Empire

The term empire derives from the Latin imperium (power, authority). Politically, an

empire is a geographically extensive group of states and peoples (ethnicgroups) united
and ruled either by a monarch (emperor, empress) or an oligarchy.

Aside from the traditional usage, the term empire can be used in an extended sense to
denote a large-scale business enterprise (e.g. a transnational corporation), or a political
organisation of either national-, regional- or city scale, controlled either by a person
(a political boss) or a group authority (political bosses).[1]

An imperial political structure is established and maintained in two ways: (i) as

a territorial empire of direct conquest and control with force (direct, physical action to
compel the emperor's goals) or (ii) as a coercive, hegemonic empire of indirect
conquest and control with power (the perception that the emperor canphysically
enforce his desired goals). The former provides greater tribute and direct political
control, yet limits further expansion because it absorbs military forces to fixed
garrisons. The latter provides less tribute and indirect control, but avails military
forces for further expansion.[2] Territorial empires (e.g. the Mongol Empire,
the Median Empire) tended to be contiguous areas. The term on occasion has been
applied to maritime empires or thalassocracies, (e.g. the Athenian and British
Empires) with looser structures and more scattered territories.

Contents
 1 Definition
 2 History of imperialism
o 2.1 Early empires
o 2.2 Classical period
o 2.3 Post-classical period
o 2.4 Colonial empires
o 2.5 Modern period
o 2.6 Empire from 1945 to the present
 3 Timeline of empires
 4 See also
  5 References
o 5.1 Notes
o 5.2 Bibliography
 6 Further Reading
 7 External links

Definition[edit]
An empire is a state with politico-military dominion of populations who are culturally
and ethnically distinct from the imperial (ruling) ethnic group and its culture [3]—
unlike a federation, an extensive state voluntarily composed of autonomous states and
peoples.

What physically and politically constitutes an empire is variously defined. It might be

a state effecting imperial policies, or a particular political structure. Empires are
typically formed from separate components that come together. Some units include
ethnic, national, cultural, and religious diversity. [4]

Sometimes an empire is a semantic construction, such as when a ruler assumes the

title of "Emperor". The said ruler's nation logically becomes an "Empire", despite
having no additional territory or hegemony such as Central African Empire or
the Korean Empire proclaimed in 1897 when Korea, far from gaining new territory
was on the verge of being annexed by the Empire of Japan, the last to use the name
officially. Amongst the last of these empires of the 20th century were theCentral
African Empire, Ethiopia, Vietnam, Manchukuo, the German Empire, and Korea.

The terrestrial empire's maritime analogue is the thalassocracy, an empire comprising

islands and coasts which are accessible to its terrestrial homeland, such as the
Athenian-dominated Delian League.

History of imperialism[edit]
The Akkadian Empire of Sargon the Great (24th century BC), was an early large
empire. In the 15th century BC, the New Kingdom of Ancient Egypt, ruled
by Thutmose III, was ancient Africa's major force upon incorporating Nubia and
the ancient city-states of the Levant. The first empire comparable to Rome in
organization was the Assyrian empire (2000–612 BC). TheMedian Empire was the
first empire on the territory of Persia. By the 6th century BC, after having allied with
the Babyloniansto defeat the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the Medes were able to establish
their own empire, the largest of its day, lasting for about sixty years. The successful,
extensive, and multi-cultural empire that was the Persian Achaemenid Empire (550–
330 BC) absorbed Mesopotamia, Egypt, part of Greece, Thrace, the rest of the Middle
East, much of Central Asia and Pakistan, until it was overthrown and replaced by the
short-lived empire of Alexander the Great.

The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive and powerful empire in ancient

India, ruled by the Mauryan dynasty from 321 to 185 BC. The Empire was founded in
322 BC by Chandragupta Maurya who rapidly expanded his power westwards across
central and western India, taking advantage of the disruptions of local powers in the
wake of the withdrawal westward by Alexander the Great. By 320 BC, the empire had
fully occupied past northwestern India as well as defeating and conquering
the satraps left by Alexander. It has been estimated that the Maurya Dynasty
controlled an unprecedented one-third of the world's entire economy, was home to
one-third of the world's population at the time (an estimated 50 million out of 150
million humans), contained the world's largest city of the time (Pataliputra, estimated
to be larger than Rome underEmperor Trajan) and according to Megasthenes, the
empire wielded a military of 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 war
elephants.

The Roman Empire was the most extensive Western empire until the early modern
period, and has left a lasting impact on the Western European nations to this day, as
many of their languages, cultural values, religious institutions, political divisions,
urban centers, and legal systems can trace their origins to the Roman Empire. The
Latin word imperium, referring to a magistrate's power to command, gradually
assumed the meaning "The territory in which a magistrate can effectively enforce his
commands," while the term imperator, originally was an honorific given to those
generals victorious in battle, meaning "commander." Thus, an "empire" may include
regions that are not legally within the territory of a state, but are under direct, or
indirect, control of that state, such as a colony, client state, or protectorate. Although
historians refer to the "Republican period," and the "Imperial period" of Roman
history to identify the periods before, and after, absolute power was assumed
by Augustus, the Romans themselves continued to refer to their government as a
"Republic," and during the Republican Period, the territories controlled by the
Republic were referred to as "Imperium Romanum". The Emperor's actual legal power
derived from holding the office of "consul," but he was traditionally honored with the
titles of Imperator ("commander"), and Princeps ("first man" / "chief"). Later, these
terms came to have legal significance in their own right; an army acclaiming their
general "imperator" was offering a direct challenge to the authority of the current
Emperor.[5]
The legal systems of France, and her former colonies, are strongly influenced by
Roman law[6], while the United States was expressly founded on a model inspired by
the Roman Republic, with upper, and lower, legislative assemblies, and executive
power invested in single individual, in the person of the President, as "commander in
chief" of the armed forces, reflecting the ancient Roman titles imperator princeps[7].
The Roman Catholic Church, founded in the early Imperial period, spread across
Europe, first by the activities of Christian evangelists, later by official Imperial
promulgation. Prior to the Roman Empire, the kingdom of Macedonia,
under Alexander the Great, became an empire that spanned
from Greece to Northwestern India. After Alexander's death, his empire fractured into
four, discrete kingdoms ruled by the Diadochi, which, despite being independent, are
denoted as the "Hellenistic Empire" by virtue of their similarity in culture and
administration. These successor empires were ultimately absorbed into the Roman
Empire.

In western Asia, the term Persian Empire denotes the Iranian imperial states

established at different historical periods of pre–Islamic and post–Islamic Persia. And
in East Asia, various Celestial Empires arose periodically between periods of war,
civil war, and foreign conquests. In India Chandragupta expanded the Mauryan
Empire to Northwest India (modern day Pakistan and Afghanistan). This also
included the era of expansion of Buddhism under Ashoka the Great. In China the Han
Empire became one of East Asia's most long lived dynasties, but was preceded by the
short-lived Qin Empire.

Post-classical period[edit]

The 7th century saw the emergence of the Islamic Empire, also referred to as the Arab
Empire. The Rashidun Caliphate expanded from the Arabian Peninsula and
swiftly conquered the Persian Empire and much of the Byzantine Roman Empire. Its
successor state, the Umayyad Caliphate, expanded across North Africa and into the
Iberian Peninsula. By the beginning of the 8th century, it had become the largest
empire in history at that point, until it was eventually surpassed in size by the Mongol
Empire in the 13th century. The ally of the Caliphate, the Somali Ajuuraan Empire,
ruled over the Horn of Africa.[8]Through a strong centralized administration and an
aggressive military stance towards invaders, the Ajuuraan empire successfully resisted
an Oromo invasion from the west and a Portuguese incursion from the east during the
Gaal Madow and the Ajuuraan-Portuguese wars.[9][10] Trading routes dating from the
ancient and early medieval periods of Somali maritime enterprise were strengthened
or re-established, and foreign trade and commerce in the coastal provinces flourished
with ships sailing to and coming from a myriad of kingdoms and empires in East
Asia, South Asia, Europe, the Near East, North Africa and East Africa.[11] In the 7th
century, Maritime Southeast Asia witnessed the rise of a Buddhist thallasocracy—
the Srivijaya Empire—which thrived for 600 years, and was succeeded by the Hindu-
Buddhist Majapahit Empire in the 13th to 15th century. In the Southeast Asian
mainland, the Hindu-Buddhist Khmer Empire built an empire centered in the city
of Angkor and which flourished from the 9th to 13th century. Followed by the sack of
Khmer Empire, the Siamese Empire was flourished alongside the Burmese and Lan
Chang Empire from 13th through to 18th century . In Eastern Europe the Byzantine
Empire had to recognize the Imperial title of the Bulgarian rulers in 917 (through a
Bulgarian Tsar). The Bulgarian Empire remained a major power in the Balkans until its fall in
the late 14th century.

At the time, in the Medieval West, the title "empire" had a specific technical meaning
that was exclusively applied to states that considered themselves the heirs and
successors of the Roman Empire, e.g. the Byzantine Empire which was the actual
continuation of the Eastern Roman Empire, and later the Carolingian Empire, the
largely Germanic Holy Roman Empire, the Russian Empire, yet these states were not
always technically — geographic, political, military — empires in the modern sense
of the word. To legitimise their imperium, these states directly claimed the title
of Empire from Rome. The sacrum Romanum imperium (Holy Roman Empire) of 800
to 1806, claimed to have exclusively comprehended Christian principalities, and was
only nominally a discrete imperial state. The Holy Roman Empire was not always
centrally-governed, as it had neither core nor peripheral territories, and was not
governed by a central, politico-military élite — hence, Voltaire's remark that the Holy
Roman Empire "was neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire" is accurate to the
degree that it ignores[12] German rule over Italian, French, Provençal, Polish, Flemish,
Dutch, and Bohemian populations, and the efforts of the ninth-century Holy Roman
Emperors (i.e. the Ottonians) to establish central control; thus, Voltaire's "...nor an
empire" observation applies to its late period.

In 1204, after the Fourth Crusade sacked Constantinople, the crusaders established

a Latin Empire (1204–1261) in that city, while the defeated Byzantine Empire's
descendants established two, smaller, short-lived empires in Asia Minor: the Empire
of Nicaea (1204–1261) and the Empire of Trebizond (1204–1461). Constantinople
was retaken by the Byzantine successor state centered in Nicaea in 1261, re-
establishing the Byzantine Empire until 1453, by which time the Turkish-
Muslim Ottoman Empire (ca.1300–1918), had conquered most of the region.
Moreover, Eastern Orthodox imperialism was not re-established until the coronation,
in 1721, of Peter the Great as Emperor of Russia. Like-wise, with the collapse of the
Holy Roman Empire, in 1806, during the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), the Austrian
Empire (1804–1867), emerged reconstituted as the Empire of Austria–
Hungary (1867–1918), having "inherited" the imperium of Central and Western
Europe from the losers of said wars.

The Mongol Empire, under Genghis Khan in the thirteenth century, was forged as the
largest contiguous empire in the world. Genghis Khan's grandson, Kublai Khan, was
proclaimed emperor, and established his imperial capital at Beijing; however, in his
reign, the empire became fractured into four, discrete khanates. Nevertheless, the
emergence of the Pax Mongolica had significantly eased trade and commerce across
Asia.[13][14]

In Oceania Tonga Empire was a lonely empire that existed many centuries since

Medieval till Modern period.

Colonial empires[edit]

European landings in the so-called "New World" (first, the Americas and later,
Australia) in the 15th century, along with the Portuguese's travels around the Cape of
Good Hope and along the southeast Indian Ocean coast of Africa, proved ripe
opportunities for the continent's Renaissance-era monarchies to launch colonial
empires like those of the ancient Romans and Greeks. In the Old World,
colonial imperialism was attempted, effected and established upon the Canary
Islands and Ireland. These conquered lands and peoples became de jure subordinates
of the empire, rather than de facto imperial territory and subjects. Such subjugation
often elicited "client-state" resentment that the empire unwisely ignored, leading to
the collapse of the European colonial imperial system in the late-19th century and the
early- and mid-20th century. Spanish discovery of the New World gave way to many
expeditions led by England, Portugal, France, the Dutch Republic and Spain. In the
18th century, the Spanish Empire was at its height because of the great mass of goods
taken from conquered territory in the Americas (Mexico, parts of the United States,
the Caribbean, most of Central America and South America) and the Philippines.

Modern period[edit]

In general governments styled themselves as having greater size, scope and power
than the territorial, politico-military and economic facts allow. As a consequence
some monarchs assumed the title of "emperor" (or its corresponding
translation: tsar, empereur, kaiser, etc.) and renamed their states as "The Empire
of ...".

The French emperors Napoleon I and Napoleon III (See: Premier Empire, Second

French Empire and French colonial empire) each attempted establishing a western
imperial hegemony based in France. The German Empire (1871–1918), another "heir
to the Holy Roman Empire" arose in 1871. Europeans began applying the name of
"empire" to non-European monarchies, such as the Qing Dynasty and the Mughal
Empire as well as Maratha Empire, and then leading, eventually, to the looser
denotations applicable to any political structure meeting the criteria of imperium.

Empires accreted to different types of states, although they traditionally originated as

powerful monarchies. The Athenian Empire, the Roman Empire and the British
Empire developed under elective auspices. The Empire of Brazil declared itself an
empire after breaking from the Portuguese Empire in 1822. France has twice transited
from being called the French Republic to being called the French Empire, while
France remained an overseas empire. To date it still governs colonies (French
Guyana, Martinique,Réunion, French Polynesia, New Caledonia, St Martin, St pierre
et miquelon, Guadeloupe, TAAF, Wallis and Futuna, Saint Barthélemy, Mayotte) and
exerts an hegemony in Francophone Africa (29 francophone countries such
as Chad, Rwanda, et cetera).

Historically empires resulted from military conquest, incorporating the vanquished

states to its political union. A state could establish imperial hegemony in other ways.
A weak state may seek annexation into the empire. For example, the bequest
of Pergamon by Attalus III, to the Roman Empire. The Unification of Germany as the
empire accreted to the Prussian metropole was less a military conquest of the German
states than their political divorce from the Austrian Empire. Having convinced the
other states of its military prowess — and having excluded the Austrians — Prussia
dictated the terms of imperial membership.

The Ashanti Empire (or Confederacy), also Asanteman (1701–1896) was a West
Africa state of the Ashanti, the Akan people of the Ashanti Region, Akanland in
modern day Ghana. The Ashanti (or Asante) were a powerful, militaristic and highly
disciplined people in West Africa. Their military power, which came from effective
strategy and an early adoption of European firearms, created an empire that stretched
from central Akanland (in modern-day Ghana) to present day Benin and Côte d'Ivoire,
bordered by the Dagomba kingdom to the north and Dahomey to the east. Due to the
empire's military prowess, sophisticated hierarchy, social stratification and culture, the
Ashanti empire had one of the largest historiographies of any indigenous Sub-Saharan
African political entity.
The Sikh Empire (1799–1846) was established in the Punjab. It collapsed when the
founder, Ranjit Singh, died and their army fell to the British. During the same
period,Maratha Empire or the Maratha Confederacy was a Hindu state located in
present-day India. It existed from 1674 to 1818 and at its peak the empire's territories
covered much of South Asia. The empire was founded and consolidated by Shivaji.
After the death of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb it expanded greatly under the rule of
the Peshwas. In 1761, the Maratha army lost the Third Battle of Panipat which halted
the expansion of the empire. Later, the empire was divided into a confederacy of
Maratha states which eventually were lost to the British in the Anglo-Maratha wars by
1818.[16]

The British also established their first empire in North America by colonizing the
northern part that included Canada and the colonies in America. In 1776, the United
States declared itself independent from the British empire thus beginning
the American Revolution.

Politically it was typical for either a monarchy or an oligarchy, rooted in the original
core territory of the empire, to continue to dominate. If government was maintained
via control of water vital to the colonial subjects, such régimes were called hydraulic
empires.

When possible, empires used a common religion or culture to strengthen the political
structure.

In time, an empire may metamorphose to another form of polity. To wit, the Holy
Roman Empire, a German re-constitution of the Roman Empire, metamorphosed into
various political structures (i.e. Federalism), and eventually, under Habsburg rule, re-
constituted itself as the Austrian Empire — an empire of much different politics and
vaster extension. After the Second World War (1939–1945) the British Empire
evolved into a loose, multi-national Commonwealth of Nations; while the French
colonial empire metamorphosed to a Francophone commonwealth. The British
Empire also colonized Hong Kong after the opium wars and had major influences in
the region, it was handed back to China in 1997 after 150 years of rule. The
Portuguese established its colony in China and had control over the territory
of Macau, which was also handed back to China in 1999. Also, the French established
its colony in China and had control over the territory of Kwang-Chou-Wan, which
was also handed back to China in 1946.

An autocratic empire can become a republic (e.g. the Central African Empire in

1979); or it can become a republic with its imperial dominions reduced to a core
territory (e.g. Weimar Germany, 1918–1919 and the Ottoman Empire, 1918–1923).
The dissolution of the Austro–Hungarian Empire, after 1918, is an example of a
multi-ethnicsuperstate broken into its constituent states: the republics, kingdoms, and
provinces of Austria, Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and
Herzegovina,Czechoslovakia, Ruthenia, Galicia, et al.

Empire from 1945 to the present[edit]

Contemporaneously, the concept of Empire is politically valid, yet is not always used
in the traditional sense; for example Japan is considered the world's sole remaining
empire because of the continued presence of the Japanese Emperor in national
politics. Despite the semantic reference to Imperial power, Japan is a de
jure constitutional monarchy, with a homogeneous population of 127 million people
that is 98.5 per cent ethnic Japanese, making it one of the largest nation-states. [17]

Characterizing some aspects of American foreign policy and international behavior

"American Empire" is controversial but not uncommon. Stuart Creighton Miller posits
that the public's sense of innocence about Realpolitik (cf. American Exceptionalism)
impairs popular recognition of US imperial conduct. Since it governed other countries
via surrogates — domestically-weak, right-wing governments that collapse without
US support.[18] G.W. Bush's Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld said: "We don't
seek empires. We're not imperialistic; we never have been" [19] — directly contradicts
Thomas Jefferson, in the 1780s, awaiting the fall of the Spanish empire: "...till our
population can be sufficiently advanced to gain it from them piece by piece". [20][21]
[22]
 In turn, historian Sidney Lens argues that from its inception the US has used every
means to dominate other nations.[23]

Since the European Union began, in 1993, as a west European trade bloc, it

established its own currency, the Euro, in 1999, established discrete military forces,
and exercised its limited hegemony in parts of eastern Europe and Asia. This
behaviour, the political scientist Jan Zielonka suggests, is imperial, because it coerces
its neighbour countries to adopt its European economic, legal, and political structures.
[24][25][26][27][28][29]

In his book review of Empire (2000) by Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Mehmet

Akif Okur posits that, since the 11 September 2001, terrorist attacks in the U.S., the
international relations determining the world's balance of power (political, economic,
military) have been altered. These alterations include the intellectual (political
science) trends that perceive the contemporary world's order via the re-
territorrialisation of political space, the re-emergence of classical imperialist
practices (the "inside" vs. "outside" duality, cf. the Other), the deliberate weakening
of international organisations, the restructured international economy, economic
nationalism, the expanded arming of most countries, the proliferation of nuclear
weapon capabilities and the politics of identity emphasizing a
state's subjective perception of its place in the world, as a nation and as a civilisation.
These changes constitute the "Age of Nation Empires"; as imperial usage, nation-
empire denotes the return of geopolitical power from global power blocs
to regional power blocs (i.e. centred upon a "regional power" state [China, Russia,
U.S., et al.]) and regional multi-state power alliances (i.e. Europe, Latin America,
South East Asia). Nation-empire regionalism claims sovereignty over their respective
(regional) political (social, economic, ideologic), cultural and military spheres. [30]

Timeline of empires[edit]
The chart below shows a timeline of polities which have been called empires.
Dynastic changes are marked with a white line.

 The Roman Empire's timeline listed below is only up to the timeline of the

Western part.
 The Byzantine continuation of the Roman Empire is listed separately.
 The Empires of Nicaea and Trebizond were Byzantine successor states.

See also[edit]
 Empire-building Lists:
 Imperialism  List of empires
 List of largest empires
 Colonialism
 List of extinct countries, empires, etc.
 Democratic empire
 Linguistic imperialism             List of countries spanning more than one
continent
 Historical powers

References[edit]
Notes[edit]

1. ^ "definition of empire from Oxford Dictionaries Online". Oxford

Dictionary. Retrieved 21 November 2008.
2. ^ Ross Hassig, Mexico and the Spanish Conquest (1994), pp. 23–
24,ISBN 0-582-06829-0 (pbk)
3. ^ The Oxford English Reference Dictionary, Second Edition (2001),
p.461, ISBN 0-19-860046-1
4. ^ Howe, Stephen (2002). Empire. New York: Oxford University Press.
p. 15. ISBN 978-0-19-280223-1.
5. ^ Michael Burger (2008). "The Shaping of Western Civilization: From
Antiquity to the Enlightenment". University of Toronto Press. p. 115.
6. ^ Ken Pennington. "France - Legal History". Columbus School of Law
and School of Canon Law, The Catholic University of America. Retrieved 23
September 2013.
7. ^ Cynthia Haven (February 19, 2010). Stanford scholar links Rome and
America in Philadelphia exhibition (Interview with Caroline Winterer).
Stanford Report http://news.stanford.edu/news/2010/february15/caroline-
winterer-qanda-021910.html |url= missing title (help).
8. ^ I.M. Lewis, A modern history of Somalia: nation and state in the Horn
of Africa, 2nd edition, revised, illustrated, (Westview Press: 1988), p.24.
9. ^ Virginia Luling, Somali Sultanate: the Geledi city-state over 150
years, p. 17
10. ^ Luc Cambrézy, Populations réfugiées: de l'exil au retour, p.316
11. ^ Horn and Crescent: Cultural Change and Traditional Islam on the East
African Coast, 800–1900 (African Studies) by Pouwels Randall L – pg 15
12. ^ Voltaire, Wikiquote, citing Essai sur l'histoire generale et sur les
moeurs et l'espirit des nations, Chapter 70 (1756), retrieved 2008-01-06
13. ^ Gregory G.Guzman - Were the barbarians a negative or positive factor
in ancient and medieval history?, The historian 50 (1988), 568-70
14. ^ Thomas T.Allsen - Culture and conquest in Mongol Eurasia, 211
15. ^ The East India Company and the British Empire in the Far East -
Marguerite Eyer Wilbur, The East India Company - Google Books.
Books.google.com.pk. Retrieved 2012-04-29.
16. ^ Pagadi, Setumadhavarao R. (1983), Shivaji, National Book Trust,
India, p. 21, ISBN 81-237-0647-2
17. ^ George Hicks, Japan's hidden apartheid: the Korean minority and the
Japanese, (Aldershot, England; Brookfield, VT: Ashgate, 1998), 3.
18. ^ Johnson, Chalmers, Blowback: The Costs and Consequences of
American Empire (2000), pp.72–9
19. ^ Niall Ferguson, Colossus: The Rise and Fall of the American
Empire,lay summary
20. ^ Sidney Lens; Howard Zinn (2003), The forging of the American
empire: from the revolution to Vietnam, a history of U.S. imperialism, Pluto
Press, pp. 63–64, ISBN 978-0-7453-2100-4
21. ^ LaFeber, Walter, Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central
America (1993) 2nd edition, p.19
22. ^ Boot, Max (May 6, 2003), American Imperialism? No Need to Run
Away from Label, Council on Foreign Relations OP-Ed, quoting USA Today,
retrieved 2008-01-06
23. ^ Lens & Zinn 2003, p. Back cover
24. ^ Ian Black (December 20, 2002), Living in a euro wonderland,
Guardian unlimited, retrieved 2008-01-06
25. ^ EU gets its military fist, BBC News, December 13, 2002, retrieved
2008-01-06
26. ^ Nikolaos Tzifakis (April 2007), "EU's region-building and boundary-
drawing policies: the European approach to the Southern Mediterranean and the
Western Balkans 1", Journal of Southern Europe and the
Balkans(informaworld) 9 (1): 47–64, doi:10.1080/14613190701217001,
retrieved 2007-01-06
27. ^ Stephen R. Hurt (2003), "Co-operation and coercion? The Cotonou
Agreement between the European Union and acp states and the end of the
Lomé Convention", Third World Quarterly (informaworld) 24: 161–
176,doi:10.1080/713701373, retrieved 2007-01-06
28. ^ Europeanisation and Conflict Resolution: Case Studies from the
European Periphery, Belgian Science Policy, retrieved 2008-01-06
29. ^ Jan Zielonka (2006), Europe as empire: the nature of the enlarged
European Union, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-929221-3,
retrieved 2008-01-06
30. ^ For the Okur's thesis about "nation empires", look at the article:
Mehmet Akif Okur, Rethinking Empire After 9/11: Towards A New
Ontological Image of World Order Perceptions, Journal of International
Affairs, Volume XII, Winter 2007, pp.61-93