Module 3: Soil Classification

Introduction

Soils are all different, depending on their origins, compositions, locations, geological
histories, and many other factors. Two soils may be quite different, even though they were
obtained from nearby boring holes on the same construction site. And thus, in-situ and
laboratory tests on soil specimens are critically important to obtain their index parameters
and engineering characteristics. However, it is more convenient for engineers when soils are
categorized into several groups with similar engineering behaviors. Engineers can
understand approximate engineering characteristics of those grouped soils without actual
laboratory or field tests. This process is called soil classification, and it helps engineers in
the preliminary design stage of geotechnical engineering problems.

Most soil classification standards use soil indices such as Atterberg limits (liquid limit,
plastic limit), soil gradation information, etc. In current geotechnical engineering practice,
two standards are widely used in the United States: the Unified Soil Classification System
(USCS) and AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials) methods.

Topic Outcomes

1. To classify the soil sample using USDA Classification

2. To classify the soil sample using AASHTO Classification

3. To classify the soil sample using USCS Classification

Classification of Soils

Soils in nature rarely exist separately as gravel, sand, silt, clay or organic matter, but are
usually found as mixtures with varying proportions of these components. Grouping of soils
on the basis of certain definite principles would help the engineer to rate the performance of
a given soil either as a sub-base material for roads and airfield pavements , foundations of
structures , etc . The classification or grouping of soils is mainly based on one or two index
properties of soil. The methods that are used for classifying soils are based on one or the
other of the following two broad systems:

1. A textural system which is based only on grain size distribution.

2. The systems that are based on grain size distribution and limits of soil.

Textural Soil Classification

In a general sense, texture of soil refers to its surface appearance. Soil texture is
influenced by the size of the individual particles present in it. Soils are divided into gravel,
sand, silt, and clay categories on the basis of particle size. In most cases, natural soils are
mixtures of particles from several size groups.

A number of textural classification systems were developed in the past by different

organizations to serve their needs, and several of those are in use today.The textural
classification systems developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) is based
on the particle-size limits as described under the USDA system in Table 7; that is

Table 7: Soil Fractions as per U.S. Department of Agriculture

By making use of the grain size limits mentioned in the table for sand , silt and clay , a
triangular classification chart has been developed as shown in Fig. 29 for classifying mixed soils.
The first step in the classification of soil is to determine the percentages of sand, silt and
clay-size materials in a given sample by mechanical analysis. With the given relative
percentages of the sand, silt and clay, a point is located on the triangular chart as shown in Fig.
29. The designation given on the chart for the area in which the point falls is used as the
classification of the sample .
 For example, if the particle-size distribution of soil A shows 30% sand, 40% silt, and
30% clay-size particles, its textural classification can be determined by proceeding in the
manner indicated by the arrows in Figure 29. This soil falls into the zone of clay loam. Note
that this chart is based on only the fraction of soil that passes through the No. 10 sieve.
Hence, if the particle-size distribution of a soil is such that a certain percentage of the soil
particles is larger than 2 mm in diameter, a correction will be necessary. For example, if soil
B has a particle size distribution of 20% gravel, 10% sand, 30% silt, and 40% clay, the
modified textural compositions are

On the basis of the preceding modified percentages, the USDA textural classification is
clay. However, because of the large percentage of gravel, it may be called gravelly clay.

Figure 29: U.S. Department of Agriculture textural classification

 This method of classification does not reveal any properties of the soil other than
grain-size distribution . Because of its simplicity , it is widely used by workers in the field
of agriculture. One significant disadvantage of this method is that the textural name as
derived from the chart does not always correctly express the physical characteristics of the
soil. For example, since some clay size particles are much less active than others, a soil
described as clay on the basis of this system may have physical properties more typical of
silt.

Example:
Classification by Engineering Behavior
Although the textural classification of soil is relatively simple, it is based entirely on the
particle-size distribution. The amount and type of clay minerals present in fine-grained soils
dictate to a great extent their physical properties. Hence, the soils engineer must consider
plasticity, which results from the presence of clay minerals, to interpret soil characteristics
properly. Because textural classification systems do not take plasticity into account and are
not totally indicative of many important soil properties, they are inadequate for most
engineering purposes. Currently, two more elaborate classification systems are commonly
used by soils engineers. Both systems take into consideration the particle-size distribution
and Atterberg limits. They are the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) classification system and the Unified Soil
Classification System. The AASHTO classification system is used mostly by state and
county highway departments. Geotechnical engineers generally prefer the Unified system.

AASHTO Classification System

The AASHTO system of soil classification was developed in 1929 as the Public Road
Administration classification system. It has undergone several revisions, with the present
version proposed by the Committee on Classification of Materials for Subgrades and
Granular Type Roads of the Highway Research Board in 1945 (ASTM designation D-3282;
AASHTO method M145). This revision is used for extended applications in road bases,
sub-bases, subgrades, and embankment constructions (AASHTO 1995). As a reference, the
terminology of road construction materials such as base, subbase, subgrade, etc. is shown
in Figure 30 for typical rigid (concrete) and flexible (asphalt cement) pavement systems.

Figure 30: Typical road pavement systems.

 The AASHTO classification in present use is given in Table 8. According to this
system, soil is classified into seven major groups: A-1 through A-7. Soils classified under
groups A-1, A-2, and A-3 are granular materials of which 35% or less of the particles pass
through the No. 200 sieve. Soils of which more than 35% pass through the No. 200 sieve
are classified under groups A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7. These soils are mostly silt and clay-type
materials. This classification system is based on the following criteria:

1. Grain size
a. Gravel: fraction passing the 75-mm (3-in.) sieve and retained on the No. 10 (2-mm)
U.S. sieve
b. Sand: fraction passing the No. 10 (2-mm) U.S. sieve and retained on the No. 200
(0.075-mm) U.S. sieve
c. Silt and clay: fraction passing the No. 200 U.S. sieve

2. Plasticity: The term silty is applied when the fine fractions of the soil have a plasticity
index of 10 or less. The term clayey is applied when the fine fractions have a plasticity
index of 11 or more.

3. If cobbles and boulders (size larger than 75 mm) are encountered, they are excluded from
the portion of the soil sample from which classification is made. However, the percentage of
such material is recorded.
 Table 8: Classification of Highway Subgrade Materials

To classify a soil according to Table 8, one must apply the test data from left to right. By
process of elimination, the first group from the left into which the test data fit is the correct
classification. Figure 31 shows a plot of the range of the liquid limit and the plasticity index for
soils that fall into groups A-2, A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7.
Figure 31: Range of liquid limit and plasticity index for soils in groups A-2, A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7

To evaluate the quality of a soil as a highway subgrade material, one must also
incorporate a number called the group index (GI) with the groups and subgroups of the soil.
This index is written in parentheses after the group or subgroup designation. The group
index is given by the equation

where F200 = percentage passing through the No. 200 sieve

LL = liquid limit
PI = plasticity index
 The first term of the GI equation—that is, (F200 - 35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL - 40)]—is the
partial group index determined from the liquid limit. The second term—that is, 0.01(F200 -
15)(PI - 10)—is the partial group index determined from the plasticity index. Following are
some rules for determining the group index:

1. If the equation yields a negative value for GI, it is taken as 0.

2. The group index calculated from the equation is rounded off to the nearest whole number
(for example, GI =3.4 is rounded off to 3; GI = 3.5 is rounded off to 4).
3. There is no upper limit for the group index.
4. The group index of soils belonging to groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3 is
always 0.
5. When calculating the group index for soils that belong to groups A-2-6 and A-2-7, use
the partial group index for PI

In general, the quality of performance of a soil as a subgrade material is inversely

proportional to the group index.

Example:

The results of the particle-size analysis of a soil are as follows:

• Percent passing the No. 10 sieve = 100
• Percent passing the No. 40 sieve = 80
• Percent passing the No. 200 sieve = 58

The liquid limit and plasticity index of the minus No. 40 fraction of the soil are 30 and
10, respectively. Classify the soil by the AASHTO system.

Solution:
Using Table 8, since 58% of the soil is passing through the No. 200 sieve, it falls under
silt-clay classifications—that is, it falls under group A-4, A-5, A-6, or A-7. Proceeding from
left to right, it falls under group A-4.

GI = (F200 -35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL -40)] + 0.01(F200 -15)(PI -10)

= (58 -35)[0.2 + 0.005(30 -40)] + (0.01)(58-15)(10 -10)
= 3.45 ≈ 3

So, the soil will be classified as A-4(3).

Example:

Ninety-five percent of a soil passes through the No. 200 sieve and has a liquid limit of
60 and plasticity index of 40. Classify the soil by the AASHTO system.

Answer: A-7-6(42)

Example:
Classify the following soil by the AASHTO Classification System:
• Percentage passing No. 10 sieve = 90
• Percentage passing No. 40 sieve = 76
• Percentage passing No. 200 sieve = 34
• Liquid limit (–No. 40 fraction) = 37
• Plasticity index (–No. 40 fraction) = 12

Answer: A-2-6(0)
Unified Soil Classification System
The original form of this system was proposed by Casagrande in 1942 for use in the
airfield construction works undertaken by the Army Corps of Engineers during World War
II. In cooperation with the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, this system was revised in 1952. At
present, it is used widely by engineers (ASTM Test Designation D-2487). The Unified
classification system is presented in Table 9.

Table 9: Unified Soil Classification System (Based on Material Passing 76.2-mm Sieve)
This system classifies soils into two broad categories:

1. Coarse-grained soils that are gravelly and sandy in nature with less than 50% passing
through the No. 200 sieve. The group symbols start with a prefix of G or S. G stands for
gravel or gravelly soil, and S for sand or sandy soil.

2. Fine-grained soils are with 50% or more passing through the No. 200 sieve. The
group symbols start with prefixes of M, which stands for inorganic silt, C for inorganic
clay, or O for organic silts and clays. The symbol Pt is used for peat, muck, and other
highly organic soils.

Other symbols used for the classification are:

W—well graded
P—poorly graded
L—low plasticity (liquid limit less than 50)
H—high plasticity (liquid limit more than 50)

For proper classification according to this system, some or all of the following
information must be known:

1. Percent of gravel—that is, the fraction passing the 76.2-mm sieve and retained on the
No. 4 sieve (4.75-mm opening)

2. Percent of sand—that is, the fraction passing the No. 4 sieve (4.75-mm opening) and
retained on the No. 200 sieve (0.075-mm opening)

3. Percent of silt and clay—that is, the fraction finer than the No. 200 sieve (0.075-mm
opening)

4. Uniformity coefficient (Cu) and the coefficient of gradation (Cc)

5. Liquid limit and plasticity index of the portion of soil passing the No. 40 sieve

The group symbols for coarse-grained gravelly soils are GW, GP, GM, GC, GC-GM,
GW-GM, GW-GC, GP-GM, and GP-GC. Similarly, the group symbols for fine-grained
soils are CL, ML, OL, CH, MH, OH, CL-ML, and Pt.
 More recently, ASTM designation D-2487 created an elaborate system to assign group
names to soils. These names are summarized in Figures 32, 33, and 34. In using these
figures, one needs to remember that, in a given soil,

Fine fraction = percent passing No. 200 sieve

Coarse fraction = percent retained on No. 200 sieve
Gravel fraction = percent retained on No. 4 sieve
Sand fraction = (percent retained on No. 200 sieve) - (percent retained on No. 4
sieve)

Figure 32: Flowchart group names for gravelly and sandy soil (After ASTM, 2006)
Figure 33: Flowchart group names for inorganic silty and clayey soils (After ASTM, 2006)
Figure 34: Flowchart group names for organic silty and clayey soils (After ASTM, 2006)
Example:

The Figure below gives the grain-size distribution of two soils. The liquid and plastic limits
of minus No. 40 sieve fraction of the soil are as follows:

Soil A Soil B
Liquid limit 30 26
Plastic limit 22 20

Determine the group symbols and group names according to the Unified Soil Classification
System.

Solution

Soil A
The grain-size distribution curve indicates that percent passing No. 200 sieve is 8.
According to Table 9, it is a coarse-grained soil. The percent retained on No. 4 sieve is zero.
Hence, it is a sandy soil.

From the Figure, D10 = 0.085 mm, D30 = 0.12 m, and D60 = 0.135 mm. Thus,
With LL = 30 and PI = 30 -22 = 8 (which is greater than 7), it plots above the A-line
in Figure 5.3. Hence, the group symbol is SP-SC.

In order to determine the group name, we refer to Figure 32. So, the group name is poorly
graded sand with clay.

Soil B
The grain-size distribution curve shows that percent passing No. 200 sieve is 61 (>50%);
hence, it is a fine-grained soil. Given: LL = 26 and PI 26 -20 = 6.
The PI plots in the hatched area. So, from Table 9, the group symbol is CL-ML.

For group name (assuming that the soil is inorganic), we go to Figure 33 and obtain Plus No.
200 sieve = 100-61 = 39 (which is greater than 30).

Percentage of gravel = 0; percentage of sand = 100 -61= 39

Thus, because the percentage of sand is greater than the percentage of gravel, the soil is
sandy silty clay.
End of Module Exercises
Classify the soil sample given in each number by using the classification system needed for
each. Don’t just write the classification, justify your answer by showing in a presentable
manner how you end up with that classification. I will not consider your answer if your
presentation is incomplete. Submit your work in pdf or word/doc format.

1.

2.
3.
The following figure shows grain size distribution curves for soils A, B, C, and D with their LL
and PL values.

For each soil,

(a) Classify the soil according to USCS.
(b) Classify the soil according to AASHTO
4.
The following figure shows grain size distribution curves for soils E, F, G, and H with their LL and PL values.

For each soil,

(a) Classify the soil according to USCS.
(b) Classify the soil according to AASHTO

5.
Use Unified Soil Classification System to classify the given soil knowing that
the liquid limit is 30% and plastic limit is 27%.
Particle Size
Particle size % finer
(mm)
(mm) than
6 100
% Finer
4.75 90 than
2.36 84
1.3 60
0.6 30
0.2 10
0.075 8
Bibliography
Principles of Geotechnical Engineering; 7th Edition; Braja M. Das

Geotechnical Engineering (Principles and Parctices of Soil Mechanics and Foundation

Engineering); V.N.S. Murthy

Soil Mechanics Fundamentals and Applications; 2nd Edition; Isao Ishibashi, Hemanta Hazarika