AQA Physics – The New Formulae & Data Booklet

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𝑟 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 (𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠)
ℎ = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟

𝐸 = 𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
ℎ = 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑘 ′ 𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑐 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝜆 = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
∅ = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑝 = 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
𝐸𝑘(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 𝑚𝑎𝑥. 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛

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 𝑐 = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝜆 = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑇 = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
𝑙 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝜇 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
FRINGE SPACING (DOUBLE SLIT)

𝐷 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛

𝑠 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑤 = 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠
(𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑠)𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛
REFRACTION
DIFFRACTION GRATING
𝑛 = 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥
𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑐 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚
𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑐𝑠 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑑 = 1/(𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒)
𝑛1 = 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝜃 = 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑎 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒
𝑛2 = 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝑛 = 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝜃1 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝜃2 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝜃𝑐 = 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
(𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙)

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𝐹 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑣 = (𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙) 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑢 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑠 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑎 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
∆(𝑥) = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝑊 = 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘(𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑)
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝐸𝑘 = 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝐸𝑝 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣. 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

𝑃 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝐹 = 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑘 = 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
∆𝐿 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐿 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝜎 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛)
𝜖 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛)
𝐴 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

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𝐼 = 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑄 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑉 = 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑊 = 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 (𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑)
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐴 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒
𝐿 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜀 = 𝑒𝑚𝑓
𝐸 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦
𝑟 = 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦

𝜔 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
∆𝜃
𝜔= (𝑁𝑂𝑇 𝐺𝐼𝑉𝐸𝑁)
∆𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑎 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑟 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠

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𝑎 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜔 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 2𝜋𝑓 (𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛)
𝑥 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑇 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑘 = 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑙 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑚
𝑔 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑄 = 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡

𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑐 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
∆𝜃 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑙 = 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝑝 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑛 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑅 = 𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 8.31
𝑇 = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑁 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠(𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠)
𝑘 = 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑐𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑁𝐴 = 𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑜 ′ 𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

7
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝐺 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑀 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑡/𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒
𝑟 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 (𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)
𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑊 = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 (𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑)
𝑉 = 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
∆𝑉 = 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒

8
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
ε0 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝑄 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒
𝑞 = 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 (𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒)𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝑟 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 (𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)
𝐸 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠
𝑉 = 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
∆𝑉 = 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐶 = 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠
𝑅 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

9
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝐵 = 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐼 = 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑙 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
𝑄 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒)
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝜙 = 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥
𝑁 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
𝜀 = 𝑒𝑚𝑓
𝜔 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐴𝐶)
𝐼0 = 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐴𝐶)
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝐴𝐶)
𝑉0 = 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝐴𝐶)
𝑁𝑃 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝑁𝑠 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
etc.

10
𝐼 = 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑘 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑥 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑁 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑤
𝑁0 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑠
∆𝑁
= 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 = −𝐴
∆𝑡
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝜆 = 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑇1⁄ = ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒
2

𝑅 = 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
𝑅0 = 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
𝐴 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝐸 = 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑚 = ∆𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡)
𝑐 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚

11