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Journal of Sports Sciences

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Day 1. Free Communications – Biomechanics

Published online: 14 Nov 2014.

To cite this article: (2014) Day 1. Free Communications – Biomechanics, Journal of Sports Sciences, 32:sup2, s18-s21, DOI:
10.1080/02640414.2014.968370

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 Journal of Sports Sciences, 2014
Vol. 32, Supplement 2, s18–s21, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2014.968370
Day 1. Free Communications – Biomechanics
D1.S2.5(1). Static postural control
profile of patellofemoral pain syndrome
and healthy athletes
MOHD HASHIM ASHA HASNIMY1*,
IBRAHIM HALIJAH1, ZAINUDDIN
ZAINAL ABIDIN1 & LEE AI CHOO2
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1
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia and 2Universiti Pendidikan
Sultan Idris
*Corresponding author: emyroll@gmail.com
In general, athletes with patellofemoral pain syndrome
(PFPS) were assumed to have less postural control
ability compared to healthy athletes. However, this
assumption was not validated in static postural control
(SPC). Therefore, the SPC profiles of athletes with
PFPS and healthy athletes were compared using a
60-s Bilateral Romberg Protocol on Triangle Balance
Platform, known as BT3 (Hurlabs, Tampere,
Finland). This study was approved by ethic committee
of Faculty Sports Science and Coaching, Universiti
Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tanjong Malim, Perak,
Malaysia. All the participants in this study were
Malaysian junior athletes from three types of sports
(rugby, soccer and field hockey). There were 27 ath-
letes with PFPS (age = 14.59 ± 1.28 years,
height = 161.96 ± 9.54 cm, mass = 54.92 ±
11.42 kg, BMI = 20.65 ± 2.20) and 20 healthy athletes
(age = 13.3 ± 0.92 years, height = 168.05 ± 3.47 cm,
mass = ± 59.9 ± 7.33 kg, BMI = 21.22 ± 2.79). The
participants were asked to perform three trials of 60-s
Bilateral Romberg Test with eyes-opened and eyes-
closed conditions, along with 60-s rest intervals.
Postural control data were collected using postural
score (C90 area), which represented the amount of
sways. The data were analysed using ANOVA with
η2 calculations. The sway area in both the groups
showed no significant difference in eyes-opened con-
dition (F1,45 = 1.460, P = 0.233, η2p = 0.031) and eyes-
closed condition (F1,45 = 0.009, P = 0.924,
η2p = 0.000). This demonstrated that PFPS athletes
could compensate and limit the disturbance on their
SPC by adjusting other parts of bodies to control the
postural sway. Future studies are advised to compare
the biomechanical and musculoskeletal ability
between athletes and normal population who experi-
ence PFPS within the framework of rehabilitation
medicine.
© 2014 Taylor & Francis
D1.S2.5(2). Reduced cortical inhibition
in the ipsilateral primary motor cortex
induced by a mirror illusion during
forceful contractions
GLYN HOWATSON1*, TJERK ZULT2,
STUART GOODALL1, KEVIN THOMAS1 &
TIBOR HORTOBÁGYI1,2
1
Northumbria University and 2University Medical Center
Groningen, University of Groningen
*Corresponding author:
glyn.howatson@northumbria.ac.uk
@GlynHowatson
Unilateral strength training increases strength not only
in the exercised but also in the non-exercised, contral-
ateral homologous muscle. This phenomenon (cross-
education) provides a promising strategy for patient
groups to strengthen the affected limb by training the
non-affected limb. The magnitude of cross-education
is modest (~10%). Previously, we hypothesised that
viewing the exercising limb in a mirror could augment
the strength transfer by modulating cortical and corti-
cospinal pathways. Consequently, as a first step to test
this concept, the aim was to examine the corticospinal
and cortical responses with and without viewing a
mirror: (1) at rest and (2) during a forceful shortening
contraction. Following ethical approval 22 males and
5 females (mean age, height and mass of 27 years,
1.76 m and 76.0 kg, respectively) participated in the
investigation. Each participant completed four condi-
tions in a random order: at rest and during concentric
contractions (at 60% maximal voluntary contraction)
of the right wrist flexors, with and without viewing a
mirror. During the mirror condition, a reflection of
the right hand gave the illusionary view of the left
hand, whereas neither hand was visible during the
no-mirror condition. Transcranial magnetic brain
stimulation was used to examine corticospinal excit-
ability, and short-interval intracortical inhibition
(SICI) of the “ipsilateral” (right) primary motor cortex
(M1); these responses were recorded at the left flexor
carpi radialis (FCR). Repeated measures ANOVA
were used to examine the differences between the
conditions. A twofold increase in corticospinal excit-
ability during contractions was observed, but there
was no mirror effect. However, there was reduction
(P = 0.023) in SICI when viewing the mirror image of

the contracting wrist in comparison with the no-mir-
ror contraction condition (46% ± 18 vs. 38% ± 15,
respectively). Viewing the contracting right wrist in a
mirror modulated a specific intracortical circuit, SICI,
in the ipsilateral right M1. Attenuation of SICI, with-
out changes in corticospinal excitability, appears to be
associated with movement initiation and action obser-
vation by viewing a mirror. This implies that the mag-
nitude of intracortical inhibition is diminished when
viewing a reflected image of the contracting right hand
and creates the illusion that the resting left hand is
moving. As an initial step, this conceptually lends
support to the hypothesis that the increased sensory
feedback provided by a mirror could augment contral-
ateral strength improvement.
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D1.S2.5(3). Does the sports bra affect
thoracic rotation?
LAURA JUDSON
Leeds Beckett University
Corresponding author: laurajudson@live.co.uk
Exercise has a number of benefits that relate specifi-
cally to females. Therefore it is concerning that
breast discomfort and excessive breast movement
remain major barriers to activity, despite knowledge
that the sports bra reduces both. Whilst an emerging
body of research suggests that varying breast support
results in changes in running mechanics (Scurr et al.,
2010, Journal of Sports Sciences, 14, 1103–1109;
White, 2013, unpublished PhD thesis), this notion
has not been well investigated with reference to the
upper body. Thoracic rotation is of interest since it
has been suggested that elimination of this would
lead to inefficient gait (Kumar, 2004, Ergonomics,
47, 370–415). The purpose of this investigation was
to compare thoracic rotation range of motion in
differing sports bra designs during running.
Following institutional ethical approval, five, physi-
cally active females (B-DD) ran overground
(2.8 m · s−1 (±0.1 m · s−1)) whilst braless and in
three breast-support conditions. Data from five suc-
cessful trials were collected with 6 Oqus Motion
Capture cameras (250 Hz) using markers attached
to the nipples and trunk. Subjective breast discom-
fort feedback was collected using a visual analogue
scale. A Friedman’s ANOVA revealed significant
differences in thoracic range of motion between con-
ditions (χ2(3) = 9.33, P = 0.02). Ratings of breast
discomfort also decreased in supported conditions in
comparison with braless. Although Spearman’s
ranked correlations found no relationship between
the two, these findings do not indicate causality.
Day 1. Free Communications – Biomechanics s19
Therefore, it is reasonable to postulate that females
alter their running technique when unsupported by
means of reducing thoracic rotation to avoid breast
discomfort. Additionally, inadequate breast support
may be detrimental to running performance.
Spearman’s ranked correlations found strong, highly
significant correlations between thoracic rotation and
mediolateral nipple displacement (braless: rs = 0.69,
P ≤ 0.01; Bra A: rs = 0.63, P ≤ 0.01; Bra B: rs = 0.91,
P ≤ 0.01; Bra C: rs = 0.83, P ≤ 0.01). Moderate yet
highly significant correlations were also found with
anteroposterior nipple displacement (braless: rs =
0.68, P ≤ 0.01; Bra A: rs = .271, P = ≥ 0.05; Bra B:
rs = .51, P ≤ 0.01; Bra C: rs = 0.57, P ≤ 0.01). It is
unclear from the statistics whether breast kinematics
are influenced by running mechanics or vice versa,
but this supports a case put forward by White (2013)
for custom-made breast support based on an indivi-
dual’s running technique. These findings contribute
to existing evidence that consistently demonstrates
the sports bra’s ability to reduce breast discomfort
and movement. The importance of wearing appro-
priate breast support whilst running has also been
highlighted.
D1.S2.5(4). The influence of changes in
friction during turning on clay court
surfaces
CHELSEA STARBUCK1*, SHARON
DIXON1, VICTORIA STILES1, DANIEL
URA2 & MATT CARRE2
1
University of Exeter and 2Sheffield University
*Corresponding author: cstarbuck@marjon.ac.uk
On low-friction tennis surfaces such as clay, players
are frequently observed sliding during rapid decel-
erations. In addition to altering the level of sliding,
surface friction properties influence tennis players’
performance as well as injury risks. The present
study examined the influence of clay court frictional
changes upon player response. Sixteen university-
level tennis players (19.93 ± 0.96 years,
1.74 ± 0.10 m and 66.75 ± 10.36 kg) volunteered
for the current study approved by the institutional
ethics committee. On a synthetic clay surface of
varying friction level, participants performed an
180° turning movement (running approach speed
3.9 ± 0.20 m · s−1) on an area above a force plate.
Lower limb kinematic (Peak Performance
Technologies, 120 Hz) and force (AMTI, 960 Hz)
data were collected. To adjust friction levels, the
volume of sand above the force plate was altered
(kg · m−2 surface area). Ten randomised trials were
 s20 Day 1. Free Communications – Biomechanics
collected for each condition: baseline (12 kg · m−2),
reduction in friction 1 (R1, 16 kg · m−2) and reduc-
tion in friction 2 (R2, 20 kg · m−2). An ANOVA
with repeated measures and post-hoc Tukey tests
were conducted to identify differences in friction
level (P < 0.05). Greater sliding distances (effect
size, ES = 0.355, P = 0.008) were observed for the
lowest friction condition (R2; 0.23 ± 0.16 m) com-
pared to the baseline (0.17 ± 0.12 m) and R1
(0.18 ± 0.13 m) conditions. The R2 condition
(0.34 ± 0.09 s) produced later peak knee flexion
compared to the baseline (0.31 ± 0.07 s;
ES = 0.270, P = 0.023). Lower vertical peak load-
ing rate (LR) occurred during the R2 condition
(135.52 ± 23.16 BW · s−1) compared to R1
(147.67 ± 25.77 BW · s−1; ES = 0.345,
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P = 0.027). R2 (53.25 ± 10.45 BW · s−1) produced
lower horizontal LR compared to R1
(58.78 ± 10.92 BW · s−1; ES = 0.396, P = 0.016).
Although peak utilised coefficient of friction
(COFu) remained similar across conditions,
COFu occurred later for the R2 condition
(0.043 ± 0.004 s, ES = 0.306, p = 0.040) compared
to R1 (0.037 ± 0.003 s). Further sliding reported
during the lowest friction level resulted in reduced
horizontal and vertical LR suggesting reduced
injury risk through greater time spent applying the
horizontal and vertical loads. Further sliding
produced later peak knee flexion resulting in longer
time spent braking and longer eccentric contrac-
tions suggesting greater fatigue. Greater fatigue
increases injury risk and reduces performance;
therefore, prior to playing on lower friction
surfaces, players must employ appropriate condi-
tioning training to minimise fatigue.
D1.S2.5(5). Muscle activation during
walking, jogging and running when
performed overground, on a motorised
and non-motorised treadmill
GALLIN MONTGOMERY*, GRANT ABT,
CATHERINE DOBSON, MICHAEL
FAGAN, TINA SMITH & MASSIMILIANO
DITROILO
University of Hull
*Corresponding author: g.montgomery@2012.hull.ac.uk
Kinematics and kinetics of the normal gait
between overground (OG), motorised (MT) and
non-motorised treadmill (NMT) locomotion have
been investigated. This study examined the elec-
tromyography (EMG) that is generated during
OG, MT and NMT whilst walking, jogging and
running at matched velocities. Eleven healthy
males (23.8 ± 3.7 years, 1.80 ± 0.03 m,
80.8 ± 7.3 kg) were recruited. EMG surface elec-
trodes were placed over the rectus femoris (RF),
semitendinosus (ST), tibialis anterior (TA) and
soleus (SL) muscles of the participant’s right leg
in accordance with SENIAM (surface electromyo-
graphy for the non-invasive assessment of mus-
cles) recommendations. Participants walked,
jogged and ran along a 40-m track at a self-
selected constant velocity whilst instantaneous
velocity was recorded at 100 Hz using a wearable
speed meter, and EMG was recorded at 2000 Hz.
Constant velocity was identified and matched for
the motorised and non-motorised conditions.
Participants performed a velocity-matched trial
for 30 s whilst walking, jogging and running on
both an MT and an NMT (Woodway, Force 3) in
a randomised order. EMG data for eight cycles
per trial was band pass filtered (bidirectional
Butterworth, 10–500 Hz) and processed using a
linear envelope (full-wave rectification and low-
pass cut-off filter of 15 Hz). EMG area was
found for each cycle and averaged for each trial.
The averages were normalised to the average
value from the NMT run trial. A 3 × 3 repeated
measure ANOVA was applied to analyse the
results, along with effect size (ES). Methods
were ethically approved by the University of
Hull. Participants walked, jogged and ran
at 1.58 ± 0.15 , 2.98 ± 0.3 and
4.25 ± 0.34 m · s−1. EMG showed a significant
effect of velocity for the four muscles analysed
(P < 0.01) and of condition for ST, TA and SL
(P < 0.05). RF exhibited a significantly higher
activation for the NMT than MT (P = 0.036;
ES = 0.37). ST results showed that NMT was
significantly higher than OG and MT (P = 0.037
and P < 0.01; ES = 0.32 and 0.53, respectively).
TA results revealed that the NMT and OG were
significantly higher than MT (P < 0.01 and
P < 0.01; ES = 0.61 and 0.78, respectively). SL
activation was significantly higher on the NMT
than OG (P = 0.03; ES = 0.42) and MT
(P = 0.076; ES = 0.83) although the latter was
not significant. Results indicate that an increase
in velocity will increase muscular activation across
all the four muscles. The locomotion condition
had an effect on the ST, TA and SL muscles
where the NMT condition produced the
highest muscle activations. This could imply
higher energy expenditure when training on
an NMT.

D1.S2.5(6). Reliability of ergometer
rowing: the effects of intensity and skill
level on stroke length
GARY DOYLE1*, HOSSEIN SAIDPOUR2,
MARY CRAMP3 & WENDY DRECHSLER4
1 gramme. Ten trials at each intensity were analysed
University of East London, 2Birmingham City University,
3 for reliability and differences between intensity and
University of West of England and 4University of East
London
*Corresponding author: g.a.doyle@uel.ac.uk
Rowing requires coordination of the lower body,
upper body and trunk and is useful for examining
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total-body responses to exercise. There may be
issues of obtaining reliable technique for novice
participants, hence difficulties interpreting physio-
logical and biomechanics responses. Stroke length
is used to assess reliability of performance during
the drive phase (Ng et al., 2013, Journal of Applied
Biomechanics, 29, 180–187). Maximising stroke
length is considered important to effective techni-
que, whilst decreasing stroke length could indicate
fatigue. The purpose was to examine the reliability
of stroke length during the drive phase of ergometer
rowing across increasing intensities with partici-
pants of differing skill levels. Fourteen male
unskilled (age 26 ± 4.8 years; mass 78.4 ± 9.5 kg;
stature 1.78 ± 6.07 m) and seven male skilled (age
27.7 ± 4.8 years, mass 83.9 ± 7.2 kg, stature
1.83 ± 5.57 m) participants gave informed consent.
Ethical approval was granted by the university
research ethics committee. An 8-camera Vicon
Day 1. Free Communications – Biomechanics s21
Nexus (OMG, Oxford) motion-capture system
recorded displacement of the left-finger marker
during the drive phase using a Concept IIc erg-
ometer (Concept II, Morrisville, USA) for five
intensities (50, 75, 100, 125 and 150 W). The
positional data were filtered and stroke length was
calculated using a custom written LabVIEW pro-
skill. Normality and within-session reliability were
considered acceptable across all intensities (Intra-
class correlation coefficient [ICC]2,1: range 0.983–
0.992). Stroke length increased with respect to
intensity for all the participants, and skilled rowers
displayed longer stroke lengths. A mixed factorial
ANOVA showed statistical main effects for inten-
sity, and skill level however was superseded by the
interaction (F2.6,49.65 = 4.903, P < 0.01). Large
effect sizes (range d = 2.5–3.7) were seen between
skill and stroke length per intensity. The results
indicated that the stroke length of novice and
skilled rowers was reliable relative to increasing
exercise intensities. Within-participant coefficient
of variation suggests greater consistency for skilled
participants (CV range: 0.6%–4.28% and 0.36%–
1.23%, novice vs. skilled, respectively). Effect sizes
indicated meaningful differences in stroke length
between groups, suggesting a possible marker for
technique. These results indicate that a consistent
rowing stroke is achievable for skilled and unskilled
rowers, suggesting a rowing ergometer is a useful
and reliable tool to assess physiological responses,
such as economy of exercise and biomechanical
quantities such as kinematics and internal work.