effective means of creating cooperation
and coordination among individual efforts. Exchange of ideas and information helps to bring
about unity of action in the pursuit of common purpose. Communication binds people together.
3. Sound industrial relations: Effective communication helps to create mutual understanding and
trust between the employer and the employees. It enables the management to come into close
contact with workers. It serves a bridge between management and labour and creates team spirit
in the organization. Thus, an effective communication system is a prerequisite of good labour
management relations
4. Smooth and efficient operations: An effective communication system serves as a lubricant,
fostering the smooth and efficient functioning of the enterprise The achievement of enterprise
goals is of paramount importance and communication is one of the important tools available to
the manager seeking to attain them It is through communication that a manager changes and
regulates the behaviour of subordinates in the desired direction. Effective communication
promotes managerial efficiency
5. Industrial democracy: Communication is essential for worker's participation in management. It
is helpful in delegation and decentralization of authority. Effective communication is the basis of
training and development of managerial personnel. The process of leadership itself depends upon
effective communication.
6. Employee motivation and morale: Through communication, management can keep the
employees fully informed of plans, job changes, etc. The motivation and morale of employees
tend to be high when they clearly understand what they are supposed to do. Communication is
the means by which employee can bring their suggestions, difficulties and grievances to the
notice of the management. Upward communication ensure greater job satisfaction and stimulates
worker's enthusiasm and loyalty to the enterprise. Effective communication satisfies personal
and social needs of employees.
7. Public relations: In the today's time, every business enterprises must create and maintain a
good corporate image in the society. Communication is a indispensable means of developing a
favourable public opinion. It is through communication that management can keep cordial
relations with the government, trade unions, customer and the community.
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10.0 CONFLICT
1. Define functional conflict.
The type of conflict that brings in positive consequences and supports the goal of the group is
known as functional conflict. Functional conflict is thus a form of constructive conflict.
2. What is conflict?
Conflict is a situation in which two or more parties feel themselves in opposition. In other words,
conflict is a process in which an effort is purpose fully made by one person or unit to block
another that results in frustrating the attainment of other goals or the furthering of his or her
interests.
3. Enumerate the nature of conflict.
The key features that enumerate the nature of conflicts are enlisted as follows:
There remain mutually exclusive goals; There exists two type of perception; There must be intentional
effort;
Conflict exists either at the latent or overt level.
4. What are the major causes of conflict?

The major causes of conflict are listed below:
• Inadequate communication;
• Delayed information;
• Effects of filtration;
• Barriers of culture, language;
• Inadequate training of sender and receiver;
• Problem of noise
5. List out the different types of conflict.

The different types of conflict are enlisted as follows:
1
• Intra-personal conflict (conflict within the individual)

• Intra-personal conflict (conflict between two or more individual)
• Inter-group conflict (conflict between different group)
• Inter-organizational conflict (conflict between two dependent organizations)
6. What are the positive consequences of conflict?

The key positive consequences of conflict are enlisted as follows:
• Conflicts is a major stimulant for change.
• Conflict help to avoid group thinking.
• Conflict fosters creativity and innovation.
• Conflict often develops cohesion and satisfaction.
10 7. What are the negative consequences of conflict?
11 The key negative consequences of conflict are enlisted as follows:
12
13 Conflict is one of the key reasons of stress in people;
14 Conflict diversifies group time and energy in winning the conflict rather than the achievement of
organizational goals;
15
16
17
18
19
20 Conflict brings tensions in the organization leading to instability and chaos.
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8. Enlist the stages of conflict.

A general conflict process normally goes through five key stages enlisted as follows:
• Stage 1: Potential opposition or incompatibility
• Stage-2: Cognition and personalization
• Stage-3: Intentions/conflict resolution style
• Stage-4: Behaviour
• Stage-5: Outcomes
2
9. What is inter-group conflict?
3
When the conflict involves two or more group it is known as inter-group conflict. For example:
when whole marketing department is in conflict with production department, it is referred as
inter-group conflict.
10. Explain the nature and sources of conflicts.

Nature and Sources of Conflicts
Conflict can arise from a variety of sources. They can be classified into two broad
categories: structural factors, which stem from the nature of the organization and the way in
which work is organized and personal factors, which arise from differences among individuals.
The causes/sources of conflict can be summarized within two categories.
Structural Factors
a. Specialization: When jobs are highly specialized, employees become experts at certain
tasks. For example, in case of a software company, while there is one specialist for databases,
another for statistical packages, and yet another for expert system. As the highly specialized
people have little awareness of the tasks that others perform, such a case leads to conflict among
the specialists.
b. Interdependence: Interdependence occurs when two or more groups depend on each other to
accomplish their tasks. Depending on other people to work done is good when the process works
smoothly. However, when problem arises, it becomes easy to blame other party, and as such,
conflict escalates. The potential of conflict increases as the degree of interdependence increases.
c. Goal differences: Sometimes different work groups having different goals have incompatible
goals. For example, in a cable television company, the salesperson's goal is to sell as many new
installations as possible. This can create problem for the service department, because their goal is
to do timely installations.
Personal factors
a. Skills and abilities: Work force in an organization/department is composed of people
with varying levels of skills and abilities. Such diversity in skills and abilities leads to conflict,
especially when jobs are interdependent. Workers may find it difficult to work with a new boss,
fresh from University knowing a lot about managing people but unfamiliar with the technology
they are working.
b. Personalities: Personality also causes individual differences. It is differences in
personality that neither the manager likes all of his co-managers and subordinates nor all of them
like the manager. This creates conflict among them. Research studies report that usually an
abrasive personality is rejected by others. An abrasive person is one who ignores the
interpersonal aspects of work and feelings of colleagues.
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c. Perception: Differences in perceptions can also lead to conflict. One area in which
perception can, for example, differ may be the perception of what motivates employees.
Managers, for example, usually provide what they think employees want rather than what
employees really want.
d. Values and ethics: People also hold different beliefs and adhere to different value
system. Older workers, for example, value company loyalty and probably do not take a sick day
when they are not really sick/ill. But, the younger workers, valuing mobility, may be take a sick
day to get away from work.
e. Emotion: The moods of the people can also be a source of conflict in the work place.
Problems of home often spill over into the work arena, and the related moods can be hard for
others to deal with.
f. Communication barriers: Communication barriers such as physical separation and
language can create distortions in message, and these, in turn, can lead to conflict value judgment
also sometimes serves as barrier.
11.
12. 11. Explain the concept of inter-group conflict? Enlist its types. Explain the dynamics
of inter-group conflict.
13. Inter-Group Conflict
14. When there is a conflict between two different groups of an organization, it is called as inter-
group conflict. Conflict between marketing and finance group in an organization is an example
of inter-group conflict. The concepts of inter-group conflict can be explained through below
given points.
1. There are distortions of perception, related to one's own group and about the other group.
Firstly, perception of one's own group is highly selective: people see only the best aspects of
their own group and deny any weakness. Secondly, perception of the other groups is
systematically distorted: group see only the worst parts of other groups and deny other groups
positive accomplishments. Thus, inter group conflict leads to increased use of stereotypes. Each
group develops more positive stereotype of itself and a more negative of other.
2. Interaction and communication between groups decreases. As group members feel hostile
toward members of rival group, there is less desire for interaction with them. Moreover,
decreased interaction. Makes it easier for each group to maintain its negative stereotype of the
other.
Even when group are forced to interact with each other, those interactions become fairly rigid
and formal. Whatever information is passed between groups is carefully rationed and sometimes
deliberately distorted. Groups tend to ignore the similarities between their positions and
exaggerate the differences.
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3. There is a shift from problem-solving orientation toward other groups to a win-lose

orientation. There are various facts to this shift in orientation. First, there is a much clearer
distinction drawn between the groups, resulting in a "we-they" rather than a "We-versus'- the
problem" orientation. Second, all exchange with the other groups are evaluated in terms of
victory or defeat. Third, the other group tends to see the problem only from their own point of
view, rather than in terms of the needs of both groups. Fourth, the parties emphasize the benefits
of winning the conflicts in the short run and tens to ignore the long-term consequences of the
conflict for the relationship between the groups.
4. As a result of negative stereotyping, decreased communication between groups, win-lose

orientation, etc. hostility inevitably occurs between rival groups. Members of the other group are
seen as the enemy, and deserving of hostile attacks.
Types of Inter-Group Conflicts
Dys-functional conflicts: Conflict that hinders group performance Task conflict: Conflict over content and goals of
the work Relationship conflict: Conflict based on interpersonal relationships
Process conflict: Conflict over how work gets done
The primary types of inter-group conflict are listed as follows:
When conflicts takes place between group the following dynamism can be seen:
1. Changes within each group: When there will be inter-group conflict, the following
changes are seen within each group. Each group now tries to make them strong to meet the
hurdles created, by other group. In this regard, one can observe following scenarios.
a. Loyalty to the group becomes more important: In the face of an external threat, the group
demands more loyalty from individual members. Not only is social interaction with people
outside the group not encouraged; it is expressly discouraged. Such interaction could lead to
inadvertent betrayal of group strategy and secrets. Deviance is more closely monitored and
punished.
b. There is increased concern for task accomplishment: When there is inter-group conflict,
the group members becomes more concerned for accomplishing the task. There will be less
informal relation among group members but high formal relation among group members.
c. Leadership in the group becomes autocratic: When inter-group conflict is present it is
especially important for a group to be able to respond quickly and in a unified manner to the
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activities of other groups. A democratic work style can reduce the group's capacity to respond
quickly. Hence, the leadership usually switches to autocracy.
d. The organization and structure of the group becomes more rigid: After the inter-group
inter
conflict among the groups, each group is concerned in making the group effective. There will be
rigid organizational structure with more focus on formal relation. Moreover, tasks are highly
valued.
e. Group cohesiveness (degree
(degree of unity) is increased: In the face of an external threat, past
differences and difficulties between group members are forgotten. The group closes ranks to
meet the challenge. Individual group members find both the group as whole and other group
members more attractive.
Changes in Relations between Groups:
• Interaction and communication between group decreases
• There are distortions of perception, both one's own group and about the other group
• There is a shift from a problem-solving
problem orientation toward other
er groups to a win lose
orientation
• There is increased hostility forward the rival group.
12. Describe the approaches of conflict management.

Approaches to Conflict Management
Conflict arises from different source. It is inevitable to avoid conflict in organization setting. So
with appropriate technique, conflict should be managed. There are different approaches to
manage conflict. Some of the highly adopted approaches of conflict management are explained
below.
1. Dominance: Dominance is the easiest technique
technique to manage conflict. In this technique man-
man
ager will eliminate the conflicting parties. By, dismissing the conflicting parties, the conflict can
be managed. This is, however a short-term
short solution.
2. Avoidance: Conflict can be managed by avoiding it. In thisthis technique one party avoids the
conflict and let the conflicting parties to win. Moreover, redefining the goals and not making
over-lapping
lapping goals helps to manage conflict.
3. Smoothing: In this technique, the differences between two parties are disguised whilew
similarities are highlighted. This make both the part feel that they are not much apart. This
shared viewpoint enhances the possibility of working together for common goals.
4. Compromise: In this technique the conflicting parties compromise with each other on certain
points. The party provides something else to other parties in exchange for the desired outcomes.
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If the desired outcome is not achieved conflict again rises. Hence, this is also a temporary
solution.
5. Hierarchical decision-making: In this technique, a common superior can be requested to use
his authority to resolve conflict. However, it is very widely accepted technique that loses its
goodness when the authority figure fails to understand the issue properly and the subordinates do
not respect them.
6. System restructuring: By restructuring system, one can often manage the conflict in the
organization.
It involves clarifying demands and segregating roles in different position, and people can resolve
role conflict.
7. Bargaining: In this technique parties in conflict bargain each other to solve the conflict. Here
the use of bargaining power is highly used.
8. 13. What do you understand by conflict? Examine their negative and positive outcomes in
organization.
9. Meaning of Conflict
10. Conflict is a situation in which two or more parties feel themselves in opposition. In other
words, conflict is a process in which an effort is purpose fully made by one person or unit to block
another that results in frustrating the attainment of other goals or the furthering of his or her
interests.
11. Positive Outcomes of Conflict
More often conflict leads to certain positive outcomes. A few of them are:
a. It provides as individual a chance to think again, undertake self-introspection and have a
second look at the existing things, be they procedures, policies, equipment, behaviors etc. In this
regard, conflict is a major stimulant for change.
b. It leads to innovation and at times, to new direction. It is therefore, even necessary for
organization survival and growth.
c. It helps seek classification and generate search behavior.
d. At times, conflict is also used as means to certain ends and creates confusion or set
subordinates against each other in order to maintain the interested party's own position. It may
not be a positive outcome in the strict sense of the term from the organizational point of view,
but it is certainly a management strategy toward off problems temporarily. It may be viewed as
an unavoidable cost of the pursuit of one's aspiration.
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e. When conflict is developed, attention is immediately drawn to the malfunction parts of a

system. It is an indication that the situation calls for improvement. Conflicts are, therefore, an
essential portion of a cyber-native system.
f. It energies people and leads to mild stimulation. Moreover, it helps the employees to test
their capacities.
g. It serves as a cementing force in a group and incredible unity is witnessed even in a
heterogeneous group in times of tension.
h. For some. It is exhilarating, provides endless challenge and meaning to their lines.
i. Negative Outcomes of Conflict

Many times conflicts may be detrimental and disastrous. A few of such circumstances in which it
can be termed as harmful and undesirable are discussed below.
a. When conflict does not lead to solution of a problem, it is unproductive and investment of
time and effort goes waste.
b.It is undesirable if it creates a climate of distrust and suspicion among people, if some people feel
defeated and if it develops antagonism instead of spirit of cooperation.
c. When management loses objectivity and treats disagreement as equivalent to disloyalty and rebellion,
an opportunity for creativity should be deemed to have been lost. It may even pour oil over troubled
waters; exploit differences to strengthen itself and weaken other, and
accept resolution capable of different interpretations.
d. In an attempt to find a solution, management may gloss over serious difference and suppress certain
feelings which may except at inappropriate moments and hit safe targets.
e. In the event of a conflict, there may be intensification of internalization of sub unit goals
which may result in the neglect of overall organizational goals.
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11.0 ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT
1. State the main forces for organizational change.

The major forces for change are enlisted as follows:
a. External Force: It forces the organization to change. It includes:
• Nature of the work force
• Technology
• Economic shocks
• Competition
b. Internal Force: It forces the organization to adopt change. It includes:
c. Goal change Internal change
d. Organizational structure
e. 2. Define organizational change
f. Organizational change refers to any alteration in work environment that affects the ways in which
employees must act. In other word, change refers to something which occurs to an
g. organization, a group or an individual.
h.
3. Define resistance to change

The obstacle faced by change from the resistant employees of the organization is known as
resistance to change. Overcoming resistance to change is one of the most difficult tasks.
4. Enlist the major causes of resistance to change

The major causes of resistance to change can be divided into two broad halves:
i. Individual resistance: It includes
- Security
- Habit
- Fear of unknown
1
ii. Organizational resistance: It includes

- Group inertia
- Structure inertia
- Allocation of resources
5. Enlist the methods that help to overcome resistance to change.

The major methods are listed as follows:
• Education and communication
• Participation
• Negotiation
• Manipulating and cooperation
• Coercion
• Positive relationship
6,Define organizational development.

A systematic method of introducing change is defined as organizational development. In other
words, organizational development is the process of planed change and improvement of the
organization through application of knowledge of the behavioural science.
7. List out the characteristics of OD.

The key characteristics of OD are listed as follows:
• Long term effort
2
• Broad change
• Dynamic process
• System approach
• Research based
• Support of top management
• Team work
• Goal oriented
8. What do you mean by OD values?

Organizational development is based on a certain set of ethics and morality, hence it is an value
concept. The key points that determines the OD values are listed as follows:
• Respect of people for people
• Trust and support
• Participation
• Confrontation
9. Write the meaning of sensitivity training.

An interactive training that focuses on helping employees in the development of better awareness
of potential and roles in organization is known as sensitivity training. In this training, aspects like
dynamics, environment, need of change, etc. are addressed.
10. What is the process consultation?

It is one of the most common methods of process interventions. As per this method, external
consultants are hired for the intervention process. The external consultant provides information,
technique, etc. in regard to employee communication, interaction, cooperation, etc.
11. What are the organizational forces that make an organization necessary to change?
Forces that lead to Organizational Change
Change is a law of nature; we live in a dynamic world where nothing remains static. Everything
around us keeps on changing.
3
Organization change refers to the alteration of structural relationships and role of the people in
the organization. It is largely structural in nature. These changes may be pressurized by internal
or external forces, may affect only one or all the levels and department or may be related to the
organizational structure (hierarchy), people, technology, working or social environment, etc.
The key internal and external forces that forces organization to change are explained briefly.
Internal Forces
A force induced from the organizational itself is known as internal forces. The key internal
forces are explained briefly.
1. Goal Change: Change in organizational goals makes it necessary for organization to
change.
2.Sequential change: Every organizational change requires readjustments, sequential change and
supportive change. For example, creation of new department may cause the appointment of some
new managerial position, which in turn may necessitate reallocation of authority, responsibility
and duties of the concerned department.
3. Employees pressure: Every increasing demand of employees for better job security and
job satisfaction, better safety and welfare, congenial working environment, higher wages and
perquisites, participation in managerial process and more authority and power also precipitate
changes in the organization structure and pattern.
External forces
Organization has no control over external forces. Some of the common external forces are listed
below;
1. Economic forces: It includes
Economic condition of country

Inflation and exchange rate
Income distribution and resource availability
Govt. liberalization and privatization policy.
2. Market force: It includes
Growth of electronic commerce
Work force diversity in terms of culture, gender, age skills and professionalism etc.
3. Technological force: It includes
Sophisticated information technology, robotics, faster and cheaper computers
Innovation and experimentation
Reshaping of jobs arising from new developments in technology
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4. Socio-culture force: It includes

Delayed marriage, people attitude toward society
People's norms and value toward society
5. Political force: It includes
The change in political forces collapse of Soviet Union, reunification of Germany, collapse of
Saddam Hussain regime in Iraq.
Increasing activating pressure groups.
13. State and explain the organizational resistances to change in modern organizations.
Organizational Resistance to Change
1. Individual resistance: Individuals are considered as the main source of resistance to
change due to their perception, personalities and needs. Because of the following reason
individual resist the change.
a. Habit: Once we become habituated on anything, it will be difficult to change that habit.
As human beings, we are creatures of habit. Changes in old work habits create resistance.
Employees tend to respond in accustomed work.
b. Security: Employees may fear loss of job security, reduction in pay and increase in
workloads. The cost of change may be higher than benefits of change.
c. Economic reasons: These include the fear unemployment, fear of reduced work hours and
consequently less pay after change, fear of demotion and low wages, etc. Whenever people sense
that new
Machinery pass a threatening challenge for their existence, they resist change.
d. Social reasons: Change often results in disturbance of the existing social relationships. People
in work organizations develop some sort of informal relationships and any change breaking these
relationships will be strongly resisted. Group pressure also brings about resistance to change in
individuals.
2. Organizational resistance: Organization itself is another key source for resistance to change.
Many times, the resistance to change is initiated by the organization as a whole or by the top
management. The main reasons for organizational resistance are explained briefly.
a. Inflexibility in organizational structure: Some organizational structure has a built-in
mechanism for resistance to change. For instance, in typical bureaucratic structures where chain
of command is clearly spelled out, authority, responsibilities and duties are clearly defined, flow
of information is stressed through proper, channel and the entire pattern is highly mechanistic
and rigid, and any change in the organization structure or pattern would be difficult.
5
b. Resource constraints: Organizational change usually invoices a huge expenditure. In this

regard, resource usually is a major constraint. In such a situation, change is resisted by the
departmental heads and employees. This is true, when government forces the organization to
introduce certain technological, organizational, or social changes but does not provide adequate
human and physical resources, the organization oppose such changes. Similarly when trade
unions pressurize management to introduce certain changes for the safety, welfare and comforts
of the employees, the management put resistance to such changes for lack of amiabilities of
funds.
c. Fear of loss of investment: In case when organization has invested a huge capital in their
permanent assets and training of employees, they are afraid of their capital being sunk, if they
introduce a new technology.
14. What are the pre-requisites to organizational development?

Organizational development does not emerge itself. There are some conditions, which must be
accomplished as prerequisites.
Some of the key pre-requisites to organizational development are explained as follows.
1. Top level management's commitment: There should be the explicit commitment of the
top management to change and improve the organization, denote its time and resources to this
long term effort. The management should take the risk and experiment, with new methods of
handling the problems, be keen to assess its own behaviours and attitudes for personal
development purpose, and be able to tolerate confusing results which may occur at the initial
stages of OD programme.
2. Strong and influential change facilitator: The existence of strong and competent internal
change facilitators and resourceful individuals, who can perform the role of internal change
agents, provides momentum to the OD work.
3. Successful past experience: Successful experience with the earlier efforts in some parts
of the organization provides momentum to further efforts and thus, forms a significant
prerequisite, to the effective performance of an organization development programme.
4. Capable external consultants: The involvement of capable and experienced external
consultants, especially during the earlier stages of OD work, provides the objectivity and variety
of skills, which may make the programme highly effective. However, it is necessary that the
consultant develop the internal change facilitators and the problem solving ability of the
organization instead of making the organization dependent upon himself.
5. Influential managers: The presence of some influential mangers, who act as like link pins
between crucial groups and we are willing to introduce change and experiment with new
methods of work, forms another prerequisite to a successful OD programme.
6
6. Internalization of OD efforts: The internationalization of concern for renewal, re-

education, constant assessment of the organizational health and corporate excellence forms a
very crucial prerequisite to effective OD effort.
7. Built-in reward system: There is the prerequisite in the form of built-in reward system.
Attempts should be made to build the reward systems for the effective performance of results.
15. What is Organization Development? Discuss the OD interventions.

Organization Development
Organization development is a long-range effort to improve an organization’s problem-solving
and renewal processes, particularly through a more effective and collaborative management of
organization culture. In doing so it gives special emphasis on the culture of formal work teams-
with the assistance of a change agent. In other words OD is a planned process of change in an
organization’s culture through the utilization of behavioural science technology, research and
theory.
OD Interventions
An OD intervention is defined as. “the set of structured activities in which selected organizational
units (target groups or individuals) engage with the task where the goals are related directly or
indirectly to organizational improvements.”
OD intervention is different from traditional intervention which focuses on content. OD
intervention covers the whole organizational process. OD intervention focuses on team work and
intends to change towards effective behaviour. It relies on collaboration management of work
culture.
Types of OD interventions
There are various OD intervention at different levels. Among them some of the key ones are
discussed below.
1. Management by objectives [MBO]: MBO emphasizes participation of individuals in
setting goals. It is systematic and organized approach that allows management to attain
maximum results from available resources by focusing on achievable goals. It is a rational
approach to management and helps prevent, management by crisis, fire fighting methods. The
emphasis on joint goal setting and self control not only promotes individual development but
also improves organizational effectiveness in long term.
2. Team building: The focus of team building is the development of effective management
teams. These work groups focus on solving problems in building effective management teams.
The team leader defines a problem that demands organizational change. The group analyses the
problem and traces out the causes of the problem. The problem arising from communication,
leadership styles, organization structure, etc. are highlighted here.
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3. Job enrichment: Job enrichment refers to basic change in the content and level of
responsibility of a job so as to provide the satisfaction of the motivation needs (achievements,
recognition, responsibility, personal growth) of personnel. Jobs are made more challenging,
meaningful and interesting. When applied initially, job enrichment programmes have increased
employee productivity and job satisfaction and reduced the employee turnover and absenteeism.
4. Managerial grid: Managerial grid training emphasizes on the fact that most effective
leadership style is that which stresses maximum concern for both production and people. It is a
systematic approach for analyzing management and helps the organization in moving to the best
style.
5. Sensitivity training: The general goal of sensitivity training is to develop awareness of
and sensitivity to oneself and others. The training generally takes place under laboratory
conditions. As small number of participants (12-15) sit together along with a trainer who (usually
behavioural scientist) helps the participants in having an open and authentic communication with
each other. The individual participant is made aware of his behaviour, how other perceives his
behaviour etc.
16. Change is a necessary way of life in organization. Most organizations today are faced
with tremendous forces for change stemming from different source. A systematic and
planned way of managing change successfully has become a primary responsibility of
management, in this context; discuss the different approaches that you would recommend
for managing organizational change.
How to manage any change in organization is difficult process. When organization makes any
components, resistance from employee’s side comes up. To make the change successful,
organization should manage it. There are different approaches to managing organizational
change. On this manner we consider the following models.
1. Kurt Lewin model: Kurt Lewin argued that successful change in organization should
follow three steps. They are:
a. Unfreezing the status quo: Unfreezing means the change efforts to overcome the presence
of both individual resistance and group conformity. The status quo can be considered as the
equilibrium state. Any employee who achieve the high status stick to it. He does not want to
move from it. So, if any change organization wants to implement then employee resists that
change due to the status quo. So, to implement the change successfully, organization unfreezes
the status quo of the employee. This can be done through following ways:
 Driving forces,
 Restraining forces and
 Combination of both forces.
8
The Driving force is that force which directs the behaviors of the employee from the status quo.
The Restraining is that force which hinders the movement from the status quo, changing
behavior of employee through increasing their pay, if they accept the change,
b. Movement to a new status: Only unfreezing the status quo is not sufficient to manage the
change. Now the employee who has changed their behaviour from status quo should be moved to
new state to make the change stable. If they are not moved to the new state, they might freeze to
the status quo. Thus movement to the new state is another step to make the organizational change
successful.
c. Refreezing the new change: Once the employee is moved to the new state, they should be
retained in the new status, otherwise they may comeback to the previous state and the change
may not be successful. Thus, to retain them in the new state is very much essential to make
change successful. To Retain/Refreeze in the new state, temporary force should be systematically
replaced with permanent ones. This build up confidence in employee towards organization and
will be socialize in the new environment. In this way, the change can be made successful in the
organization.
2. Action research: Action research is concerned with practical problems with theoretical
relevance and has three masters-the sponsors, the behavioural science, practitioner and the
scientific community. Action research is a data drawn problem solving model of organization
change. The key steps of action research model are enlisted as follows:
 Establish client consultant relationship: One should establish client-consultant
relationship. In doing so, one must determine three major components.
 Clients readiness for change
 Consultant’s power base
 Consultant’s role in relationship
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 Diagnose the need for change: In the second step, action research diagnoses the need for
change. In this regard, it goes through a systematic analysis of the situation.
 Introduce change: It is the most critical step in action research. In this step, the concerned
parties decide the type of change to be introduced.
 Evaluate and stabilize change: Once the change is introduced it is then evaluated.
Evaluation is done on the basis of objectives that are set. If the changes are desirable, it is
important to stabilize change. For this, both the change agent and participants need to play their
part.
 Disengage consultant’s service: This is the last step in action research. In this step, the
service of consultant is terminated with the purpose of empowering internal participants.
10

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1. Point out the input variables of organizational behavior system.

Group level variables

Organizational level variables

2. Define organization and behavior.

4. Enlist the few importance of OB.

 It assists in prediction and control of human behaviour.

5. List out the critical behaviour issues confronting today’s managers.

6. What are the outputs of Organizational Behaviour system?

7. Why is it important to understand organizational behaviour?

2.0 UNDERSTANDING INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR

6. What is cognitive dissonance?

Value is a framework of personal philosophy Belief is an enduring organization of

11. What are the needs of human beings?

An attitude refers to evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people or events. In

Individual behavior as a dependent variable is influenced by numerous factors enlisted as

16. Define values. Explain its sources and functions.

• The decision maker has a clear, well-defined goal to be achieved.

• 4. What are the important theories of learning?

• Operant conditioning theory

6. Define operant conditioning theory.

• Improve employee skills

Classical conditioning is passive. Something happens and we behave in a specific way. It is

3. Enumerate the major determinants of personality.

The major determinants of personality are enlisted as follows:

4. Differentiate between extrovert and introvert personality type.

5. Contrast between thinking and judging types of personality.

Thinking and judging types of personality are contrasted as follows:

6. State Big Five personality traits.

The big five personality traits are enlisted as follows:

7. Enlist the major personality attributes influencing organizational behaviour.

8. What is personality? What are its major determinants?

Major Determinants of Personality

without a feel of shyness is common norm. Such environment is instrumental in developing a

Personality is the source of new Behaviour is the result of new

Personality mainly is the result of Behaviour is resulted from motivation

Approaches for Matching Personality and Jobs

The key motivational factors as per Herzberg are listed as follows:

Motivation is a process that starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or needs

The primary importance of motivation is enlisted as follows:

5. Sketch the motivation process.

The motivational process is showcased as following:

6. Enlist the salient features of motivation.

The salient features of motivation are enlisted as follows:

The relationship is showcased as follows:

8. What are the various kinds of employee motivation?

The various kinds of employee motivation are enlisted as follows:

 Negative motivation: It is based on force and fear.

9. Differentiate between positive and negative motivation.

They are differentiated as follows:

Positive motivation is an attempting to Negative motivation is a process of

Positive motivation is also known as Negative motivation is also known as fear

10.Contrast intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic Motivation

11. Explain in short about self-motivation.

12. What do you mean by biological needs and security needs?

14. List the hygiene factors.

The key hygiene factors as per Herzberg are listed below:

15. Point out the weakness of need hierarchy theory.

The key weakness of need hierarchy theory is enlisted as follows:

16. Point out the weakness of two-factor theory.

 The key weaknesses of two-factor theory are pointed as follows:

17. List out the weakness of achievement theory.