Engineering Of Ground Modification CE-505

Assignment 1

1. Need and objectives of soil modification?

Soil modification refers to the process of adding and mixing some chemical agents in to the soil
to not only dry the soil, improving workability, but also reducing the plasticity index and shrink
swell potential. These improvements often result in a slight increase in the shear strength of the
soil.
The soil in the ground usually comes in a state which is harder for construction. Sometimes the
problem is found before the making of an embankment and sometimes later which results in the
instability of the structure. Therefore to avoid such issues, certain techniques are used to modify
or improve the soil underneath.
Need of soil modification:

 For construction in treating soft soils, collapsible soils etc.

 To change the mechanical properties of soil for better use.
 To improve the bearing capacity of soil.
 In order to re-use a soil, it must be modified.
 To strengthen the subgrade and reduce plasticity.
 To reduce the amount of weather-related delays.
 To get soil resistant to swelling and shrinkage cycles.

Objective:
 Increasing stiffness, durability, strength and stability.
 Mitigating or Reducing undesirable properties such as shrinking or swelling, compressibility
 Modifying permeability
 Attaining or improving efficiency and productivity by using techniques that save time and
expenses.

2. Vibrocompaction method?
Vibrocompaction is a technique which is used to compact granular soils and rearranges the soil
particulars into a denser state. Depth vibrators are used for compaction which are typically
suspended from a crane or mounted on piling equipment. The action of the vibrator along with

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water jetting, decreases the inner-granular forces between the soil particles which allows them
to move into a denser configuration, typically achieving a relative density of 70 to 85 percent.

Natural or manmade deposits of sand and gravel are frequently not dense enough to allow a
proposed structure to be reliably and safely founded. Therefore under such circumstances depth
vibrators increases the soil density and homogenizes it independently from the groundwater
table.

The four phases of Vibrocompaction treatment:

1. PENETRATION: The PTC Vibrolance penetrates the ground thanks to the combined effect
of the vibrations emitted by the vibrator and the Vibrolance own weight.

The penetration is usually performed along with water jetting system at the tip of the
Vibrolance. The water reduces the interstitial pressure between the soil particles which
results in reduction of friction reducing the friction with the soil.

2. COMPACTION: Vibrolance at depth performs a series of compaction intervals, starting

from maximum depth of penetration upwards. During compaction, the vibrolance
sustained vibrations disturb the particles and force the soil to rearrange to a denser state
of compaction. The compacted soil then forms a cylinder around the vibrolance.

When the penetration depth crosses 20m, Side water jetting may be used to ease the
extraction of the Vibrolance.

3. BACKFILLING: The densification of the soil shifts the surface level down and forms a crater
at the top of the Vibrolance insertion point. The gap which is created by the shift, is then
backfilled during the compaction process, either with imported or in-situ material, which is
added to the Vibrolance insertion point.

Both the compaction and the backfilling process are repeated until the Vibrolance reaches
the surface and is completely extracted from the ground.

4. FINISHING: When the Vibrolance reaches the surface, the compacted ground has a
cylindrical shape from the bottom to the top of the Vibrolance insertion point.
Until the treated soil reaches the degree of compaction that is required, the Vibrolance will
keep getting inserted in the ground at the next spot of the compaction grid.

The compaction of the soil causes a decrease of the volume of up to 10%.

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 Benefits of using this method:
 Fast, economical and reliable.
 No extra time required for earthworks or deep foundations.
 Especially used for economical design of foundations and floor slabs

Application:
 For Off-shore compaction of sea bed
 For Deification of embankment zones and excavation bases to reduce permeability
 In Liquefaction mitigation

3. Preloading by vertical drains?

Preloading generally refers to the process of compressing the soil under applied vertical stress
prior to construction and placement of the final construction load.
Vertical drains are used to shorten the dissipation path of the excess pore water and to
accelerate the consolidation process.
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The purpose of using preloading and vertical drains together is to increase the shear strength of
the soil. It also helps in reducing the soil compressibility and the permeability of the soil prior to
construction and placement of the final construction load. It prevents large settlements and
damages to the structures.

Sometimes, Preloading technique does not work alone because of the thick uniform soft clay
layer or low permeability of the clay. As a result, the time required for precompression is very
long and not practical or surcharge will be very high for reasonable waiting periods. To solve such
problems i.e. to shorten the consolidation time, vertical drains are installed together with
preloading either by an embankment or by means of vacuum pressure. Vertical drains are
artificially-created drainage paths which are inserted into the soft clay subsoil. During
consolidation of the clay the pore water gets squeezed out due to the hydraulic gradients created
by the preloading. This water can flow with higher speed in horizontal direction towards the
vertical drains which is helpful as most clay deposits exhibit a higher horizontal permeability
compared to the vertical. These pore water can also flow freely along the vertical drains vertically
towards the permeable layers. Therefore, the vertical drain installation, accelerates the
consolidation process, reduces the length of the drainage path and allows the clay to gain rapid
increase in strength, to carry the new load by its own.

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4. Methods of grouting and applications?
Grouting refers to the injection of pumpable materials into a soil or rock formation to change its
physical characteristics. The injected material (generally composed of water, cement, sand,
often color tint and sometimes fine gravel) is referred to as the grout.

Methods of Grouting:

1. PERMEATION GROUNTING:
Defined as a means for saturating the voids within a soil or rock mass and thereby water
and air from the voids and replacing it with grout, without displacing the soil particles or
widening the existing fissures in the rock. It includes:-
 Injecting the soil with thin grouts.
 After the soil cures, it becomes a solid mass.
 Usually the process is completed using chemical grouts.
 Used for creating groundwater barriers or preparing ground before tunneling.

APPLICATIONS:
 It is used for stoppage of seepage through joints of underground structures such as
tunnel lining, basement wall etc.
 It is mainly used for making vertical seepage barriers beneath hydraulic structures.
 It is used for stabilization of soil around shafts and tunnels.

2. DISPLACEMENT-COMPACTION GROUTING: Displacement-Compaction grouting is the

injection of a thick, low mobility grout that remains in a homogeneous mass without
entering soil pores. When the grout mass starts expanding, it displaces the surrounding soil
and densifies it.
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 When low- slump compaction is injected into granular soils, grout bulbs are formed that
displace and densify the surrounding loose soils.

APPLICATIONS:
 It is used to repair excessive settlement structures.
 It is used to improve soil bearing capacity.
 It is used to control structural leveling.
 It is used to densify soil following the passage of a tunneling machine and to
strengthen the foundation of soil against sinkhole formations.

3. DISPLACEENT-SOIL FRACTURE GROUTING: It is a displacement grouting technique in

which a learn slurry of cement soil and water is injected at high pressure into the soil to
fracture the soil and set up root-like or thin lens shaped zones of grout material in the soil
mass. Densification of the soil mass is caused as the grout material spreads all around the
grout hole, along with an increase in its macroscopic strength.

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 APPLICATIONS:
 It is used to level structures again.
 It is used to stabilize overlying structures during tunneling.
 It is used to fix the shape of a tilted building.

4. JET OR REPLACEMENT-DISPLACEMENT GROUTING: In this technique, a special grout pipe

called the monitor having high speed jets of water or grout is used to erode and excavate
the soil. As the monitor is drawn out, strong, impervious columns are formed by mixing
grout with the remaining soil.

APPLICATIONS:
 It is used for Grouted columns
 It provides excavation support and seals the bottom of planned excavation.
 It is used for Underpin foundations.
 Used as jet grout raft to reinforce cofferdam to reduce its deflection and thus the
settlement caused by the excavation works.

5. ROCK FISSURE GROUTING: This technique uses a hole drilled through the fissures and
joints of a rock mass to allow grout to be injected at close centers vertically and re-
injecting, if required. In rock grouting, the grout is injected under pressure through the
grout hole drilled into the rock mass to be treated.

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 APPLICATIONS:
 It is used to seal the rock mass present underneath and at ends of dams, to prevent
seepage or leaking of the reservoirs.
 It is used to prevent water seepage into the excavated tunnel by sealing rock mass
above and underneath a rock tunnel.
 It is used to cement the fractured rock mass.
 Mainly used in the field of water stopping, especially in tunnel excavation project.

6. TUBE-A-MANCHETTES(TAM) GROUTING: This technique uses sleeved perforated pipes in

grout holes, soils or completely decomposed rock to allow grout to be injected at close
centers vertically and re-injected, if required. It is applicable for grouting in soil formation
only, the pores in between the soil particles are filled with grout under pressure with
partial or complete displacement of in-filling ground water.

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 APPLICATIONS:
 It is used to seal soil mass above and underneath a tunnel, excavated in soil under
compressed air condition.
 It is also used to seal soil mass behind the soldier pile wall, pipe pile wall etc.
 Required for sealing “windows” in cofferdams.
 Used for sealing underlying dams soil.
 Used for consolidation of loose soil mass.

5. Note on Atleast 3 admixtures used for ground improvement

The use of additives and admixtures, such as lime, cement, oils and bitumen and chemicals like
sulphur, is one of the oldest and most widespread methods of improving a soil. Main objective of
using such mixture is to strengthen a locally available soil fill to construct a low-cost road base.

1. Bituminous Stabilization: When bitumen is mixed with soil, it imparts binding property as well
as helps it to become water resistant. Even in the presence of water, this property helps the
soil to impart and regain its strength. In case of fine grained soils bituminous materials seal
the voids between fine soils and keep it away from coming in direct contact with water and
thus inherent properties of the soil are retained. In the case of sand and gravel, individual
particles get coated with a very thin film of bituminous material and thus binding property is
gained by the soil. Water absorption increases in the first stage at very low bitumen content
but then starts decreasing. The maximum dry density of the compacted layer in decreased.

2. Lime Stabilization: When stabilization of soil is achieved by mixing lime in proper proportion,
the process is known as soil lime stabilization. Lime is generally used for short term
modification of soil properties. It can modify almost all fine grained soils but the most affected
change occurs in clay soils of moderate to high plasticity. Modification occurs when calcium
captions supplied by the hydrated lime replaces the captions normally present on the surface
of the clay mineral, advanced by the high pH environment of the lime water system. Soil
stabilization occurs when lime is added to a reactive soil which uses pozzolanic reaction to
generate long term strength. The key to pozzolanic reactivity and stabilization is a reactive
soil, a good mix design protocol and reliable construction practices. Benefits of soil-lime
stabilization include:
 Over time the mixture continue gaining strength, even after environmental or load damage
 Due to its addition, improvements in shear strength is also observed
 For long term, it provides performance benefits that reduce maintenance costs.
 It is not difficult to work upon. After proper mix design and testing is completed, in-place
mixing is used to add the appropriate amount of lime to soil, mixed to an appropriate
depth
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 3. Cement Stabilization: Soil-cement is a mixture of pulverized soil and measured amount of
cement and water, compacted to the desired density and cured. Cement is used to improve
the engineering properties of available soil such as strength compressibility, permeability,
swelling potential, frost susceptibility and sensitivity to changes in moisture content.
Depending on the type of soil and amount of cement used, soil cement materials range from
semi flexible to semi rigid. The mixture approaches a rigid behavior when granular soils are
used and the concentration of cement is increased. In rigid pavements contraction, expansion,
construction and longitudinal joints are used. For low-maintenance cost and smooth pace,
reduction or elimination of the joints is useful. The thermal properties of soils such as specific
heat, thermal resistivity and thermal diffusivity are lower as compared to that of concrete.
The thermal properties of soil cement particularly for fine grain soils are generally expected to
be lower than that of concrete. Thus results in lower warping and lesser interior stresses in
pavements of soil-cement. Reinforced may be used to improve the load carrying capacity of
seal in fill construction.

6. Soil reinforcement
Soil reinforcement is a technique which uses geo-engineering methods to improve the stiffness
and strength of soil. In the past, natural fibers were used to reinforce the soil but the technique
did not have a high yield and required a lot of time for the soil to recover. In geotechnical
engineering, soil is restored and reinforced with the distribution of minerals and soil nutrients.
Soil reinforcement is necessary in lands with high erosion. It is particularly useful in areas with
soft soil as it fails to provide support to the construction or building. This type of soil is also highly
susceptible to various environmental and natural factors such as high compressibility, poor shear
strength, temperature changes, etc.

How it’s performed:

Soil reinforcement is initiated by placing tensile elements in the soil which magnifies its natural
stability and strength. This is made possible by bringing reinforcement elements in contact with
surfaces in the aggregate and sub-base of soil mass. When pressure on the soil mass causes a
strain on the reinforcements, it generates a tensile load which can counter soil movement and
supply increased strength for additional support. This way, a soil-reinforcement system is
designed to provide shear strength higher than the soil mass alone.

Principle of Reinforced Soil:

The principle of reinforced soil is that an introduced material generates a tensile restraining force
which helps in reducing the lateral stress, required to maintain the equilibrium of a loaded soil.
Under vertical stress it undergoes lateral deformation when the soil element is compressed.

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 The soil element will be restrained against lateral deformation when the reinforcement is added
to the soil in the form of horizontal layers, as it is acted by a lateral force. It is important to note
that the tensile force in the reinforcing element depends on there being lateral strain.
Advantages of reinforced soil:

 With this technique, construction on soft ground can be achieved

 The need of smaller quantities of earth fill
 Steeper embankment slopes reduce the land take required, therefore reinforced soil
technique is used to increase its strength
 Since it’s a part of the placing and compaction of the earth fill process, this technique helps
structures to be built more quickly than using conventional methods.

Limitation of reinforced soil:

Reinforced soil relies upon deformation for its effectiveness that is the soil strain has to be
transferred to the reinforcement for it to develop its tensile or bearing resistance. There are
some issues regarding the durability and long time performance of the reinforcing material as
severe and rapid corrosion of steel reinforcement is possible.

Polymeric materials degrade when exposed to ultra-violet rays and can be damaged by rough
handling on site or by sharp stones in fill. When constructing on soft soils care has to be taken to
ensure not to overstress the reinforcement.

7. Ground anchors and crib walls

GROUND ANCHORS

Ground anchors are often used for the stabilization of steep slopes or slopes with soft soils, as
well as the improvement of embankment or foundation soil capacity, or to prevent excessive
erosion and landslides. It consists of cables or rods connected to a bearing plate. Often the use of
steel ground anchors is restricted because of the overall durability during placement (due to
weight), and the difficulty in maintaining tension levels in the anchor.

Composite ground anchors generically consist of three parts:

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1. Firstly, the anchorage which is basically a stainless steel sheath with an anchor nut/plate
through which the composite cable is run. The anchorage is usually poured with a non-shrink
expansive cement mortar that ensures fixity and no slippage. It is also used to fasten the
system to the outside structure.
2. The cable can consist of multiple rods that are separate or braided together, or a single rod.
3. A sheath or sleeve made from polyethylene or PVC that is contoured around the free anchor
length of the cables.

Types of Ground Anchors:

 This anchor type is not suitable for soils but is generally used for rocks, where the rock
strata are stable. These are often referred as Rock Anchors.

In this type a percussive drill rig is used while if collapsible soils overlying rock are
encountered, a rotary percussive rig is normally used.

 This type of anchor is useful for both cohesive and cohesionless soils.

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 In this type rotary or rotary percussive rig can be used to drill anchor hole. Bit on hollow
rods working within an outer casing is widely used.

 This type of anchor is used in with clay strata.

In this type, the load carrying capacity of the anchor depends on the strength of the clay
available at the anchor/clay interface. The most successful anchor unit comprises the
drilling of a cylindrical shaft and the mechanical enlargement of this shaft at
predetermined positions.

Application of ground anchors:

 Even with poor ground conditions, high load can be obtained
 Driven anchors can be used in a variety of soil conditions
 Permanent anchors are used in ports and harbor developments, road schemes, dam
refurbishments and for the tensile support
 It is generally used to ensure ‘active’ forces in the structures

Crib Walls
Crib walls are usually constructed by interlocking precast units (parallel to and at right angles to
the line of the wall) that are built to form a series of hollow boxes. The boxes are filled with
selected granular material to form a retaining wall. The individual units are generally small which
makes it easier to be installed manually on site.

Walls can be readily curved in plan and can be of varying height as the maximum length of a unit
is in the region of 1 m.

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 Crib walls are commonly used for residential purposes such as stabilizing building platforms and
driveway access. They are very adaptable and can be straight, curved, or angled and incorporate
landscape features if required. Installation of crib walls can be satisfying because they can
accommodate complex curvature and be planted with climbing vines, giving them a much
“softer” appearance than more conventional support systems. Dying the concrete in a brown or
tan earthen color will also help to improve the final result. It’s failure can be caused by
differential settlement.

Advantages of using Crib walls:

 Easy to perform the construction.

 It is a Low cost construction.
 Crib walls are incredibly flexible and can easily be constructed to follow gentle curves,
slopes, and undulating terrain.
 The open web construction and use of free draining material eliminates two common
causes of failure in retaining walls — namely build up of hydrostatic pressure and the
destructive pressure of tree root systems.

8. Functions and applications of Geosynthetics

There are six main functions for Geosynthetics:
 Barrier
The geosynthetic performs as a relatively impermeable barrier to fluids or gases. For
example, geomembranes, thin film geotextile composites, geosynthetic clay liners
(GCLs) and field-coated geotextiles are used as fluid barriers to disrupt flow of liquid or
gas. This function is also practiced in asphalt pavement overlays, encapsulation of
swelling soils and waste containment.

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 Drainage
The geosynthetic acts as a drain to transfer fluid flows through less permeable soils.
For example, geotextiles are used to disperse pore water pressures at the base of
roadway embankments. For higher flows, geocomposite drains have been developed.
These materials have been used as pavement edge drains, slope interceptor drains,
and abutment and retaining wall drains. Prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) have been
used to escalate consolidation of soft cohesive foundation soils below embankments
and preload fills.

 Filtration
the geosynthetic acts similar to a sand filter by allowing water to move through the soil
while holding all upstream soil particles. For example, geotextiles are used to prevent
soils from migrating into drainage aggregate or pipes while maintaining flow through
the system. Geotextiles are also used below rip rap and other armor materials in
coastal and river bank protection systems to prevent soil erosion.
 Protection
Geotextile or a geotextile-related product helps to prevent or limit any local damage to
a given element.

 Reinforcement
the geosynthetic acts as a reinforcement element within a soil mass or in combination
with the soil to form a composite that has better strength and deformation properties
over the unreinforced soil. For example, geogrids are used to add tensile strength to a
soil mass in order to create vertical or near-vertical changes in grade.

Reinforcement enables embankments to be constructed over very soft foundations

and to build embankment side slopes at steeper angles than would be possible with
unreinforced soil. Geosynthetics have also been used to bridge over voids that may
develop below load bearing granular layers or below cover systems in landfill
applications.
 Separation
the geosynthetic acts to separate two layers of soils that have different particle size
distributions. For example, geotextiles are used to prevent road base materials from
penetrating into soft underlying soft subgrade soils, thus maintaining design thickness
and roadway integrity. Separators also help to prevent fine-grained subgrade soils from
being pumped into permeable granular road bases.

 Surface Erosion Control

the geosynthetic acts to reduce soil erosion caused by rainfall impact and surface water

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 runoff. For example, temporary geosynthetic blankets and permanent lightweight
geosynthetic mats are placed over the otherwise exposed soil surface on slopes to
eliminate erosion. Geotextile silt fences are also used to remove suspended particles
from sediment-laden runoff water. Some of these mats are manufactured using
biodegradable fibers.

Geotextiles have been used as covers to prevent dispersal of loose waste by wind or
birds at the working surface of municipal solid waste landfills. They are also used in
flexible concrete formworks and for sandbags.

Applications:

 Majorly used for Ground stabilization /improvement

 Helps in Pavements processes: Roads, Parking Bays, Hard Standings, Runways,
Aprons and Taxiways
 Heavy duty pavements: Ports and Harbors
 Erosion control
 Helpful for Retaining, Re walls and Bridge abutments
 Geosynthetic systems reduce the use of natural resources and the environmental
damage associated quarrying, trucking, and other material handling activities which
is a great step for nature
 Geosynthetics can be installed quickly, providing the flexibility to construct during
short construction seasons

9. Electro-kinetic dewatering
Removing water from slurries and sludge’s is a requirement of a large number of processes
and activities. This process requires four broad stages:
1. Sedimentation or settling – usually achieved by active or passive settling of solids
through a liquid column.
2. Thickening – taking a liquid mixture and removing water from it to produce a higher
density liquid or paste.
3. Dewatering - taking a sludge or paste and removing water to effectively create a phase
transition wherein the behavior of the material which has been dewatered resembles more
of a solid than that of a liquid. The transition between the phases is often hard to notice.
4. Drying – this dried paste is then used to produce a friable granular or free flowing
material.
With each stage there consist various methods and approaches that can be adopted.
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 Removal of water is most challenging from fine grained materials because the solid
particles either settle very slowly through water (sedimentation and thickening), or water
flows very slowly through a matrix of particles (dewatering).
Electrokinetic has developed a wide range of EKG materials that combine electroosmosis
and filtration in a way that yields an enhanced dewatering performance. This in turn offers
modified performance or an increase in the speed of dewatering to the extent that
filtration dewatering of some especially difficult materials becomes easy.
Understanding that electrokinetic dewatering is aimed at mixtures of water and fine
grained solids, some applications for EKG dewatering methods are mentioned:

EKG dewatering bags

Filtration bags which act to combine electroosmosis and hydraulic filtration to permit
dewatering of materials in hanging bags. Applications include:
(i) Dewatering of small volumes of industrial waste which may be associated with food
production.
(ii) Dewatering the arising of drilling boreholes e.g. for ground source heat boreholes.
(iii) Dewatering arising from roadside gully operations.

EKG In situ dewatering

Dewatering is challenging where the materials are very soft and fine grained because the
materials are often in a condition, described as “too thin to shovel but too thick to pump”.

Electrokinetic has devised a method to combine electroosmosis with conventional well-

point technology to permit an effective in situ dewatering method.

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10. Thermal modification and ground freezing

Thermal Modification
Thermal stabilization of soil is a ground improvement technique. It has been observed
that heating or cooling shows certain marked changes in the soil properties. Many types
of research were conducted which showed impressive results that is useful for soil
stabilization. Heating and cooling have been extensively used as soil improvement
techniques.
Like seepage or consolidation analysis of soil, a heat flow analysis can also be carried out.
The transfer of heat in soil occurs by conduction, convection (free, forced, by thawing)
and radiation. The most preferred mechanism of transfer is through conduction, which
takes place in three constituents of soil that are soil solids, water (which may be in the
form of a liquid, ice or vapor) and pore air. The phenomenon of heat conduction is
influenced by soil thermal properties which are its thermal conductivity, latent heat of

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fusion, the heat of vaporization of soil water and the heat capacity of the soil. The
behavior of heat flow in soil is mainly governed by the latent heat of fusion of water on
freezing and heat of vaporization of water on heating above 1000C.
The latent heat of fusion can be defined as the heat amount that must be added to the
unit mass of a substance to change it from liquid to solid or solid to liquid without any
change in the temperature. It is noted that higher the heat input per mass of the soil
(which should be treated), the greater would be the effect. A small increase in
temperature will cause a strength increase in fine-grained soils due to the reduction of
electric repulsion between the particles, pore water flow due to variation in thermal
gradient and due to the reduction in moisture content because of increasing evaporation
rate. Therefore, it is found that it is technically feasible to stabilize fine-grained soils by
heating.

APPLICATION:
 Used for landslide stabilization
 Helpful in improving soil collapsing
 Used for forming vitrified piles in place
 Used for reducing lateral stresses acting on retaining walls

Ground freezing
It is a ground improvement technique in which a soil mass of certain geometry is frozen
using a refrigeration process involving a coolant, either chilled brine or liquid nitrogen,
which is circulated through freeze pipes embedded in the ground. It is a process of making
water-bearing strata temporarily impermeable and to increase their compressive and
shear strength by transforming joint water into ice.
Freezing is normally provided for structural underpinning; temporary support for an
excavation or to prevent ground water flow into an excavated area. It can be used for any
size, shape or depth of excavation and the can be reused for other jobs.

Principles of freezing: The effectiveness of freezing depends on the presence of water to

create ice, cementing the particles and increasing the strength of the ground to the
equivalent of soft or medium rock.
 If the ground is saturated it will be rendered impermeable.
 If the moisture does not fill the pores, it may be necessary to add water.
 The strength achieved depends on freeze temperature, moisture content and the
nature of the soil.
 On freezing, water expands in volume by about 9% which does not itself impose any
serious stresses and strains on the soil unless the water is confined within a
restricted volume.
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Cooling causes a small loss of strength of clayey soils because of increasing interparticle
repulsion. However, if the temperature is reduced to the freezing point, the pure water
freezes and the soil is stabilized. Ice formed here, acts as a cementing agent. The strength
of the soil increases as more and more water freezes. This method of stabilization is very
costly.
Freezing may be
 Direct, by injection of a coolant into the ground such as liquid nitrogen.
 indirect by circulation of a secondary coolant through tubes driven into the ground
 Direct, by circulation of the primary refrigerant fluid

Application:
 Temporary underpinning of adjacent structure and support during permanent
underpinning.
 Tunneling through mixed ground.
 Shaft construction totally within non-cohesive saturated ground.
 Shaft sinking through water–bearing ground.

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