Professional Documents
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PPR341
PPR341
PPR341
PPR 341
153(666)
Version: Final
Client: T Messafer
(SSR, Highways Agency)
This report has been prepared for the Highways Agency. The views expressed are those of the authors and not
necessarily those of the Highways Agency.
Published Project Reports are written primarily for the Client rather than a general audience and are published
with the Client’s approval.
Approvals
TRL is committed to optimising energy efficiency, reducing waste and promoting recycling and re-use. In
support of these environmental goals, this report has been printed on recycled paper, comprising 100% post-
consumer waste, manufactured using a TCF (totally chlorine free) process.
CONTENTS
Executive summary i
1 Introduction 1
4.1 Design 35
4.1.1 Deep trench drains, counterfort drains and rock ribs 35
4.1.2 Shallow slope drains 36
4.1.3 Embankment drainage blankets and sand drains 37
4.1.4 Filter and fin drains 37
4.1.5 Open ditch and surface water channels 38
4.1.6 Vertical and horizontal drains 40
5 Survey of practitioners 50
7 Conclusions 55
9 Acknowledgements 57
10 References 58
Executive summary
The stability of highway embankments and cuttings is critically dependent on the magnitude and
distribution of pore water pressures within the soil. Pore pressures arise from the presence of water
within the soil matrix, which may be introduced via natural precipitation and/or recharge from nearby
external sources. For all earthwork slopes, rainfall will enter the underlying soil through the surface,
in quantities which depend on the soil type, topography, and vegetation cover. Slope drainage can
control the movement of surface water and also the subsurface pore water pressure in the slope.
Drainage can be very effective if installed at the correct location on or within the slope. In the long
term, systems need to be designed with maintenance operations in mind so that a sustainable system is
installed with a design life comparable to the 60 year design life of a highway slope.
Although it is widely recognised that robust, sustainable and cost-efficient slope drainage measures
are of critical importance, there is comparatively little information on slope related issues in current
Highways Agency documents. There are references in a number of the Advice Notes and
Departmental Standards within the DMRB relating to earthwork drainage, but none deal specifically
with this subject. This study has aimed at addressing this issue by highlighting references in the
DMRB, identifying other sources of information and noting relevant documented case/field studies.
The report commences by reviewing the measured distributions of pore water pressures in both
embankment and cutting slopes. A critical assessment is then made of the available slope drainage
techniques and related issues, these include:
• slope drains, counterfort drains and rock ribs,
• embankment drainage blankets and sand drains,
• filter and fin drains,
• vegetated slopes,
• open ditch and surface water channels,
• vertical and horizontal bored drains,
• electro-osmosis,
• interaction with highway drainage systems.
The current design practices for each of the above techniques are given in the report and a look-up
table is presented that relates the development of pore water pressures in slopes and drainage issues to
appropriate remedial measures, and provides a crude comparison of relative costs.
The increasing frequency of extreme rainfall events caused by climate change requires greater
emphasis to be placed on a consideration of storm water and surface run-off at the design stage. This
is to avoid in-service problems with mud and debris slides and to minimise the infiltration of water
into clay slopes after the development of shrinkage cracks during prolonged hot spells.
The report concludes by recommending an increased use of surface water channels and a more
proactive bioengineering approach in the design of slope drainage systems. These measures offer the
advantages of ease of inspection, reduced maintenance costs and a sustainable technique.
1 Introduction
For all earthwork slopes, rainfall will enter the underlying soil through the surface, in quantities which
depend on the soil type, topography, and vegetation cover. Slope drainage can control the movement
of surface water and also the subsurface pore water pressure in the slope. Drainage can be very
effective if installed at the correct location on or within the slope. In the long term, systems need to be
designed with maintenance operations in mind so that a sustainable system is installed with a design
life comparable to the 60 year design life of a highway slope.
The impact of climate change upon drainage and slope stability also needs to be considered in the
design. Advice on this is given by the UK Climate Impacts Programme (UKCIP02) and impacts
include:
• higher temperatures,
• changing precipitation patterns (including more extreme events),
• changes in other variables (e.g. number of storms, changes in sea level, regional effects).
Currently the number of slope failures on the highway network is limited and failures which do occur
are mostly associated with the high plasticity, over-consolidated clays which are common in England
(Perry, 1989). Clay slopes are particularly susceptible to drying during prolonged dry summers and
this leads to the formation of shrinkage cracks which rapidly fill with water during intense rain
storms. This ingress of water can lead to softening of clay slopes and adversely affect slope stability
in critical cases. More severe winter conditions with heavier extreme rainfalls will lead to a rise in the
water table with increased pore water pressures in the slope leaving soils, especially those that are
clayey, vulnerable to reductions in soil strength which adversely affect slope stability.
Although the focus of this report is on soil slopes, a wider range of slope failures occurs in the north
of England, Wales and Scotland because of the range of geologies. For example, the issue of
landslides, slumps, and mudflows has been extensively considered by Transport Scotland and a
summary of the findings is given by Winter et al (2005).
Slope instability affects the infrastructure foundation and can damage other assets located on the
embankment or in the cutting. Large slope movements or settlements lead to traffic speed restrictions
or route closure, and can damage the carriageway and any footway. Hence the understanding and
management of drainage provisions to improve the longevity and stability of slopes is of prime
importance to all infrastructure owners. For this reason, although the emphasis of this study is on
highway slopes, some information from other slopes has been included where relevant.
This report commences by reviewing the measured distributions of pore water pressures in both
embankment and cutting slopes, so that a critical assessment can be made of the applicability of
different slope drainage techniques.
The various drainage techniques and issues covered by the report include:
• slope drains, counterfort drains and rock ribs,
• embankment drainage blankets, sand drains and wick drains,
• filter and fin drains,
• vegetated slopes,
• open ditch and surface water channels,
• vertical and horizontal bored drains,
• electro-osmosis,
• interaction with highway drainage systems.
The report concludes with best practice guidance in the design and maintenance of the various
drainage systems.
2.1.1 M1 Toddington
TRL has investigated the pore water pressures in a 6.5m high Gault Clay embankment on the M1
(Carder et al, 2001). The embankment was constructed as part of the section of the M1 (Luton to
Ridgmont) which was opened in 1959. The embankment was constructed using clay excavated from
neighbouring areas of the works and the slope angle was approximately 1 in 2. An open ditch was
used for drainage purposes in front of the toe of the slope and there is no record of any drainage
blanket being used beneath the embankment. Strength profiles obtained from tests carried out using
the Panda penetrometer through the embankment material and into the clay foundation found no
evidence of a layer of higher strength. This tended to confirm that a drainage blanket had not been
installed below the clay fill at the time of embankment construction.
In recent years the site had shown some instability with numerous very shallow slips being evident on
the grassed slope giving it an undulating appearance. In Figure 2.1 the measured pore water pressures
at the piezometer locations are shown along with contour plots of the pore pressure distribution. The
piezometers used incorporated vibrating wire transducers with hydraulic twin tubes for de-airing
purposes so that small suctions could be recorded.
The measurements in Figure 2.1 show the contours of positive pore pressure which extend from the
body of the embankment into the side slope. Within the body of the embankment the pore pressure
initially increases with depth as would be expected because of the incidence of rainfall on the central
reserve and other unsurfaced areas at the top of the embankment. Below about mid-height these
positive pressures reduce as drainage occurs into the embankment foundation. Figure 2.1 shows the
contours of pore pressures of 5kPa and 10kPa extending from the body of the embankment into its
side slope by an amount primarily related to the seasonal rainfall. For example, the contour of 10kPa
pore pressure is far more extensive in May 2000 and February 2001 after periods of heavy rainfall.
Although generally the pore pressures within 1m of the slope surface are in suction, the contour plot
in February 2001 indicates the possibility that after prolonged and intense heavy rainfall, positive pore
pressures could occur near the slope surface at about mid-height. This could account for the incidence
of shallow failures at this site. It is also evident in Figure 2.1 that pore pressures measured on the
piezometer at foundation level and nearest to the toe of the slope fluctuated considerably depending
upon the season. In February 2001 a maximum value of 10.2kPa was recorded at this location and,
after prolonged rainfall events, it is envisaged that even higher pore pressures could be developed at
the toe adversely affecting the slope stability.
Figure 2.1. Contour plots of pore pressure (kPa) in the Gault Clay embankment on the M1
Piezometer
+10
+10
0 5
Metres +20
Figure 2.2. Contour plot of pore pressures (kPa) in the Gault Clay embankment
on the M25 (March 1988)
It is noticeable that pore pressures at depth in the slope are much less than those reported for the
Toddington M1 site (see Section 2.1.1). This may be related to the age of the earthworks as the
suctions in the M1 clay fill have had much longer to dissipate. It is expected that more positive
pressures will develop at depth in the M25 slope in the course of time.
water pressure measurements using flushable hydraulic piezometers were initiated in January 1984
and the first signs of movement were apparent in May 1985 when a 600mm deep crack appeared near
the crest. By July 1986, heave was visible near the toe of the slope. The pore water pressures recorded
in April 1987 and the shape of the failure surface are shown in Figure 2.3.
Original surface
Failure surface
Ground surface (post-slip)
-80 Piezometer
-40
-10
0
+10
0 1 2
Metres
Figure 2.3. Contour plot of pore pressures (kPa) in the Gault Clay embankment
on the A45 (April 1987)
As a result of the failure it is difficult to draw conclusions about the pore pressures within the failed
zone, however the contours in Figure 2.3 clearly indicate the high suctions beneath the embankment
which extend well into the side slope. It is known that the fill at Cambridge came from a deep borrow
pit at Milton. In the core of the embankment this suction has probably been sustained by the
combination of low infiltration through the pavement and the elevation above the natural groundwater
level, whereas in the slope greater infiltration and lower elevation have allowed the pressure to
increase. Given the high levels of suction, the potential for deeper seated future failures is particularly
low provided that water ingress is limited.
Failure surface
Ground Surface
Piezometer
-40
+10
+20
0 5
Metres
Figure 2.4. Contour plot of pore pressures (kPa) in the Gault Clay embankment
on the M26 (December 1988)
High suctions were again measured beneath the embankment and these extended into its side slopes.
These observations were similar to those at Cambridge and although the source of the Gault Clay fill
at Nepicar is not known it is presumed that it came from a deep borrow pit in much the same way.
The contours in Figure 2.4 suggest that positive pressures develop seasonally near to the surface as
water migrates into the clay to dissipate its high suction.
seasonal effect related to swelling of the clay during the wet season with
shrinkage of the surface during the summer season.
Movement data were similar at all three locations even though at two of these drainage ditches exist at
the toe of the slope, whilst at the toe of the other there is no drainage ditch with some flooding of the
adjoining field occurring during the winter.
150 -10 0 10 20 30
Pore pressure (kPa)
-10 0 10 20 30 40
Pore pressure (kPa) Counterfort drain
145
Filter drain
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Pore pressure (kPa)
Pile line
Scale:
10m
Figure 2.5. Ground water profiles in the Gault Clay cutting slope on the M25 after its remediation
TRL Limited 8 PPR 341
9
Published Project Report Version: Final
Cut-off drain
P1
P5
P9 P2
P6
A12 Southbound
P10 P3
P7
01-06-2003
P11 P4
01-09-2003
40 30 20 10 0
P8 Pore pressure (kPa)
01-12-2003
30 20 10 0
01-03-2004 P12 Pore pressure (kPa)
20 10 0
01-06-2004 Pore pressure (kPa)
01-09-2004
01-12-2004
Figure 2.6. Pore water pressure distribution in a failed London Clay cutting slope
on the A12 after its remediation
1
Network Rail has identified common high water demand trees as elm, oak, poplar, willow and hawthorne.
2
Network Rail has identified problem leaf fall species as poplar, ash, chestnut, lime and sycamore.
Figure 2.7. Tensiometer data for trees, shrubs, perennials and grasses on the north
slope of an embankment
2.4.1 Embankments
The pore water pressure distributions in embankments are very dependent on whether a drainage
blanket was installed at the time of construction and if it is still operative. Coupled consolidation3
analyses using an elastic perfectly plastic soil model were carried out by Geotechnical Consulting
Group (1993) and Carder and Easton (2001). The former found that when an embankment is
constructed directly on a clay foundation, the initial rupture surface can develop rapidly from the toe
of the slope along the foundation. When an embankment is constructed on a drainage blanket, the
potential rupture surfaces are confined to the slope above the drainage blanket and are shallower,
particularly if the surface of the slope is weathered and more permeable.
Carder and Easton (2001) reported that after long term consolidation the final pore water pressure
distributions are as shown in Figure 2.8. In Figure 2.8a the pore pressure in the centre of the
embankment initially increases with depth and then reduces again at the level of the drainage blanket.
Pore water pressures in the foundation then increase again approximately hydrostatically with depth.
Under this pore water pressure regime, suctions develop near the slope face as would be expected.
In some situations, vertical ingress of water to the embankment may result in higher pore pressures
within the clay fill and the pore pressure fixities were therefore modified to produce the final regime
shown in Figure 2.8b.
More significant differences in slope behaviour are predicted if either the embankment is constructed
directly on its soil foundation without using a drainage blanket or if the blanket fails to operate
satisfactorily. The final pore water pressure regime then follows the pattern shown in Figure 2.8c with
the drawdown in water pressure near to the foundation not being observed. In this case the ground
movements which occur are not only larger but more deep-seated.
3
Coupled consolidation allows dissipation of pore pressure according to the specified permeabilities of the
different soil layers. In this way the magnitudes of both the effective stress and the pore pressure can be
determined at different time increments.
Pore pressure
Figure 2.8. Predicted pore water pressure regime after 60 years in service (embankment slope)
2.4.2 Cuttings
Geotechnical Consulting Group (1993) looked in some detail at delayed failures in clay cuttings. The
equilibrium pore water pressures predicted in a clay cutting with an initial earth pressure coefficient
(K) of 1.5 are shown in Figure 2.9. The contours of deviatoric plastic strain in Figure 2.9a show the
development of rupture from the toe. Figure 2.9b shows the equilibrium pore pressures in the slope.
These data were also included in the Rankine lecture on natural slopes and cuts reported by Leroueil
(2001).
(a) Accumulated plastic strain 14.5 years after excavation, just before collapse
Figure 2.9. Analysis of 10m high cutting slope (1:3) assuming K of 1.5
and surface suction of 10kPa
Geotechnical Consulting Group found considerable variability in the predicted time to collapse of the
slopes analysed. The parametric studies for a 1:3 slope gave collapse times ranging from 14 to 45
years. The surface hydraulic boundary condition had a strong effect on stability. An increase in
surface suction from 10kPa to 20kPa went more than half way towards stabilising the 1:3 slope, and it
had almost as much effect as significant under-drainage below the cutting foundation. Further
examination of the role of vegetation in increasing evapo-transpiration and surface suction may
therefore assist in controlling the risk of long term deep-seated failures.
The authors also concluded that surface pore pressures can be reduced by counterfort drains, although
these need not be to the depth of a potential deep-seated slide. Drilled drainage systems which can be
installed horizontally into slopes could also reduce pore pressures sufficiently to eliminate the risk of
delayed collapse.
found that the slope drains did have a significant effect in reducing pore pressures. Hutchinson (1977)
gives charts for the estimation of the effect of slope drains on the water table and hence on pore
pressures. Predicted maximum pore pressures obtained by this method for a drain in uniform soil are
shown in Table 3.1. There was generally good agreement between predicted and measured values for
piezometers at 3m depth.
Table 3.1 Minimum depths to water table from 3m deep standpipe piezometers
The measured water table depths using the piezometers at 1.5m depth were again compared with the
predicted values using Hutchinson’s charts by assuming a drain penetration of 1.5m (Table 3.2). The
charts suggest that the drains would have little effect on water table and pore pressures midway
between the drains and this is confirmed by the measurements. As previously discussed high pore
pressures were measured in the undrained slope and also midway between the drains because of the
perched water table.
Farrar (1990) reported that there was no sign of further instability in the slope since the drains were
installed.
Table 3.2 Minimum depths to water table from 1.5m deep standpipe piezometers
Hydraulic and standpipe piezometers were installed at both the eastern and western sites, in the
experimental lengths for which drainage had been omitted, and in the adjacent lengths in which slope
drainage had been installed. Some standpipe piezometers had an incorporated device to record
maximum water tables. The piezometer locations and the observations are reported in detail by Farrar
(1992).
At the western site, high pore water pressures were measured in the clay a year after construction and
remained high throughout the period of observation. The slope drains did not function properly until
the exit from the slope drain into the verge drain was excavated and replaced with clean Type B filter
material in 1989. However, even after repair, reductions in pore pressure were small. This is probably
because the drains intercepted a surface deposit of water-bearing granular material. This deposit
introduced water into the drains which was retained by the relatively poorly draining filter drain
material used on this site.
At the eastern site, pore pressures in the weathered clay were initially low but increased over a period
of years. Although the slope drains were not effective in reducing pore pressures initially, in the
longer term they did produce some limited reduction in pore pressures. The time required for
equilibrium conditions to be attained was found to be about 5 years for a distance to the nearest
drainage surface of 2m and 10 years for a distance of 4m.
By 1989 an untreated section of slope had failed to the east of the treated section. The rock rib section
was unaffected and appeared to have good stability. Although no measurements of pore water
pressure were taken at the site, Boden (1995) concluded that rock ribs were a cost effective solution
worthy of further investigation.
Filter drains are primarily sub-surface drains. However, they are widely used as pavement edge drains
to collect surface runoff and intercept both groundwater and water draining from the unbound layers
within the pavement. Filter drains can function very effectively as a combined surface and sub-surface
drain.
Filter drains are described in HD 33 (Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, DMRB 4.2.3) Surface
and sub-surface systems for highway drainage, and comments on their performance are included in
HA 39 (DMRB4.2.1) Edge of pavement details. The ‘F’ Series of standard drawings in the HCD
(MCHW 3) provides details of three types of filter drain: combined surface and groundwater filter
drains, fin drains and narrow filter drains. Narrow filter drains and fin drains are discussed in the next
Section.
Filter drains can accommodate high volumes of flow, all of which should be within the carrier pipe.
The designed size of the pipe should be sufficiently large such that static water and longitudinal flow
should not occur within the backfill filter material.
Geosynthetic filter/separator
In situ soil
Concrete
Requirements for the backfilling of filter drains are specified in Clause 505 of the SHW (MCHW 1).
Where geosynthetics are used in drain construction, consideration must be given in its selection and
installation to the following factors:
• The pressure head required for water to pass through the geosynthetic filter material
must not exceed expected hydraulic head (too high an entry head will result in water
running along the surface of the filter leading to the washout of fine soil particles).
• Damage to the geosynthetic is likely to occur during maintenance operations.
• Construction and/or maintenance operations that result in soil smearing on the
geosynthetic may cause clogging of the filter.
• Clogging of the filter due to the migration of fines and detritus.
Much published information is available to assist with specifying the requirements for geosynthetic
filter products. It is recommended that designers seek expert advice.
For slopes with large catchments, i.e. where large surface flows are predicted, consideration should be
given to the separation of surface and ground water, so as to avoid introducing large quantities of
water into the ground. One solution, which is preferred by the HA for edge of pavement drainage, is
to construct a channel with an impermeable invert directly over the filter drain. This permits the rapid
removal of surface water and stops it entering the subsurface drain. Combined surface and sub-surface
drains are described in HD 33 (DMRB 4.2.3) and HA 39 (DMRB 4.2.1).
The dimensions of the carrier pipe are selected to accommodate the design flow. Requirements for the
selection of the carrier pipe, and the selection and compaction of the free draining backfill material are
provided in the 500 Series of the SHW (MCHW 1) and the associated Notes for Guidance
(MCHW 2). Slope drainage is not specifically covered within the DMRB or MCHW but much of the
information on pavement edge drainage presented in these documents is also suited to this application.
A review of the DMRB and MCHW and their application to the drainage of earthwork slopes is
provided by Farrar and Brady (2000) and contains advice on the performance of filter drains.
Filter drains are well suited for slope drainage applications and are often sited at the toe and/or the
crest of a slope. However, it is of crucial importance that the location of outfalls and the gradient of
the invert are selected to avoid instances of standing water within the backfill that would result in the
infiltration of water into the slope.
It is well known that defects in edge of pavement filter drains can lead to deterioration of the
pavement. It is equally true that defects in slope drains may increase the moisture content in the slope
leading to instability. Site investigations should take special note of existing land drains and any
interaction with these should be carefully considered at the design stage. Adherence to designs and
close supervision during construction are recommended. Special attention to detail is required for
joints between adjacent sections and at outfalls etc.
Todd and Stephens (1997) reported the results from several surveys undertaken to try to correlate
defects in subsurface drains with deterioration of the road pavement. The two primary causes of
premature deterioration due to increased moisture in the unbound materials were poor hydraulic
conductivity of the material and blocked or defective drainage. The actions that caused the defects
appeared to result from:
• a possible lack of understanding of the drain’s mode of operation;
• poor construction resulting from poor quality workmanship (construction and sometimes
design) and/lack of effective supervision;
• lack of maintenance.
It should not be assumed that filter drains are prone to defects. For example, Farrar and Samuel (1988
and 1989) reported that 20 year old filter drains, constructed in Gault clay adjacent to the M20 and
A20 in Kent, were in good condition and were effective in lowering the water table in their immediate
vicinity, but did not prevent shallow translational slope failures. Road detritus was retained on the
surface of the drain restricting the drainage of surface water, but effective operation of the drain at
depth continued. Farrar and Samuel (1988 and 1989) also provided useful information on the
performance of geosynthetic filters, installed around the drains.
The trials demonstrated the value of such comparative studies for highlighting potential problems. For
example, the wrong grade of geotextile filter was inadvertently supplied for one product which
adversely affected the permeability. This illustrates the importance of good quality control and routine
site testing. The pore size of the remaining four geotextile filters used in the fin drains broadly
conformed to a number of the published design criteria, and functioned effectively as filters.
Figure 3.6. Arrangements for narrow filter and fin drains (reproduced from HCD (MCHW 3))
Corbet (1990) also reported that flow normal to the geotextile filter and entering the fin drain when in
contact with the backfill was less than a thousandth of that measured in laboratory index tests. If such
a test is employed for obtaining design values, a very high factor of safety is essential. Performance
testing involving both soil and geotextile is recommended for a more accurate and reliable estimate of
design properties.
Crest drain
Aqueduct
Fin drain
Toe drain
(b) Spillway
Figure 3.7. Possible arrangement of surface channels, and combined surface channel and
sub-surface drainage systems for slope applications
in association with HR Wallingford (HRW). The findings of these studies have been implemented
through the publication of various Advice Notes within the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges
(DMRB).
Channels are the oldest and simplest form of drainage system. They are easy to construct, inspect,
maintain and repair. Over recent years there has been a resurgence of their use both for highway and
urban drainage systems; their usage is often combined with a fin or filter drain to intercept
groundwater flow, discharging into either common or separate outfalls.
Figure 3.8. Detail of a concrete surface water channel edge drain in a cutting situation.
(Reproduced from Drawing B3 of the HCD, MCHW 3)
The study also found that in addition to providing an environmentally friendly means of discharging
road runoff, grassed channels are an effective means of attenuating the flow peaks. Comparisons
between average flow velocities in grassed channels and in concrete channels indicated that mean
flow velocities in the former (with grass of 40mm height) are likely to be around 25% of those
estimated for concrete channels.
Grassed channels are constructed by placing topsoil to provide the desired profile; turfs are then laid
on top. The turfs may incorporate a lightweight (polymer) reinforcement to reduce damage from
handling. An alternative to laying turfs is hydro-seeding of the topsoil, but generally the use of turfs is
more advantageous (Escarameia and Todd, 2006).
A channel can be constructed on top of a filter drain, as previously mentioned. Infiltration of water
through the invert of the grass channel will percolate into the underlying drain. If required, hydraulic
separation can be achieved by installing a waterproof membrane over the filter drain and constructing
the channel directly on top. Errant vehicles traversing the grassed channel are unlikely to suffer any
significant loss in control although heavy vehicles, braking on the channel, may suffer a decrease in
control and in some circumstances cause substantial damage to the channel.
Grassed surface water channels are increasingly widely used around the HA network. A view of a
grassed surface water channel constructed adjacent to the M2 in Kent and water flowing in the lined
channel, are presented in Figures 3.9 and 3.10 respectively.
The surface geometry is similar to concrete channels, but their usage offers certain advantages such
as:
• more attractive natural appearance;
• better environmental performance due to the ability to absorb spillages and provide
vegetative treatment;
• reduced peak flow downstream due to the greater resistance and storage volume of grassed
channels.
The latter advantage is of particular relevance in the light of the predicted increase in the incidence of
heavy storms resulting from climate change, and in situations where high velocity flows may be
encountered e.g. for slope drainage.
It is known that grassed surface water channels are capable of reducing the level of contaminants in
water flows. The primary mechanism of pollutant removal is the deposition of sediments transported
by the flow; sediments can act as a means of transportation for contaminants or may be contaminants
themselves. The ability of grassed channels to reduce contaminant levels is dependent on channel
geometry, flow velocity, channel length and residence time.
Escarameia, Todd and Watts (2006) reviewed the issue of contamination and proposed a method of
assessing the pollutant removal ability of grassed surface water channels and swales.
Figure 3.9. A grass surface water channel constructed adjacent to the M2.
Some examples of projects where the above factors have played a part in drain type selection are the
Handlova Earth Flow (Slovakia), where steel pipes were used when drain lengths exceeded 170m.
Similarly in Hong Kong, in the Po Shan Slide steel pipes were used where drain lengths reached 90m
(Martin et al, 1995). In contrast, PVC pipes have been used in shorter lengths at Grenville House,
Hong Kong, the Nanyang Technological University (NTU) in Singapore, Snowy Mountain in
Australia and New Clear Water Bay Road, Hong Kong where drain lengths did not exceed 35m
(Craig and Gray, 1985).
At Blackstone Edge, Rochdale, 35m long PVC drains were designed in order to alleviate pore water
pressures within the ground (Hillier et al, 2005). On site, the drain casing was changed to steel at two
locations owing to obstructions within the uncased sections of the holes in the Lower Kinderscout Grit
bedrock.
Today, evidence points to plastic drains being the preferred option, as they are resistant to corrosion,
and with advances in technology, the material is becoming more rigid and therefore more suitable for
longer drains. Polypropylene pipes 150m in length have been installed successfully at Albion Lower
Tip in South Wales (Maddison, 1991).
On installation of the drain casing, an impermeable invert must be created, in order to convey
groundwater to the exit point and ensure it does not re-enter the slope. This can be achieved either by
using an unperforated casing invert or alternatively by grouting the area below the pipe.
Drain invert grouting has been successfully used in a number of projects in Hong Kong (Chan, 1987),
but has been less successful in the UK. In particular, this grouting technique was attempted at Albion
Lower Tip in South Wales, but high water flows required an alteration in the design, and casing with a
solid, unperforated, invert was subsequently adopted (Maddison, 1991). In Hong Kong, reports have
indicated that solid invert pipes have performed successfully in a number of projects (Whiteside,
1997).
Filters are installed either internally or externally in order to prevent excessive corrosion and sediment
accumulation. Whilst the performance of both types of filter is comparable, installing external filters
is undesirable as cleaning or replacement cannot be achieved without complete removal of the drain.
At Wattstown Roundabout Cutting on the Porth Relief Road in the Rhondda Valley, the presence of
fines in the ground surrounding the drains (which were installed in bedrock) was considered so small
that no filters were used.
Studies on drainage layout have indicated that for a given area, there is no difference in performance
between a fan and a parallel arrangement (Royster, 1980). The drain arrangement is therefore best
selected based on local conditions including topography, subsurface materials, configuration of the
slope and location of specific groundwater sources.
(SPT) values greater than 30 have been measured, where drain lengths in excess of 30m in harder
soils and 45 to 60m in softer soils are required, and where obstructions such as bedrock, large rocks,
dense sand or gravel are anticipated.
From a literature search, only one example of horizontal wick drain use has been found outside of
North America, at the Stratford Box in London (Channel Tunnel Rail Link). Here horizontal wick
drains were used to reduce the moisture content of tunnel spoil, prior to it being used as landscaping
and general fill material (private communication).
3.7 Electro-osmosis
Under an electro-potential gradient water will migrate from the anode towards the cathode, whence it
may be removed. This phenomenon, termed electro-osmosis, is a well established technique which
was used to stabilise steep railway cuttings in 1939 (Casagrande, 1952). The properties of fine grain
soils are strongly dependent on the moisture content of the soil. The application of electro-osmosis to
such soils can be used to increase the effective stress, by generating a reduction in pore water
pressure, and thus an increase in the shear strength of the soil mass. For construction purposes the
ability to regulate the water content of fine-grained soils is of paramount importance. Electro-osmosis
is effective for the control of seepage forces, and is therefore highly applicable for the stabilisation of
slopes constructed with fine grained soils.
Since the 1940’s for reasons relating to cost and problems with the durability of the electrodes,
electro-osmosis has seen little use within the general civil engineering industry. However the last
decade has seen a resurgence of interest in electro-osmosis, its usage being made more attractive by
recent advances in materials technology that led to the development of electro-conductive
geosynthetics.
Electro-kinetic geosynthetics (EKGs) are electro-conductive geosynthetics that also provide the more
traditional functions of geosynthetics, such as drainage and soil reinforcement. A description of
EKGs, electro-kinetic processes and their application to geotechnical engineering construction is
provided by Nettleton et al (1998). To date applications include the use of electro-osmosis for the
stabilisation of existing slopes beneath the rail network as shown in Figure 3.11, de-watering of mine
tailings and the control of sub-surface soil conditions on sports fields.
The application of electro-osmosis for slope drainage and stabilisation requires electrodes to be
installed within the slope. However, whereas metallic electrodes are robust they are prone to corrosion
and the new range of EKGs has significantly increased the potential applications for electro-osmosis.
EKGs do not degrade, except under extreme conditions, and are available in many different forms,
e.g. sheets, strips or 3D products.
Figure 3.11. Installation of EKGs to effect drainage and consolidation of an embankment for
London Underground. (Reproduced with the permission of Electrokinetic Limited)
The installation of EKGs into existing slopes may be achieved without causing disruptions to traffic
operations, and will result in rapid drainage and consolidation of the soil. The process is considered to
be irreversible; however as the electrodes are unlikely to be removed after use, they may be reused as
required simply by reconnecting the electrical supply.
EKGs may be incorporated into new constructions to enable the use of poor fill material that may not
otherwise have been deemed suitable for use. A further advantage is that the form of the EKGs will
permit them to also perform as soil reinforcement thus providing additional stabilisation as
demonstrated by Jones and Pugh (2001).
To date electro-osmotic techniques using EKGs have not been used for the stabilisation of earthworks
or structures around the highway network. However, the efficacy of the technique has been proved by
full scale trials, and it has been used to stabilise an embankment beneath an active railway line. It is
considered that the technique could be used effectively for the drainage of water from within an
embankment and to increase the embankment stability. It is recommended that if such usage was to be
considered for a highway scheme it should be monitored to provide a greater understanding that could
be applied to further schemes, leading to the generation of specific guidance for design, operation and
maintenance.
In addition to the above factors vegetation also has beneficial effects on slope stability. These are
primarily:
• Root reinforcement, where shear strength is increased as root fibres are produced and
extend across the plane of potential shear.
• Buttressing and arching, where trees and root columns act as piles or dowels to
counteract downslope shear movements. Arching of the soil between adjacent trees and root
columns depends on their spacing, diameter and embedment.
These latter effects are not the subject of this study on drainage issues, but further information can be
found in Coppin and Richards (1990).
There are a number of reviews which cover the general growth of vegetation and the selection of
appropriate plant groups, e.g. Coppin and Richards (1990), Bache and MacAskill (1984), Schiechtl
and Stern (1992). The advice of a specialist in ground bio-engineering should be sought. The
following gives some guidance on the attributes of the different plant groups:
(i). Grasses have a wide range of tolerances and quickly establish through vegetative spread
to give good ground cover. Grasses tend to be relatively shallow rooting and more suited to
surface protection, binding the surficial layers together, and may either attenuate or promote
surface water run-off depending on the species selected. Rhizomatous species are of particular
benefit to bio-engineering, because they can form a mat of underground stems. In general
terms however grasses rarely grow very deep.
(ii) Herbs and legumes are commonly used in conjunction with grasses. Herbs are broad-
leaved, non-woody plants which have a range of growth habits from upright to prostrate.
Seeds of herbaceous species can be expensive and certain species may prove difficult to
establish. Some species are deeper rooting than grasses, and therefore more suitable for
deeper stability, but many die back in winter. Legumes are particularly important where soil
fertility is low, because they can fix atmospheric nitrogen. They are cheap to establish and are
good companion species for grasses, but they are less tolerant of difficult sites.
(iii) Shrubs and trees are woody perennials, which have a wide range of above and below
ground habits. They can be single or multiple stemmed, and some spread by suckers from
roots. Rooting habit can vary from deep tap roots to shallow branched roots. Those of deeper
rooting habit will have a potential role in stabilising shallow slope failures in the longer term.
In general shrubs and trees take longer to fully establish and mature than grasses and
herbaceous plants.
Although vegetation can play an important part in reducing pore water pressures and attenuating
surface run-off, it is normally employed in conjunction with a more direct drainage measure.
The first line of defence in minimising the influx of external water flows is generally provided by a
deep ditch constructed just inside the boundary fence to intercept both surface runoff and
groundwater, shown schematically in Figure 3.12.
Boundary fence
External catchment
off
Run
Highway pavement
with edge drain Ditch
Figure 3.12. Schematic diagram showing a ditch used to intercept external water flow
encroaching the highway boundary.
Further drains, in addition to the pavement edge drain, may be required where there is a potential for a
high volume of external runoff. Typically surface water at the top of a slope is removed via a concrete
channel to negate the possibility of water entering the soil at the top of the slope and generating
problems of stability. At the slope toe a channel can also be used to intercept runoff, but a more
widely used solution is a combined surface and sub-surface drain with a suitably sized carrier pipe
especially where large groundwater flows are expected in a cutting or where the road has long lengths
of near-zero gradients. Advice on the construction of a combined channel and pipe system for surface
water drainage is provided in HA 113 (DMRB 4.2.6: Combined channel and pipe system for surface
water drainage). Where surface runoff from external catchments is low or where space is limited, the
runoff may be collected by the pavement edge drain.
Figures depicting the construction details for surface water drains, filter drains and edge of pavement
drains comprising surface channels, are provided in the Highway Construction Details (HCD)
(MCHW 3) at the locations given in Table 3.3.
It should be noted that drawings B9 to B13 in the HCD also include edge of pavement details for
highway drainage in an embankment situation. These items have not been included in Table 3.3 as it
is assumed that, if they are designed and functioning correctly, there are no implications in terms of
slope performance.
Table 3.3 Figure reference numbers for drawings in the HCD (MCHW 3)
Figure reference
Drain type Generic form
HCD (MCHW 3)
4.1 Design
Figure 4.2 shows the design chart presented by Hutchinson (1977) for the piezometric level between
adjacent trench drains. Values are given both for fully penetrating drains (n=1) and for partially
penetrating drains (n=4.5). In both cases the horizontal permeability (kh) is assumed to be the same as
the vertical permeability (kv). The ratios S/D and h/D are also taken to be approximately equivalent to
S/ho and h/ho.
Figure 4.2. Variation of piezometric level at drain invert level between trench drains
(Hutchinson, 1977)
In Figure 4.2, for example, the maximum head of water (h) in the drain would occur at mid-width of
the trench (i.e. at x/S=0.5). To control the water head to a particular level in the drain, the appropriate
spacing between trenches (S) can then be determined for a known depth of trench (D). The depth of
trench is often decided on first as it may be related to the height of the slope, however the chart in
Figure 4.2 can also be used to determine the depth of trench from the other variables if so desired.
Finite difference calculations of seepage were also carried out by Bromhead (1986). The solutions all
show that for maximum effectiveness the drains should penetrate to the base of the permeable
stratum, although some benefit can be obtained with partly penetrating drains. Further look-up charts
of mean piezometric heads between trench drains for impermeable and permeable bases are given by
Bromhead (1984, 1992).
The ready availability of software packages to undertake the type of seepage analyses described above
now means that for significant schemes a more sophisticated analysis is often undertaken using the
geomorphology and data specific to the site (e.g. soil permeabilities, drainage boundaries, measured
ground water tables).
The design of their layout is therefore a matter of engineering judgement and very site specific taking
into account the ground contours, the presence of ponding or wet spots, the availability of drainage
outlets at the toe of the slope, avoidance of significant vegetation4, and any other relevant factors. A
typical layout of herringbone drains is shown in Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3. Typical layout of herringbone drains (after CIRIA Report C592, 2003)
4
This is not only to avoid damaging the vegetation, but also to minimise root penetration into the drainage
system in the longer term.
of the SHW (MCHW 1). In some cases broken/crushed glass and shredded rubber tyres (Watts and
Todd, 2006) have also been used as a filter material.
The carrier pipe and sub-surface drain should be designed in accordance with HD33 Surface and sub-
surface drainage systems for highway works (DMRB 4.2.3). The trench may be lined with a
geosynthetic filter fabric; the pore size should be selected using the same criteria as that used for fin
drains given in Clause 514 of the NG (MCHW 2). The geosynthetic filter fabric is intended to inhibit
the infiltration of fine particles from the surrounding soil into the carrier pipe. It is not essential
however as in some cases fine particles may actually clog the geosynthetic fabric and its presence is
thus likely to hinder future maintenance operations.
The region directly above the surface of a filter material and bounded by the sides of the trench, can
act as a channel that will permit the rapid removal of surface water under conditions of high capacity
runoff; such drains are known as combined surface and sub-surface drains.
A composite construction employs combined surface and sub-surface drains with a grassed channel
similar to that shown as Type V in Figure B15 of the HCD (MCHW 3). Guidance on the hydraulic
and structural design of grassed surface water channels is provided in HA 119 Grassed surface water
channels for highway runoff (DMRB 4.2.9). The configuration of the channel is similar to that of a
concrete channel as described in HD 33 (DMRB 4.2.3) and HA 37 Hydraulic design of road edge
surface water channels (DMRB 4.2.4).
Guidance on the design of surface water channels is contained in HA37 (DMRB 4.2.4) which,
although originally written to provide guidance on the design of concrete channels, is also applicable
to grass channels.
Surface water channels may be either trapezoidal or triangular in cross-section but for vehicle safety
reasons the depth of concrete channels is limited to 150mm with the channel slopes no steeper than
1:5 on the carriageway side (HA 83, DMRB 4.2.4). If protected by a safety barrier the dimensions of
the channel may be amended. Grass channels that are 200mm deep are permitted and this is because
the soft edge to the grass channel poses less risk to damaging vehicles than concrete.
Outlets from the channels are designed to HA 78 (DMRB 4.2.1). Outlet spacing ideally allows all the
flow in the channel to be diverted into the outlet, so that the length of contributing carriageway is
equal to that of the channel draining to the outlet. Where part of the flow is allowed to bypass the
outlet, the outlet spacing must then be decreased by a factor N, the design efficiency of the upstream
outlet.
Concrete channels are usually constructed off the pavement sub-base using slip form paving
techniques, whereas asphalt or grass channels are constructed by pre-forming the channel in the
subsurface material and then overlaying with the asphalt/bitumen or topsoil as required.
Channels are conventionally used for edge of pavement drainage and may be at the top or bottom of a
highway slope. However their wider use in a mid-slope location may follow similar design principles.
where Q is the flow rate, A is the cross-sectional area of flow, and S is the vertical fall per unit
distance. The hydraulic radius, R, of the flow is given by R=A/P, where P is the wetted perimeter of
the channel. The Manning’s roughness coefficient ‘n’ is empirically derived and is a function of the
surface roughness of the channel.
Appropriate average values for ‘n’ are contained in HA37 (DMRB 4.2.4) for concrete and asphalt and
HA119 (DMRB 4.2.9) for grass surfaces, and these are reproduced in Table 4.2.
Concrete 0.013
Asphalt/Bitumen 0.017
The value of n for grass channels is calculated for individual channels where the variables are the
longitudinal slope (S), grass height (H), and hydraulic radius (R) in the equation below:
0.05
n=
mH
1 5 / 3 1/ 2
R S
where: m is 0.0048 for perennial rye grass and 0.0096 for fescues dominated mix.
The design capacity of the channel is defined as when the channel is just flowing full at the design
flow. Higher standards of design may be required at changes in alignment to super-elevation or at sag
points to minimise the flooding risk. However the maximum length of carriageway that can be
permitted to drain to a section of channel is based on the allowable flood widths of the hard strip or
shoulder.
In terms of the design of outlets from channels, guidance is contained in HA78 (DMRB 4.2.1) and is
equally applicable to channels of all constructions. It is essential in the design that the level of the
outlet pipe does not allow the surface water level to impede the inflow from the channel. Outlets may
be in-line or off-line. An off-line output may be provided by a weir, but this will require the provision
of a safety barrier.
drains during installation and subsequent settlement of the soil. The permeability of the drainage
blanket above the drains should also be sufficient to allow lateral flow to occur without restriction.
The drain should have sufficient capacity to enable the water to discharge to layers above and below
the consolidating layer. The rate of consolidation can be reduced if the flow is “choked” by the drain.
Hansbo (1981) developed an expression to calculate the degree of consolidation at any depth in a
drained layer.
More recent design advice is given by many authors, typical of these is that of Zhu and Yin (2001a;
2001b). They presented design charts for use in determining the required drain spacing according to
the radius of the drain, the required degree of consolidation, time available and other geotechnical
engineering properties of the soil.
It should be noted that in the unusual event of vertical drains being installed post-construction, the
principles of diameter, spacing, etc. given in Section 4.6.2 can be applied.
report produced for the Highways Agency by Halcrow in January 2007 entitled “Review of the use of
horizontal drainage systems”.
The design methods are based on theoretical considerations of groundwater flow but owing to the
need to make a number of assumptions that may be difficult to substantiate, and then to perform
detailed calculations based on these assumptions, the design methods appear to be little used in
practice. Detailed design of drain installations is however recommended in Hong Kong literature, with
examples at Tsz Wan Shan Estate and Grenville House (Martin and Siu, 1996).
Horizontal wick drains
As an alternative to horizontal bored drains, Santi et al (2001a) studied the use of geosynthetic
horizontal wick drains, which are driven into the ground rather than drilled. The majority of horizontal
wick drain design has been achieved using the ‘observational method’ whilst installing test drains,
although preliminary design of the reduction in water level can be undertaken using the following
design process.
The design process assumes that the water table surface between any two horizontal wick drains (or
horizontal bored drains) will take the form of an inverted parabola. Low points will exist at the drains,
and midway between them, a high point (hmax) exists which is defined as the height of the water table
above the level of the drains.
In addition to the assumption regarding the geometry of the water table surface, Santi et al also
assumed that the drain is horizontal and offers no resistance to flow, the water table coincides with the
drain along its entire length, and that Darcy’s law is valid for the situation, in order to construct an
equation.
Values relating to drain length (b'), drain spacing (L), flow rate (Q) and permeability of the soil (K)
are then used in the following equation in order to determine a value for hmax.
Values of hmax can only be calculated once site-specific parameters have been recorded, subsequent to
installation of the horizontal wick drains. However, the equation can be used as a preliminary design
tool prior to drain installation in order to work out approximate lengths and spacings required to
reduce the water table by a set amount.
Specifications
Martin and Siu (1996) provided four criteria which stated the basic requirements for horizontal bored
drains to perform successfully. In summary, these are:
• The size of the drain should be adequate to carry the maximum water flow without
disturbance to the adjacent ground or development of excessive outflow pressures.
• There is no significant loss of flow along the drain length owing to re-infiltration into the
ground.
• Any drain should be sufficiently strong and rigid to be easily installed to the designed
length and orientation, and capable of supporting the borehole without deforming or
collapsing.
• The slotted or perforated length of any drain should be designed so as to prevent soil
ingress, or it should be provided with an appropriate filter.
Details of available ‘standard’ documentation, guidelines and bespoke specifications are summarised
below.
Standard Documentation
No ‘standard’ specifications were found within the national or regional authorities in the UK,
including the Highways Agency, or mainland Europe.
In North America, the California Department of Transport (Caltrans, 2001) has significant experience
of installing horizontal bored drains, and has developed installation and design methods, contained
within Chapter 4, Section 68-2 of their standard specifications. In addition, Caltrans recommends
maintenance procedures including an ongoing inspection programme starting immediately after
installation, complete with a cleaning schedule if a reduction in discharge is noted.
Guidelines
No published guidance was found relating to horizontal drains in UK or mainland Europe.
Dr Paul Santi however, of the Colorado School of Mines, has developed guidelines, which are
intended to apply to the installation and maintenance of horizontal wick drains (Santi et al, 2001a).
Government guidance has been published in Hong Kong relating to horizontal bored drains. The
documentation is based on previous experience and is provided only as guidance, rather than as a
mandatory standard. Three documents were found from Hong Kong providing technical guidance on
the use, monitoring and maintenance of horizontal bored drains.
• Groundwater lowering by horizontal drains (Geotechnical Control Office 2/85: Craig and
Gray, 1985).
• Performance of horizontal drains in Hong Kong (Geotechnical Engineering Office 42:
Martin et al, 1995).
• Monitoring and maintenance of horizontal drains. Technical Circular of the Environment,
Transport and Works Bureau, Hong Kong, Works Branch Technical Circular No 10/91.
Although many of the published case histories do not describe design guidelines, those that do have
tended to refer to Hong Kong practice, specifically GEO 42. For example, the GEO suggests that
maintenance is undertaken on horizontal bored drains six months after installation and then once
every year. Chan (1987) examines the use of a multi purpose valve, installed in horizontal bored
drains, which can be used to flush the drains. The valve is closed for a few days to allow an
accumulation of water, and is then opened in order to flush the drains. Care must however be taken
not to destabilise the slope by preventing drain flow. In addition to using water flow to flush the
drains, the GEO states that a thin brush or rake can be used to clean dry soil from the drain invert
(Martin and Siu, 1996).
In WBTC No 10/91, it is stated that monitoring should be undertaken every two months during the
dry season, weekly during the wet season and at a greater frequency during heavy storms.
Bespoke Specifications
As a result of informal correspondence with consultants, it appears that, where used, specifications in
the UK tend to be bespoke and (largely) based on Hong Kong guidance. It is understood that
specifications tend to relate to installation, rather than performance of drains. Examples of this were
found at the Barnstaple Bypass and at Albion Lower Tip in South Wales. For the Albion project, the
installation specifications were produced in consultation with the contractor to ensure ‘buildability’.
In addition, at Albion Lower Tip, a different monitoring strategy was adopted to that recommended in
WBTC No10/91, with the flow rates monitored every month between May and September inclusive
and every week between October and April inclusive.
4.1.7 Electro-osmosis
The electro-osmosis of fine grained soils will increase the effective strength by the removal of excess
pore water. The reduction in pore water pressure drives the consolidation of the soil/fill material. It
has been demonstrated that significant negative pore water pressures, e.g. up to -180kN/m2, can be
generated through electro-osmosis (Hamir et al, 2001). Some bonding and/or cementation of particles
may occur. The procedure is thought to be irreversible.
The water flow is driven by the applied electromotive force that has to overcome the resistance to
flow generated by friction between the water and the surface of the soil particles. An equation
describing the flow established by Mitchell (1993) is directly analogous with Darcy’s Law for
hydraulic flow.
qA = ke. A. UV
UL
UU = ke. Ww V
kh
For design, the required change in pore water pressure to achieve the design strength of the soil can be
calculated. The degree of consolidation that will be achieved, with an estimate of the anticipated
volume of water that will be drained from the soil, can be estimated from oedometer tests in the
laboratory. The voltage gradient necessary to achieve the change can be readily calculated, and a
suitable arrangement of electrodes, electrode spacing and applied voltage can also be determined.
The applied voltage and the electrode spacing define the rate at which de-watering will take place.
The duration of the application of electricity is dependent on the required change in soil conditions.
High voltages and close spacing can provide rapid dewatering but desiccation of the soil surrounding
the anode, under high voltage gradients, must be avoided or the treatment will cease to be effective. In
most instances designs for the dewatering scheme will be tailored to the requirements of the client.
Typically, substantial improvements to the soil condition will be achieved in one week and the
treatment will be completed in two weeks.
The effects of electro-osmosis are generally considered to be irreversible. Nevertheless providing the
electrodes are not removed or damaged in any way, a system once installed can be re-activated at any
time. Such ability could be advantageous in an area subjected to seasonal flooding.
The application of electro-osmosis to improve the shear strength of a fine grained soil is a proven
technique. However, no accepted formal design procedures are available and therefore engineers
considering usage of the technique on their own schemes are strongly advised to seek expert advice.
4.2 Maintenance
This report has served to highlight the importance of drainage measures for ensuring the long term
stability of highway slopes, yet the long term stability can only be assured as long as the drainage
continues to operate satisfactorily. The provision of adequate and appropriate maintenance is required
to maximise the life of drainage measures, however there appears to be little guidance on this. There
are references in a number of Advice Notes and Departmental Standards within the DMRB and also
in BSI Codes of Practice, however the advice given generally relates to the maintenance of drainage
systems by inspection and gives little if any guidance on the actual practicalities of undertaking the
work. The form and location of many types of earthwork drains, for example, stone filled trenches on
sloping ground, essentially preclude the undertaking of routine maintenance and therefore it is not
until defects are identified that maintenance and repair works are carried out. BS 6031 Code of
Practice for Earthworks (BSI, 1981), states that regular inspection of drainage systems is an essential
basis for programming the frequency and extent of maintenance work, with paragraph 11.2.3 giving
general guidance on when and how inspection should be undertaken.
The following sections identify some of the issues that may lead to the need to undertake maintenance
works on the various drain types discussed in this report.
requirements for future maintenance works these drains are generally laid to a positive fall and are
most commonly wrapped in geotextile to keep clay and silt particles out of the collector system,
though these are also prone to clogging. In addition the need for maintenance can be further reduced
by introducing carrier pipes into the drain base, as these are designed to be self cleansing. Should
blockages occur then rodding or flushing of the pipes from the inspection manholes can be
undertaken.
tanker. A further issue with regards to maintenance of these drains which often gets overlooked is that
the soil adjacent to the edge of the channel can sometimes be softened and eroded often leading to the
formation of a slight step. This step can act as a barrier to the surface run off and actually hold the
water out and force it to sink into the ground under the channel, thus negating the channel’s value.
Maintenance of the soil edges around the channels is therefore essential to ensure it continued
effective operation.
the recommendations detailed by Caltrans, the flushing event saw an improvement in the drain flow
rate from 697m3/day up to 1077m3/day (Smith, 1980).
In the UK, the only available data on drain maintenance is related to Albion Lower Tip in South
Wales. Internal cleaning of the pipes in the horizontal bored drains was undertaken in 1998, almost 10
years after their installation. This operation resulted in a 300% increase in flows from the drains. Over
the subsequent months however, flows gradually returned to their ‘pre-cleaning’ levels.
4.2.7 General
In recognition of the difficulty in undertaking routine maintenance of earthworks and in particular
earthworks drainage, the Highways Agency have published HD 41/03 entitled “Maintenance of
Highway Geotechnical Assets” in 2003, a document providing best practice guidance for the
inspection and maintenance of highway geotechnical assets for trunk roads in England. The document
advises on an effective approach to the management of geotechnical assets, linked with the
introduction (in England) of a data management system and of mandatory requirements for inspection
activities and maintenance works. The document stipulates that inspections of geotechnical assets
shall be undertaken annually and five yearly (detailed inspection) to meet the requirements of the
HA’s “Routine and Winter Service Code”, with the intention that the inspections will thus provide for
identification of maintenance needs. The Code states that “the inspection and reporting of the
condition of the highway Geotechnical Assets as required by the standard, provides an assessment of
the likely risk of defects occurring or deteriorating with time. The identification of such risk and thus
the provision of maintenance prior to defects occurring, as opposed to remediation afterwards,
provides a more cost effective and proactive approach to maintenance”.
The only reference to drainage from external sources within the Specification for Highway Works
(MCHW 1) and the Notes for Guidance (MCHW 2) is found in Clause 511 and relates to land drains
severed by highway construction and the remedial works that should be undertaken. Highway works
that effect external watercourses are covered in Clause 606.
For the purpose of design, the abiding principle is that surface runoff that would naturally drain
towards the highway should be intercepted before it can enter the highway drainage system. Where
this is not possible due to topographic or spatial limitations the flow may be directed into the highway
drainage system but as far downstream from the edge drain as can practically be achieved. It is
important that standing water should not occur adjacent to the pavement construction except in the
most extreme conditions when it may become unavoidable.
The current emphasis in slope and highway drainage is to use sustainable urban drainage (SUDS)
techniques with careful thought on how water can be treated to improve quality and attenuated to
reduce peak flows. As part of this approach the use of permeable pavements and pavement reservoirs
to achieve better water control is the subject of separate HA research by TRL.
5 Survey of practitioners
A questionnaire was devised primarily aimed at HA Managing Agent Contractors (MACs) to assess
for each drainage technique the following factors:
• the frequency of usage,
• the design principle used,
• any problems found with design, installation, or maintenance,
• a broad assessment of effectiveness,
• the required maintenance intervals.
Initially the questionnaire was sent out to four of the HA MACs to assess whether any refinements of
the questionnaire were necessary before its wider circulation. The most detailed reply was received
from Area 8 and a copy of this is given in Appendix A. Considerable use had been made of
counterfort drains and rock ribs in this Area primarily to lower the groundwater table in the newly
constructed cutting slopes of the A14. This technique was assessed as having good effectiveness; the
need for any future maintenance was not known. Area 8 had also employed drainage blankets in the
A14 and A421 embankment constructions and these were considered to be very effective. Open ditch
and surface water channels had also been employed at three schemes with better success when at the
top of the slope than when mid-slope.
The other three MACs only returned limited information and a summary of their responses is as
follow:-
• Area 7 identified occasional usage of slope drains (e.g. herringbone drains) in the 1980s
at one remediation scheme. These were assessed as having good effectiveness and having needed
no maintenance over the more than 10 year period in service. This particular MAC was unable to
identify any other specific slope drainage measures in recent years. It is not clear whether this
absence of data is because of the topography and geology in the area, lack of funding for
preventative drainage measures, or other reasons.
• Area 11 identified the use of slope drains (e.g. herringbone drains) on three highway
cuttings although no further details were available. Open ditch and surface water channels had
been used at more than thirty sites; these were employed at both cuttings and embankments at
both toe and crest locations. Filter drains had also been employed at more than 24 sites, once
again these were a mix of embankment or cutting and toe or crest locations. Information on
design principles, problems, effectiveness, and maintenance intervals were not forthcoming.
• Area 5 identified two cutting slopes where slope repair had been carried out employing
counterfort drains running from crest to toe. The design of the counterfort drainage system had
been undertaken using the charts published by Bromhead (1992). These drains had been installed
in 2005 and 2006 and no problems had been encountered in their design and installation. Drain
performance was assessed as good. No maintenance is currently planned.
5
An assessment of approximate costs of various drainage remedial measures was carried out by Halcrow in
2002. This information is included in Appendix B although costs are normally very site specific and the data
should therefore be used with caution.
Over-consolidated clay embankments for example are prone to shallow failures (see Section 2). High
suctions existing within the clay pores cause free water to be sucked into the superficial layers thereby
softening the clay. In this situation the installation of an interceptor/filter drain (as suggested in
Table 6.1) is unlikely to be effective because of the impermeable nature of the clay. In addition there
is a risk that runoff collected in the ditch may enter the slope through the ditch sides and invert. The
second option identified in Table 6.1, of increasing the slope vegetation, may be more appropriate for
reducing the potential for shallow failures; this is confirmed by its recommended use to alleviate
water infiltration. For extreme cases it could be further argued that the infiltration results from
excessive surface water which could be controlled by using surface water channels at top or mid-slope
locations.
The conditions specific to each site should also be carefully considered, before referring to Table 6.1,
as they may govern the suitability of typical solutions. For example, an over-consolidated clay
embankment near Junction 29 of the M25 (see Section 2.1.5) showed some evidence of water ponding
in the clayey sand overlying the more impermeable clay. This is likely to feed water towards the side
slopes causing both shallow and deep instabilities and therefore in this instance, one of the techniques
for alleviating “high pore pressure within the slope” given in Table 6.1 would be the preferred
solution.
The use of vegetation is recommended for the provision of sustainable drainage measures. It is
important however to select the type of vegetation to achieve the desired objective; engineering
judgement may be required. For example, grass is very effective in binding the slope surface together
to combat softening and degenerative weathering. In general, a more open vegetation cover results in
higher runoff volumes and a more rapid runoff response, whilst shrubs and trees result in more
attenuation. Vegetation will lose water through transpiration and generate a reduction in pore
pressures. Where shallow slip failures are likely to exist, the dowelling effect of live willow poles can
stabilise the slope, and the ability of the willow to reduce the pore pressures in the slope will also
promote stabilisation. The former provides an immediate solution whereas the latter is a slower
process, but in the long term both mechanisms may be equally effective. Grass turfs used to line
surface water channels will attenuate flows and thereby reduce the likelihood of surcharging the drain
under storm conditions.
6
Adequate outlets and sufficient catchments or balancing ponds are required when using channels to deal with
the rapid collection of water.
Instability
Potential for shallow failures (where the Increase vegetation (L).
maximum depth of the rupture surface
Install shallow slope drains* (L).
does not exceed 2m)
Potential for deep failures Install drainage (deep trench drains, counterfort drains, or rock ribs)
running down the slope (H).
Install horizontal bored drainage (H).
Surface water run-off
Run-off from external catchment (i.e. Install interceptor filter or fin drains – lined below and on the downslope
adjacent land/highway) at top of slope side (M).
Install surface water channel (M).
Flooding at toe of slope from adjacent Install filter or fin drains (M).
land/highway
Install open ditch (L) or surface water channel (M).
Significant run-off from slope surface Install surface water channel at toe or mid-slope (M).
Install filter or fin drains at toe (M).
Install drainage (deep trench drains, counterfort drains, or rock ribs)
running down the slope (H).
Ground water (excess pore pressure)
High pore pressure at toe of slope Install filter or fin drains (M).
High pore pressure within slope Install drainage (deep trench drains, counterfort drains, or rock ribs)
running down the slope (H).
Install horizontal bored drainage (H).
Increase vegetation (L).
Install horizontal or vertical bored drainage to replace malfunctioning
drainage blanket (H) – embankment only.
Install electro-osmosis system (H) – usually embankment situation.
Water infiltration
Softening/weathering of surficial layers Increase vegetation (L).
Water seepage
Poor condition of any existing slope Implement maintenance/ replacement (L to M).
drainage
Install additional drainage measures (L to H).
Poor condition of highway drainage Implement maintenance/ replacement (L to M).
Seepage through permeable layer or Install horizontal bored drainage (H).
from spring
Install interceptor filter drain (M).
* Soil dependent - may not be effective in over-consolidated clay slopes.
Relative cost rating: L Low
M Medium
H High.
7 Conclusions
The stability of highway cuttings and embankments is critically dependent on the magnitude and
distribution of pore water pressures within the materials (soils, rock and earthworks fill) forming the
slopes. Pore pressures arise from the presence of water within the slopes, and may be introduced via
natural infiltration from runoff and/or groundwater flow and also possibly through artificial recharge.
In the case of infiltration, rainfall will enter earthwork slopes and the underlying soil through the
surface in quantities which depend on the duration and intensity of the rainfall, the soil type, the
topography, and the vegetative cover; for a vegetated slope, some water will be removed by
transpiration. Groundwater flow into a slope will depend on the local hydrogeological regime.
Artificial recharge can arise from deliberate sources such as soakaways or accidental sources such as
leakage from ‘closed’ or blocked drainage systems.
The failure of highway slopes owing to adverse pore pressures can have significant impact on the
operation of the highway network and has implications for the safety of highway users. The
recognition of the risks associated with slope failures and the mitigation of such risks should be
identified during the design and construction phases of new infrastructure or improvement schemes.
Where the security of slopes is to be provided by means of drainage, either in part or as a whole,
designers should identify all factors that may affect the efficacy of the proposed drainage and take this
into account.
The importance of ground investigation in the design of slope drainage systems has been emphasised.
Investigations should include geomorphological mapping, permeability testing, and monitoring of
ground water levels and responses. Both seepage and slope stability analysis should be considered at
the design stage together with the effects of climate change, as the increasing frequency of extreme
rainfall events requires greater emphasis to be placed on a consideration of storm water and surface
run-off. This is to avoid in-service problems with erosion, mud and debris slides and to minimise the
infiltration of water into clay slopes after the development of shrinkage cracks in prolonged hot spells.
Robust, sustainable and cost-efficient drainage measures are of critical importance for ensuring the
long-term stability of highway slopes. Comprehensive information for consideration in design is
presented in the earlier chapters of this report. It has been shown that where practical the use of
surface water channels and bioengineering designs offer significant advantages in relation to reduced
construction costs, ease of inspection and general maintenance providing for increased sustainability.
A survey of HA’s practitioners yielded little information in relation to inspection/maintenance
routines currently being undertaken on HA assets. The surveys appear to indicate that a reactive
approach to problems is routine and that there is little to no planned maintenance of drainage systems.
It is considered that a proactive approach to inspection/maintenance as advocated by DMRB HD
41/03 should be adopted to provide for early identification of problems and timely and cost effective
implementation of remediation.
9 Acknowledgements
This Task 153 was commissioned under the HA SSR Framework for Technical Consultancy 2/666
and was undertaken by Halcrow Group Ltd in collaboration with TRL Limited. The TRL work was
undertaken within the Infrastructure and Environment Division. The HA client for the project was
Dr T Messafer. The project managers for Halcrow and TRL were Ms L Campton and Dr D R Carder
respectively.
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Abstract
For all earthwork slopes, rainfall will enter the underlying soil through the surface, in
quantities which depend on the soil type, topography, and vegetation cover. Slope drainage
can control the movement of surface water and also the subsurface pore water pressure in the
slope. Drainage can be very effective if installed at the correct location on or within the slope.
In the long term, systems need to be designed with maintenance operations in mind so that a
sustainable system is installed with a design life comparable to the 60 year design life of a
highway slope.
The report reviews the distribution of pore water pressures within a slope measured by TRL at
a number of sites on highway schemes and follows with a critical assessment of the
applicability of different slope drainage techniques. The report concludes with best practice
guidance in the design and maintenance of the various drainage systems. The increased use of
surface water channels and a more proactive bioengineering approach are recommended in
the design of slope drainage systems. These methods offer the advantages of ease of
inspection, reduced maintenance costs and a sustainable technique.
For all earthwork slopes, rainfall will enter the underlying soil through the surface, in quantities
which depend on the soil type, topography, and vegetation cover. Slope drainage can control the
movement of surface water and also the subsurface pore water pressure in the slope. Drainage can
be very effective if installed at the correct location on or within the slope. In the long term, systems
need to be designed with maintenance operations in mind so that a sustainable system is installed
with a design life comparable to the 60 year design life of a highway slope.
The report reviews the distribution of pore water pressures within a slope measured by TRL at a
number of sites on highway schemes and follows with a critical assessment of the applicability
of different slope drainage techniques. The report concludes with best practice guidance in the
design and maintenance of the various drainage systems. The increased use of surface water
channels and a more proactive bioengineering approach are recommended in the design of slope
drainage systems. These methods offer the advantages of ease of inspection, reduced maintenance
costs and a sustainable technique.
PPR302 Performance of an interseasonal heat transfer facility for collection, storage and re-use
of solar heat from the road surface
DR Carder, KJ Barker, MG Hewitt, D Ritter, A Kiff, 2008
PPR169 Pollutant removal ability of grassed surface water channels and swales: Literature review
and identification of potential monitoring sites
M Escarameia, A J Todd, G R A Watts, 2006
PPR130 Post-incident recovery in highway tunnels - achieving best practice
S Bird, J E Potter, J Gillard, 2006
PPR140 Ventilation during road tunnel emergencies
R C Hall, 2006
PPR082 A study of water movement in road pavements
J M Reid, G I Crabb, J Temporal, M Clark, 2006
Price code: 3X
ISSN 0968-4093
TRL Published by IHS
Crowthorne House, Nine Mile Ride Willoughby Road, Bracknell
Wokingham, Berkshire RG40 3GA Berkshire RG12 8FB
PPR341