Materials Science and Engineering A 392 (2005) 348–358

Cavitation erosion resistance of AISI 316L stainless steel laser

surface-modified with NiTi
K.Y. Chiua , F.T. Chenga,∗ , H.C. Manb
a Department of Applied Physics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
b Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China

Received 15 June 2004; accepted 25 September 2004

Abstract

The present study is part of a project on the surface modification of AISI 316 stainless steel using various forms of NiTi for enhancing
cavitation erosion resistance. In this study, NiTi powder was preplaced on the AISI 316L substrate and melted with a high-power CW Nd:YAG
laser. With appropriate laser processing parameters, an alloyed layer of a few hundred micrometers thick was formed and fusion bonded to
the substrate without the formation of a brittle interface. EDS analysis showed that the layer contained Fe as the major constituent element
while the XRD patterns of the surface showed an austenitic structure, similar to that of 316 stainless steel. The cavitation erosion resistance of
the modified layer (316-NiTi-Laser) could reach about 29 times that of AISI 316L stainless steel. The improvement could be attributed to a
much higher surface hardness and elasticity as revealed by instrumented nanoindentation tests. Among various types of samples, the cavitation
erosion resistance was ranked in descending order as: NiTi plate > 316-NiTi-Laser > 316-NiTi-TIG > AISI 316L, where 316-NiTi-TIG stands
for samples surfaced with the tungsten inert gas (TIG) process using NiTi wire. Though the laser-surfaced samples and the TIG-surfaced
samples had similar indentation properties, the former exhibited a higher erosion resistance mainly because of a more homogeneous alloyed
layer with much less defects. In both the laser-surfaced and TIG-surfaced samples, the superelastic behavior typical of austenitic NiTi was
only partially retained and the superior cavitation erosion resistance was thus still not fully attained.
© 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Laser surface modification; Cavitation erosion; AISI 316L stainless steel; NiTi; Hardness

1. Introduction the degradation process being known as cavitation erosion

Cavitation erosion is a common cause leading to damage
of components in hydraulic machinery and liquid-handing
systems [1]. In fact, repairing of propellers due to cavita-
tion erosion is a routine service in dockyards. Cavitation,
which is defined as the generation and collapse of bub-
bles in a liquid [2], arises from local pressure fluctuation
within a liquid due to flow or vibration. When bubbles
collapse near a solid surface, intense stress pulses are ex-
erted on the surface. Repetition of the stress pulses leads
to plastic deformation, fatigue, and eventually material loss,
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +852 2766 5691; fax: +852 2333 7629.
E-mail address: apaftche@polyu.edu.hk (F.T. Cheng).
[3]. The intensity of cavitation attack depends on the hy-
drodynamic conditions [4] and the properties of the liq-
uid [5]. On the other hand, owing to the special features
of cavitation attack, the cavitation erosion resistance of a
material is a unique mechanical property not directly cor-
related to bulk properties [6]. Cavitation damage may be re-
duced by modifying the hydrodynamic conditions to which
a surface is exposed, and by proper material selection. With
regards to the latter, the design engineer has to make com-
promise among different properties and considerations, in-
cluding bulk mechanical properties, corrosion and erosion
properties, fabrication and processing properties, cost, etc.
In this connection, surface modification offers a flexible
and economical route to combat cavitation attack since it

0921-5093/$ – see front matter © 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.msea.2004.09.035
 K.Y. Chiu et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 392 (2005) 348–358
can enhance surface properties without altering bulk proper-
ties.
AISI 316 stainless steel is a widely used engineering ma-
terial in liquid-handling systems and in hydraulic machinery
by virtue of its excellent corrosion resistance, good proces-
sibility, and relatively low cost. However, its cavitation ero-
sion resistance is relatively low [7], and this limits its use in
intensely cavitating environments. To extend its range of ap-
plications, a feasible way is to employ surface modification
at locations which are prone to cavitating attack. In this re-
gards, laser surface modification of 316 stainless steel using
different added materials has been attempted by the present
authors [8–10].
It has been reported that NiTi possesses very high cav-
itation erosion resistance, mainly due to its superelasticity
[11–14]. In addition, NiTi is comparable to stainless steels in
corrosion resistance [15] and does not become radioactivated
like Co. However, using NiTi in bulk for components might
not be feasible because of its high cost and poor machinabil-
ity [16]. Thus a practical way is to employ NiTi in surface
modification, as reported in a number of studies using ex-
plosive welding [17], infrared brazing [13], plasma spraying
[18], and plasma ion plating [19] on steels, and laser-plasma
hybrid spraying on Ti [20], each with its own merits and
limitations [21]. Recently, cladding of NiTi wires onto steels
using the tungsten inert gas (TIG) process for improving cav-
itation erosion resistance has been reported [21,22]. The de-
gree of improvement using the TIG process (by a factor of
9 based on mean erosion rates, and a factor of 3.3 based on
steady erosion rates) was limited by the quality of the clad
layer [21]. The layer contained pores, which are defects com-
monly found in TIG weld surfacing. The present study is an
attempt to employ NiTi powder in the laser surface modifi-
cation of AISI 316L stainless steel. It is part of a project on
the surface modification of 316 stainless steel using various
forms of NiTi for enhancing cavitation erosion resistance.
2. Experimental details
2.1. Materials and sample preparation
Rectangular samples of thickness 5 mm were spark cut
from AISI 316L stainless steel bars (nominal composition
given in Table 1) of cross-section 12 mm × 20 mm. The sam-
ples were sandblasted before powder preplacement to en-
hance adhesion. NiTi powder (nominal composition given
in Table 1) of average particle size ∼10 ␮m was degassed
Table 1
Nominal composition in wt.% of AISI 316L substrate and NiTi powder
Nominal composition in wt.%
Fe Cr Ni Mo Mn Si P S C Ti
AISI 316L Bal. 17 12 2.5 2 1 0.045 0.03 0.03
NiTi powder – – 55 – – – – – –
349
Table 2
Laser processing parameters and sample designation
Laser processing parameters
Sample Power (W) Spot size Scanning speed Energy density
(mm) (mm/s) (J/mm2 )
316-NiTi-1 700 3 45 5.19
316-NiTi-2 900 3 55 5.45
316-NiTi-3 500 3 25 6.67
316-NiTi-4 700 3 35 6.67
316-NiTi-5 900 3 45 6.67
in an Ar atmosphere at 750 ◦ C for 3 h to remove moisture
and H2 that were commonly present in NiTi powder. The
treated powder was then mixed with a binder (4% polyvinyl
alcohol, PVA) to form a paste and preplaced on the sample
surface by painting to form a layer of 0.4 mm. The samples
were irradiated with a high-power CW Nd:YAG laser to melt
the NiTi powder under an Ar atmosphere using various pro-
cessing parameters as shown in Table 2 together with the
sample designations (316-NiTi-X). Successive melt tracks
were overlapped by 50% to form a laser-treated surface. For
comparison, NiTi (austenitic) plates and 316 stainless steel
samples surfaced with the tungsten inert gas (TIG) process
using NiTi filler wire [21] (designated as 316-NiTi-TIG) were
also included in the present study.
2.2. Metallographic and microstructural analysis
After laser surface modification, the samples were pol-
ished with SiC paper and then 1 ␮m diamond paste for cavita-
tion erosion test. Cross-sections of the samples were similarly
prepared for microstructural studies, with the polished sur-
face etched with an acidic etchant (1 part HF, 2 parts HNO3 , 3
parts H2 O). The thickness of the laser-modified layer was de-
termined using optical microscopy (Nikon Microphot FXA).
The microstructure was studied using scanning electron mi-
croscopy (SEM, JEOL JSM-6335F) and the composition was
acquired using energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS, JEOL
EX-64125JMU). The phases present were studied by X-ray
diffractometry (XRD, Philips PW3710) using Cu K␣ gener-
ated at 40 kV and 35 mA.
2.3. Indentation tests
The Knoop microhardness at the surface of the samples
and across the cross-section of the samples was measured at
a load of 200 g and a loading time of 15 s (Buehler Micromet
II). To study the interfacial toughness qualitatively, two sim-
ple tests were performed: (a) Vickers indentations were made
at the surface layer/substrate interface; (b) the layer was
ground to almost the interface and a heavy load of 330 kg was
applied to a rod 1 mm in radius pressed against the surface.
– The nanoindentation properties of the sample surface were
45
probed by a nanoindentation tester (NANO INDENTER II)
350 K.Y. Chiu et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 392 (2005) 348–358

with a Berkovich indenter, the maximum load being 200 mN and the weight loss was converted to a mean depth of erosion
and the loading time being 10 s. (MDE) according to:

10W
2.4. Cavitation erosion tests MDE (µm) = (1)
ρA
Cavitation erosion tests were performed using an ultra-
sonic vibratory facility (Misonix XL-2020 Sonicator) con- where W is the weight loss in mg, A is the eroded area in
forming to ASTM Standard G32–92 [23], with the samples cm2 and ρ is the density of the surface layer in g cm−3 . The
in the unattachment mode. The peak-to-peak amplitude and cavitation erosion test was continued for a sufficiently long
the vibration frequency used were 100 ␮m and 20 kHz, re- period until a steady erosion rate was reached. The cavitation
spectively, with a separation of 0.5 mm between the sample erosion resistance Re is defined as:
and the horn tip. The cavitating liquid was deionized water
kept at 23 ◦ C. The sample was weighed at regular intervals Re (h/µm) = (SER)−1 (2)

Fig. 1. Optical micrographs showing (a) cross-section and (b) surface of sample 316-NiTi-4.
 K.Y. Chiu et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 392 (2005) 348–358 351

Fig. 2. Composition profile along the depth of the cross-section of the alloyed layer in 316-NiTi-4.

where SER is the steady erosion rate in units of ␮m/h. Owing
to difference in cavitation erosion behaviors among different
types of samples, the erosion test time to reach steady erosion
varied.
The cavitated sample surface at the end of the test was
studied by SEM.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Composition and microstructure of laser-treated
layer
Results of preliminary trials on the laser processing param-
eters suggested that for satisfactory layer quality, the laser
fluence should be larger than 5.4 J/mm2 . When the fluence
was too low (samples like 316-NiTi-1), adhesion of the sur-
face layer and the substrate was poor and the surface layer
became detached from the substrate upon subsequent ma-
chining. The other laser-treated samples were subjected to
cavitation erosion tests (results reported in 3.3) and the most
resistant sample, 316-NiTi-4, was selected for detailed com-
positional, microstructural, and indentation studies.
The optical micrographs in Fig. 1(a) and Fig. 1(b) show
the cross-section and the surface of 316-NiTi-4, respectively.
A modified layer of a few hundred ␮m without cracks or
pores was formed, as shown in Fig. 1. On the other hand, it
was noted that pores were common in 316-NiTi samples sur-
faced with the TIG process using filler wires. The pores were

Fig. 3. XRD patterns for AISI 316L, NiTi powder, and 316-NiTi-4.
352 K.Y. Chiu et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 392 (2005) 348–358
Fig. 4. SEM micrographs showing the microstructure of the cross-section
of the alloyed layer in 316-NiTi-4 (a) near the top, (b) in the middle, and (c)
near the layer/substrate interface.
possibly formed by the presence of gasses originating from
various sources [21,24]. The better quality of the laser-treated
samples could be attributed to the laser process, which is a
more refined and controllable process than the TIG process,
and to the use of baked NiTi powder.
Fig. 2 shows the composition profile along the depth of a
typical modified layer (316-NiTi-4) as determined by EDS.
The elements were uniformly distributed in the layer, with a
narrow transitional region of about 50 ␮m thick. Fe was the
major constituent in the modified layer. The XRD patterns in
Fig. 3 reveals that the alloyed layer in 316-NiTi-4 had a struc-
ture similar to that of AISI 316L (i.e., ␥-Fe) rather than the
B2 structure of NiTi powder, consistent with the EDS results.
The SEM micrographs in Fig. 4 show the microstructure
of the alloyed layer near the surface, at the middle, and at the
layer/substrate interface. The microstructure was fairly ho-
mogeneous in these regions. The grain size was of the order
of a few ␮m, with the grain size becoming smaller near the in-
terface, possibly due to a higher cooling rate there. Compared
with the TIG-surfaced samples [21], the laser-treated sam-
ples had a more homogeneous microstructure. Small pores
that were present in the TIG-surfaced samples were absent
in the laser-alloyed layer.
3.2. Indentation properties
The Knoop microhardness on the alloyed surface and
along the depth of the cross-section of the alloyed layer
(Fig. 5) was around 700 HK, which was comparable to that
of the 316-NiTi-TIG samples [21] and much higher than that
of AISI 316L (180 HK) and austenitic NiTi (∼400 HK). In
fusion bonding Ti alloys to steels there has been concern on
the embrittlement of the interface due to the formation of
brittle intermetallic phases [25,26]. The brittleness or frac-
ture toughness may be quantitatively or qualitatively stud-
ied by indentation tests [27,28] by observing the formation
of cracks at the indentation. No cracks were observed in the
Vickers indentation at the interface of the laser-treated sample
316-NiTi-4 (Fig. 6). Heavy deformation of the laser-treated
sample near the interface (the top portion of the surface layer
had been deliberately removed) also did not show any crack-
ing (Fig. 7). The results of these two simple tests, together
with the indirect evidence that the samples were capable of
withstanding rough handling like cutting and grinding, indi-
cated that the interface and the layer were tough. This could
be attributed to a high Ni content [29] and the absence of a
continuous brittle intermetallic phase [30].
The load-displacement curves acquired in nanoindenta-
tion tests for AISI 316L, NiTi plates, laser-surfaced and TIG-
surfaced samples are shown in Fig. 8. Unlike conventional
indentation tests which rely on the indent after unloading
and provide information on plastic deformation only, instru-
mented nanoindentation tests probe both elastic and plas-
tic properties [31]. The nanoindentation characteristics of
the laser-surfaced and the TIG-surfaced samples were quite
similar. The surfaced samples were much harder than AISI
316L as evidenced by a much smaller maximum displace-
ment (dmax ) reached. In addition, they were more elastic than
316L as indicated by the elastic recovery ratio r (defined as the
fraction of maximum displacement recovered upon unload-
ing). Compared with NiTi plate, the value of the elastic re-
covery ratio for the surface treated samples was substantially
reduced (from 39% to 28–29%), indicating that the supere-
 K.Y. Chiu et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 392 (2005) 348–358 353

Fig. 5. Hardness profile along the depth of the cross-section of the laser-modified layer.

lasticity of NiTi was only partially retained, but accompanied
by an increase in hardness.
3.3. Cavitation erosion behavior
Curves for the mean depth of erosion (MDE) as a function
of time are shown in Fig. 9 for various laser-treated samples. It
can be observed that the erosion rate was much reduced after
laser treatment. The MDE varied among the samples treated
with different processing parameters owing to difference in
the quality of the surface layer. Sample 316-NiTi-4 was the
least defective one and the degree of erosion was the least.
This was the sample that had been chosen for detailed com-
positional and microstructural studies, and for comparison
with the TIG-surfaced sample and NiTi plate. In the other
laser-treated samples, cracks and pores were present, as re-
vealed by the SEM micrographs in Fig. 10. The presence and

Fig. 6. Vickers indentation at the interface.

354 K.Y. Chiu et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 392 (2005) 348–358

Fig. 7. Optical micrograph showing the interfacial region after heavy deformation.

Fig. 8. Force-displacement curves in nanoindentation test. r is the elastic recovery ratio defined as the fraction of maximum displacement recovered upon
unloading.

Fig. 9. Mean depth of erosion (MDE) as a function of time for laser-treated samples in cavitation erosion test in deionized water.
 K.Y. Chiu et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 392 (2005) 348–358
the severity of defects in these samples were reflected in the
relative ranking of the cavitation erosion resistance depicted
in Fig. 9.
Fig. 10. SEM micrographs showing defects (cracks and pores) in some laser-
treated samples: (a) 316-NiTi-2, (b) 316-NiTi-5, and (c) 316-NiTi-3.
355
Fig. 11(a) shows the erosion curves for AISI 316, 316-
NiTi-4, 316-NiTi-TIG, and NiTi plate. These samples exhib-
ited large difference in cavitation erosion behavior and in the
erosion test time required to obtain the steady erosion rate.
For example, the time required for AISI 316L was only 6 h,
but that for NiTi plate, 30 h. In view of this, the cavitation
erosion resistance Re was calculated from the steady erosion
rate (SER) instead of the mean erosion rate (MER), which
is affected by the test time. For easy comparison, the cavita-
tion erosion resistance is normalized (denoted as Rne ) relative
to AISI 316L (Rne = 1) and shown in Fig. 11(b). The prop-
erties and erosion resistance of various types of samples are
summarized in Table 3.
Laser surface modification of AISI 316L with NiTi re-
sulted in a large increase in the cavitation erosion resistance,
which could reach about 29 times by the method employed
in the present study. It is obvious that both high hardness and
high elasticity would contribute to high cavitation erosion re-
sistance. Thus the large increase in erosion resistance after
laser treatment could be attributed to a modified layer which
was much harder (700 HK for 316-NiTi-4 versus 180 HK for
substrate) and more elastic as reflected by a higher elastic
recovery ratio in the nanoindentation tests. It is interesting to
note that although the TIG-surfaced sample possessed similar
indentation properties (in terms of hardness and elastic recov-
ery ratio) as the laser-surfaced one, the erosion resistance of
the former was lower mainly because it contained more de-
fects, which acted as sites for initiation and propagation of
erosion damage. On the other hand, the erosion resistance of
the laser-surfaced samples was inferior to that of NiTi plates,
though the hardness was higher. Austenitic NiTi possesses a
very high cavitation erosion resistance, mainly by virtue of
its superelasticity which allows it to receive intense cavita-
tion pulses with minimal damage [13,32]. The nanoindenta-
tion test results showed that superelasticity was only partially
retained in the laser-treated samples and thus the superior
cavitation erosion resistance of NiTi was not fully attained.
This suggests that superelasticity is more contributive to high
cavitation erosion resistance than hardness. In summary, the
difference in cavitation erosion resistance for different types
of samples (316L, 316L modified with NiTi, and NiTi plate)
could be attributed to the difference in indentation proper-
ties (elasticity and hardness), with elasticity playing a more
important role. For samples of the same type (laser-surfaced
and TIG-surfaced 316 samples), the difference in resistance
could be attributed to the quality of the surface layer. Thus
improved processing techniques/conditions that can deposit
an intact NiTi layer minimally diluted by the substrate would
be expected to result in a higher erosion resistance than that in
the present study, and attempts in this direction are underway.
Apart from a large increase in the erosion resistance by
laser surface modification, the mode of material removal
from the surface also changed. Fig. 12 shows the surface
appearance of AISI 316L and the laser-surface sample 316-
NiTi-4 after the cavitation erosion test. AISI 316L exhibited
an eroded surface typical of ductile rupture, consistent with
356 K.Y. Chiu et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 392 (2005) 348–358

Fig. 11. Comparison of cavitation erosion behaviors of AISI 316L, 316-NiTi-4, NiTi plate and 316-NiTi-TIG: (a) erosion curves, and (b) normalized cavitation
erosion resistance Rne .

its low hardness. On the other hand, 316-NiTi-4 exhibited This is consistent with the partial superelasticity present in
a damaged surface with cracks of erosion (test time: 12 h, the laser-surfaced samples. Similar surface appearance for
Fig. 12(b)) similar to that of NiTi tested to a much longer NiTi in cavitation erosion test was also reported by others
time (test time: 40 h, at a higher magnification, Fig. 12(c)). using the attachment mode of test [33].

Table 3
Properties and cavitation erosion resistance of various types of samples
Surface Knoop Nanoindentation, maximum load = 200 mN Cavitation erosion Normalized cavitation
hardness (HK) resistance, Re (h/␮m) erosion resistance, Rne
Maximum deformation, dmax (nm) Elastic recovery ratio, r (%)
AISI 316L 180 1659 8.4 0.26 1
316-NiTi-TIG 700 1045 29.6 0.86 3.3
316-NiTi-4 728 1061 28.1 7.49 28.8
NiTi plate 400 1344 39.4 11.55 44.4
 K.Y. Chiu et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 392 (2005) 348–358
Fig. 12. SEM micrographs showing the surface morphology of various sam-
ples after cavitation erosion test: (a) AISI 316L, 6 h, (b) 316-NiTi-4, 12 h,
and (c) NiTi plate, 40 h and at a higher magnification.
4. Conclusions
Laser surface modification of AISI 316L stainless steel us-
ing preplaced NiTi powder has been attempted. The proper-
357
ties and the cavitation erosion behavior of the laser-surfaced
samples have been studied. The following conclusions are
drawn.With proper laser processing parameters, a NiTi-
modified layer of a few hundred ␮m thick was formed on AISI
316L substrate. The layer was free of cracks and pores and
bonded strongly to the substrate with a tough interface.The
microstructure of the modified layer was homogenous and
fine-grained, with grain size of a few ␮m.Compared with
the substrate, the modified layer had a much higher micro-
hardness (700 HK versus 180 HK), and a higher elastic re-
covery ratio in nanoindentation test (28% versus 8%). A
large increase in the cavitation erosion resistance, reaching
about 29 folds, was achieved, the increase being attributable
to improved indentation properties.Laser surface processing
brought about a larger increase in cavitation erosion resis-
tance than the TIG process reported in a previous study be-
cause of the formation of a more uniform and less defective
alloyed layer.
Acknowledgements
The work described in this paper was fully supported by
a grant from the Research Grants Council of the Hong Kong
Special Administrative Region, China (Project No. PolyU
5252/03E). Support from the infrastructure of the Hong Kong
Polytechnic University is also acknowledged.
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