Modern Wireless Communications Modern Wireless Communications

Modern Wireless
Chapter 6
Communication
Diversity, Capacity and Space-
Simon Haykin, Michael Moher
Division Multiple Access

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Contents Content (Cont.)

• 6.1 Introduction – 6.4.3 Outage Capacity
• 6.2 “Space Diversity on Receive” Techniques
– 6.4.4 Channel Known at the Transmitter
– 6.2.1 Selection Combining
• 6.5 Singular-Value Decomposition of the Channel Matrix
– 6.2.2 Maximal-Ratio Combining
– 6.5.1 Eigendecomposition of the Log-det Capacity Formula
– 6.2.3 Equal-Gain Combining
• 6.6 Space-Time Codes for MIMO Wireless Communications
– 6.2.4 Square-Law Combining
– 6.6.1 Preliminaries
• 6.3 Multiple-Input, Multiple-Output Antenna Systems
– 6.6.2 Alamouti Code
– 6.3.1 Coantenna Interference
– 6.3.2 Basic Baseband Channel Mode – 6.6.3 Performance Comparison of Diversity-on-Receive and Diversity-on-
Transmit Schemes
• 6.4 MIMO Capacity for Channel Known at the Receiver
– 6.6.4 Generalized Complex Orthogonal Space-Time Block Codes
– 6.4.1 Ergodic Capacity
– 6.6.5 Performance Comparisons of Different Space-Time Block Codes Using a Single
– 6.4.2 Two other special case of log-det formula: Capacities of Receiver and Receiver
Transmit Diversity Links

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Content (Cont.)
• 6.7 Differential Space-Time Block Codes
– 6.7.1 Differential Space-Time Block Coding
– 6.7.2 Transmitter and Receiver Structures
– 6.7.3 Noise Performance 6.1 Introduction
• 6.8 Space-Division Multiple Access and Smart Antennas
– 6.8.1 Antenna Arrays
– 6.8.2 Multipath with Direction Antennas

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• Diversity
– Frequency diversity
– Time (signal-repetition) diversity 6.2 “Space Diversity on Receive”
– Space diversity Techniques
• Receive diversity
• Transmit diversity
• Diversity on both transmit and receive
• Multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO)
– User terminal of limited battery power
– Channel of limited RF bandwidth

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6.2 “Space Diversity on Receive”

Techniques
6.2.1 Selection Combining

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• Given Nr receiver outputs produced by common • Complex envelope of received signal of kth diversity branch is
transmitted signal, logic circuit selects particular receiver ~
xk (t ) = α k e jθ k ~ ~ (t ) 0 ≤ t ≤ T and k = 1,2,K , N
s (t ) + w (6.1)
k r
output with largest signal-to-noise ratio as received
signal. • With fading assumed to be slowly varying relative to symbol
duration T, we simply the above Eq. to
• Assumption ~
x (t ) ≈ α ~ ~ (t ) 0 ≤ t ≤ T and k = 1,2,K , N
s (t ) + w (6.2)
k k k r
– Frequency-flat: all frequency components constituting the
• The average signal-to-noise ratio at kth receiver output
transmitted signal are characterized by same random
attenuation and phase shift.
(SNR )k = 
[
 E αk ~ ]
s (t )  E ~s (t )
2

=
2

[ ]
E α k2 k = 1,2,K , N r
– Slow-fading: fading remains unchanged during [ ] 
 E wk (t )  E wk (t )
2 ~ 2 (6.3)

transmission
• As mean-square value of w~k (t ) is the same for all k , we have
– Fading phenomenon is described by Rayleigh distribution.
N0
[ ]
(SNR )k = E E α k2 k = 1,2,K , N r (6.4)

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• Probability that all the diversity branches have a signal-to-noise ratio

less than threshold γis r N
prob(γ k < γ for k = 1,2,K , N r ) = ∏ prob(γ k < γ )
• Instantaneous signal-to-noise ratio k =1

E 2 Nr
  γ 
γk = αk k = 1,2,K , N r (6.5) = ∏ 1 − exp − 
N0 k =1   γ av  (6.8)
• Assume average signal-to-noise ratio over short-term fading is same,   γ 
Nr

= 1 − exp −  γ ≥0
the probability density functions of random variables Γ k pertaining to   γ av 
individual branches as • Cumulative distribution function of random variable ΓSC

1  γ 
f Γk (γ k ) =
γ av
exp − k 
 γ av 
γ k≥ 0 k = 1,2,K , N r (6.6)
γ sc = max{γ 1 , γ 1 ,K, γ 1 } (6.9)

• For some signal-to-noise ratio, the associated cumulative • Cumulative distribution function of selection combiner
distributions of individual branches are
γ
f Γ f (γ k )dγ k
Nr
prob (γ k ≤ γ ) = ∫   γ 
−∞
(6.7) FΓ (γ sc ) = 1 − exp − sc  γ sc ≥ 0 (6.10)
 γ    γ av 
= 1 − exp −  γ ≥0
 γ av 

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• Probability density function of f Γ (γ sc )

d
f Γ (γ sc ) = FΓ (γ sc )
dγ sc
N r −1 (6.11)
Nr  γ   γ 
= exp − sc  1 − exp − sc   γ sc ≥ 0
γ av  γ av    γ av  
• For convenience of graphical presentation, we use the scaled
probability density function
f X ( x ) = γ av f Γsc (γ sc ) where the normalized variable x is x = γ sc γ av

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• From figure 6.2

– As the number of branches increase, probability density function
of normalized random variable moves progressively to right.
– Probability density function becomes more symmetrical and
6.2 “Space Diversity on Receive”
Gaussian as Nr increase. Techniques
• Procedures of scanning version of selection-combining:
– Selecting receiver with strongest output signal.
6.2.2 Maximal-Ratio Combining
– Maintain the procedure by using the output of this particular
receiver as combiner’s output.
– When the instantaneous signal-to-noise ratio of combiner falls
below the threshold, select a new receiver with strongest output
signal.

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• Limitation of selection combiner can be mitigated by maximal-ratio

combiner
• Complex envelope of linear combiner output
Nr
~y (t ) = a ~
∑ k xk (t )
k =1

[ ]
Nr
= ∑ ak α k e jθ k ~s (t ) + w
~ (t )
k
(6.12)
k =1
Nr Nr
= ~s (t )∑ ak α k e jθ k + ∑ ak w
~ (t )
k
k =1 k =1

• From Eq. (6.12), we notices that Nr

– Complex envelope of output signal equals s (t )∑ akα k e

~ jθ k

k =1
Nr
– Complex envelope of output noise equals
∑ a w~ (t )
k =1
k k

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~ (t )are mutually independent for k = 1,2,K , N , the output signal - to - noise ratio of linear combiner is
Assuming wk r

 Nr 2
 • Let γ c denote the instantaneous output signal-to-noise ratio of
E  ~s (t )∑ akα k e jθ k 

 k =1  linear combiner, then using
(SNR )c =
 rN 2
 2
E ∑ ak w ~ (t )  Nr Nr

∑a α e θ ∑a
k j 2
 k =1  and
k
k k k
 Nr 2
k =1 k =1
E  ∑ a k α k e jθ k 
=
[
s (t )
E~
2

⋅
]  k =1  as the instantaneous values of expectations in numerator and
Ew[
~ (t ) 2
k ]  Nr
E ∑α k 
2
 (6.13) denominator of eq.(6.13), we can write
 k =1  Nr 2
 Nr

 E   k =1
2

E  ∑ a k α k e jθ k 

 E 
∑ a k α k e jθ k
 k =1
= 
N
 0
  Nr 2
 γ c =   Nr (6.14)
E ∑α k 
 N0 
∑a
2
 k =1  k
where E/N 0 is the symbol energy - to - noise spectral density ratio k =1

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• According to Cauchy-Schwarz inequality for complex number, we • Therefore, the equality in Eq.(6.17) holds for
have Nr 2 Nr Nr

∑ ak bk ≤ ∑ ak ∑ bk
2 2
(6.15) (
ak = c α k e j θ k ) ∗

− jθ k (6.18)
k =1 k =1 k =1 = cα k e k = 1,2,K , N r
• Applying Cauchy-Schwarz inequality to instantaneous output signal-
• Instantaneous output signal-to-noise ratio of maximal-ratio combiner
to-noise ratio Nr Nr
 E  Nr
γ mrc =  ∑ α k2
E ∑
a ∑α e θ
2 2 j k
(6.19)
 k k N   k =1
γ c ≤   k =1
0
k =1 (6.16) • According to Eq.(6.5), the maximal-ratio combiner produces an γmrc
Nr
N
 
∑a that is the sum of instantaneous signal-to-noise ratios of individual
0 2
k
branches Nr

∑
k =1
• Canceling common terms in Eq.(6.16)
γ mrc = γ k (6.20)
k =1
 E  Nr • The term “maximal-ratio combiner” has been coined to describe the
γ c ≤  ∑ α k2 (6.17) combiner of Fig. 6.4 that produces the produces optimum result.
 N 0  k =1
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• Chi-Square with 2Nr degrees of freedom

1 N r −1
γ mrc  γ 
f Γmrc (γ mrc ) = exp − mrc  (6.1)
(N r − r )! γ avN r  γ av  6.2 “Space Diversity on Receive”
Techniques
6.2.3 Equal-Gain Combining

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• Three issues for maximal-ratio combiner

1. Significant instrumentation is needed to adjust the complex
weighting parameters of maximal-ratio combiner to their exact
values.
2. Additional improvement in :
6.2 “Space Diversity on Receive”
1. output signal-to-noise ration gained by mrc over sc is not Techniques
large
2. Receiver performance is lost in inability to achieve the exact
setting of mrc 6.2.4 Square-Law Combining
3. other details of the combiner may result in a minor improvement
in overall receiver performance.
• Equal-gain combiner: all the complex weighting parameters have
their phase angles set opposite to those of their respective multipath
branches.

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• No need phase estimation.

• Applicable to orthogonal modulation.
• With binary orthogonal signaling, receiver generates
1 T ~ ~∗ 1 T ~ ~∗
Q0 k = ∫0 xk (t )s0 (t )dt and Q1k =
N0 ∫0 xk (t )s1 (t )dt
N0
(6.27,28)

• In orthogonal modulation, two signaling waveforms approximately

satisfy the condition
E i= j
s (t )~
T
~
∫s ∗ (t )dt = b
0
i j 
0
(6.29)
i≠ j

• If binary symbol 0 is transmitted, the two decision variables are

Eb α k e jθ w k
w
Q0 k = + 0k and Q1k = 1k (6.30,31)
N0 N0 N0

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• Square-law receiver makes a decision between symbols 0 and 1 as • Probability density function for correct symbol is
1 q N r −1  q 
if
2
Q0 k > Q1k
2
say 0 otherwise say 1 f Q0 (q ) = exp −  (6.37)
(6.32)
(N r − 1)! (γ av + 1)  γ av + 1 
• With square-lave combining, we form the decision variable • For incorrect symbol, it is
Nr Nr
1
Q0 = ∑ Q0 k and Q1 = ∑ Q1k
q N r −1 exp(− q )
2 2
(6.33,34)
f Q1 ( q) = (6.38)
•
k =1
If s0(t) was transmitted, the variances are given by
k =1
(N r − 1)!
Var (w0 k )
Var (Q0 k ) =
Eb
N0
( )
Var α k e jθ k +
N0
and Var(Q1k ) =
1
N0
Var (w1k ) • As Q1 and Q0 are independent random variables, the probability of
error is
Var [w0 k ]
=
Eb
( [ ])
E α k2 + =1 prob(Q0 < Q1 ) = ∫ f Q0 (q0 ) ∫ f Q1 (q1 )dq1 dq0
∞ ∞
(6.39)
N0 N0
(6.35,36)
0  q0 
= γ av + 1
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• MIMO wireless communications include space diversity

• Three important points:
6.3 Multiple-Input, Multiple- – Fading phenomenon is an environmental source of
Output Antenna Systems possible enrichment.
– Space diversity provides the basis for a significant
increase in channel capacity or spectral efficiency.
– Increasing channel capacity with MIMO is achieved by
increasing computational complexity with maintaining
primary communication resources fixed.

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6.3 Multiple-Input, Multiple-

Output Antenna Systems
6.3.1 Co-antenna Interference

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• Spatial parameter, defines as a new degree of freedom.

6.3 Multiple-Input, Multiple- n = min{N t , N r } (6.40)

Output Antenna Systems • Nt-by-1 vector, denotes the complex signal vector transmitted by the Nt
antennas at discrete time n.

s(n) = [~
s1 (n), ~ st (n)]
s2 (n),K, ~
T
(6.41)
6.3.2 Basic Baseband Channel Model
• Total transmit power is fixed at the value
P = N tσ s2 (6.42)

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~ • The system of equations, defines the complex signal received at ith

• For flat-fading, we can use hik (n) denote sampled complex gain of antenna due to transmitted symbol ~sk (n )radiated by kth antenna
channel, thus express the Nr-by-Nt complex channel matrix as Nt
~ i = 1,2,K, N r
xi (n ) = ∑ hik (n )~
~ ~ (n )
sk ( n) + wi
(6.44)
~ ~ ~ k = 1,2,K, N t
 h11 (n ) h21 (n ) L hN 1 (n )  
k =1
• Complex received signal vector
~ ~ ~t  Nr x(n ) = [~
x1 (n), ~ x1 (n)]
x1 (n),K, ~
h (n ) h22 (n ) L hN t 2 (n )   (6.45)
H (n) =  21  receive (6.43)
 M M M  • Complex channel noise vector
~ ~ ~  antennas w (n ) = w
~ (n), w[
~ (n),K, w
~ ( n) T ] (6.46)
hN r 1 (n ) hN r 2 (n ) L hN r N t (n ) 
1 2 Nr

14444442444444 3 • Therefore, the compact matrix form of the system equation which is
N t transmit antennas
the basic complex channel model for MIMO wireless communications
x(n) = H (n)s(n) + w(n) (6.47)
• To simply the exposition, we get x = Hs + w (6.48)

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• For mathematical tractability, we assume Gaussian model made up

of three elements
1. Transmitter
2. Channel
3. Receiver
– 1. Correlation matrix of transmitted signal vector s is
Rs = E[ss†]
=σ2sINt
where I N t is the Nt-by-Nt identity matrix

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• 2. The Nt x Nt elements of channel matrix H is • 3. Correlation matrix of noise vector w is

i = 1,2,K , N r
(
hik : N 0,1 ) (
2 + jN 0,1 2 ) k = 1,2,K , N r
(6.50)
Rw = E[ww†]
=σ2wINr
• On this basis, the amplitude component hik is rayleigh distributes, where I Nt is the Nr-by-Nr identity matrix
this is the reason why MIMO channel is a rich Rayleigh scattering
• The average signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) at each receiver is
environment.
P
• Mean of squared amplitude component is a chi-square random ρ=
variable σ w2
[ ]= 1
E hik
2
for all i and k (6.51)
=
N tσ s2
(6.53)

σ 2
w

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6.4 MIMO Capacity for Channel 6.4 MIMO Capacity for Channel
Known at the Receiver Known at the Receiver
6.4.1 Ergodic Capacity

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• Information capacity of AWGN channel with fixed transmit power is • Ergodic capacity of MIMO channel
defined as  P 
C = B log 2 1 + 2 bit / s (6.54)  ( )
 det R W + HR S H + 
 σw  C = Elog 2 
det(R W )
bit / s / Hz which is subject to constraint max tr ( R S ) ≤ P
   Rs

• With the sampling theorem, we can rewrite to (6.57)

 • Substituting Eqs. (6.49) and (6.52) into Eq.(6.57)
1 P 
C = log 2 1 + 2 bit / s / Hz (6.55)
   
2  σw  σ 2
C = Elog 2 det  I N r + HH + bit / s / Hz
s
(6.58)
   σ 2
w 
• Capacity of complex, flat-fading channel is
  h P 
2 • Invoking definition of average signal-to-noise ratio, we get
C = E log 2 1 + 2 bits / s / Hz (6.56)
  σ 
w     ρ  
  C = E log 2 det  I N r + HH + bit / s / Hz (6.59)
• Assume the channel is stationary and ergodic, C is commonly referred    N t 
to ergodic capacity of single-input, single-output (SISO) flat fading
channel. • This is the log-det capacity formula for a Gaussian MIMO channel.

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• Asymptotic formula
C
lim ≥ constant (6.61)
6.4 MIMO Capacity for Channel
N →∞ N
• The ergodic capacity of a MIMO flat-fading wireless link with an
equal number N of transmit and receive antennas grows roughly
Known at the Receiver
proportionately with N
6.4.2 Two other special case of log-det
formula: Capacities of Receiver and
Transmit Diversity Links

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• 1. Diversity-on-receive channel • 2. Diversity-on-transmit channel

– Applying log-det capacity formula to this case, Eq. (6.60) reduces – The log-det capacity formula reduced to
to

  ρ Nt

  Nr
 C = Elog 2 1 + ∑h
2
bits / s / Hz
C = E log 2 1 + ρ ∑ hi
2 (6.63)
bit / s / Hz (6.62)
  N t k =1
k

  i =1 

– Eq. (6.62) expresses the ergodic capacity due to linear

combination of receive-antenna outputs.
– It designed to maximize the information contained in Nr received
signals about the transmitted signal.

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• Outage probability of MIMO link is defined as the probability for

which the link is in a state of outage for data transmitted across the
link at a certain rate, R.
6.4 MIMO Capacity for Channel • To proceed on this probabilistic basis, we invoke a quasi-static
Known at the Receiver model:
– The burst is long enough to accommodate the transmission of
large number of symbols.
6.4.3 Outage Capacity
– Yet the burst is short enough that can be treated as quasi static.
– Channel matrix is permitted to change.
– The different realizations of transmitted signal vector are drawn
from a white gaussian codebook.

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• In light of the log-det capacity formula, we may view the random

variable    
ρ + 
Ck = E log 2 det I N r + H k H k  bit / s / Hz
   Nt 
(6.64)
6.4 MIMO Capacity for Channel
as the expression for a sample of the wireless link.
• Outage probability at rate R is
Known at the Receiver
Poutage ( R ) = prob{Ck < R for some burst k }
or equivalently, 6.4.4 Channel Known at the
   ρ + 
 Transmitter
Poutage ( R ) = problog 2 det  I N r + H k H k  < R for some burst k  (6.65)
   Nt  
• Outage capacity of the MIMO link is the maximum bit rate that can be
maintained across the link for all bursts of data transmissions for a
prescribed outage probability.

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• Log-det capacity formula is based on the premise that

the transmitter has no knowledge of channel state.
• Knowledge of channel state can be gathered by 6.5 Singular-Value Decompostion
– first estimating the channel matrix at receiver of the Channel Matrix
– then sending to the transmitter via feedback channel.
– Capacity is optimized.

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• Diagonalize HH+ by invoking eigendecomposition of Hermitian Matrix • Let Nt-by-Nt matrix V be another unitary matrix, that is

U + HH + U = A (6.67) VV + = V + V = I N r (6.70)
• The matrixΛis a diagonal matrix whose Nr elements are eigenvalues • Inject the matrix product VV+ into the center of left-hand side of Eq.
of matrix product HH+ (6.67)
• The matrix U is a unitary matrix whose Nr columns are the U + H(VV + )H + U = Α (6.71)
eigenvectors associated with eigenvalues of HH+.
• Let the Nt-by-Nt matrix D denate a new diagonal matrix related to Nr-
• Inverse of unitary matrix is equal to Hermitian transpose of matrix, as by-Nr diagonal matrixΛwith Nr ≤ Nt by
Α = [D 0][D 0]
shown by +
(6.72)
U −1 = U + or, equivalent ly, UU + = U + U = I N r (6.68,69)
• Examining Eqs.(6.71) and (6.72) and comparing terms, we deduce
the new decomposition, which is singular-value decomposition (SDV)
U + HV = [D 0] (6.73)

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• According to SVD theorem, we have • Using the definitions of Eqs.

(6.74) through (6.76), the
– Elements of diagonal matrix
decomposed channel model
(
D = diag d1 , d 2 , K , d Nt ) (6.74) can changed to scalar form
are the singular values of channel matrix H. ~
xi = d i ~ ~
si + w i = 1,2,K , N r
i
– Columns of unitary matrix
[
U = u , u ,K , u N r
1 1 ] (6.75)

are the left singular vectors of matrix H

– Columns of second unitary matrix
[
V = v , v ,K, v
1 2 Nt ] (6.76)
are the right singular vectors of matrix H

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• Substituting Eq. (6.59)into Eq. (6.67) leads to spectral

decomposition of HH+ in terms of Nr eigenmodes, we may write
HH + = UΑU +
6.5 Singular-Value Decompostion Nr (6.82)
= ∑ λi u iu i+
of the Channel Matrix •
i =1

Substituting the first line of this decomposition into determinant part

of Eq. (6.59) yields
6.5.1 Eigendecomposition of the Log-  ρ   ρ 
det I N r + HH +  = det I N r + UΛU +  (6.83)
det Capacity Formula  Nt   Nt 
• Invoking the determinant identity.

det(I + AB ) = det (I + BA ) (6.84)

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• And then using the defining Eq. (6.69), we can rewrite Eq. (6.83) • Finally, subsitute Eq. (6.85) into Eq. (6.59)

 ρ   ρ +   Nr  ρ 
det I N r + HH +  = det I N r + U UΛ  C = E ∑ log 2 1 + λi  bits / s / Hz (6.86)
 Nt   Nt   i =1  N t 
 ρ  • Ergodic capacity of a MIMO wireless communication system is the
= det I N r + Λ (6.85) sum of capacity of Nr virtual single-input, single-output channels
 N t  defined by the spatial eigenmodes of the matrix product HH+.
Nr
 ρ  • Using the log-det capacity formula of Eq.(6.60), for Nt ≤ Nr, we can
= ∏ 1 + λi 
i =1  N t  show that
 Nt  ρ 
C = E ∑ log 2 1 + λi bits / s / Hz (6.87)
 i =1  N r 

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• Space-Time codes
– Joint channel encoding of multiple transmit antennas
6.6 Space-Time Codes for MIMO – Employ redundancy for purpose of providing protection
Wireless Communications against channel fading, noise, interference.
– Maximize outage capacity
– Classified into
• Space-time trellis codes
• Space-time block codes

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• Space-time trellis code • Space-time block code

– Permits serial transmission of symbols. – Transmission of signal takes place in blocks. Code is
defined by transmission matrix with 3 parameters
– Designed for two to four transmit antennas
• Number of transmitted symbols l
– Well for slow-fading environment but not indoor data
transmission. • Number of transmit antennas, Nt, defines the size of
transmission matrix.
– For decoding, multidimensional version of Viterbi algorithm
• Number of time slots in data block m
is required
– Ratio l/m defines of rate of code.
– Decoding complexity of space-time trellis codes increases
exponentially as the function of spectral efficiency. – For efficient transmission, transmitted symbols are
expressed in complex form.

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– Linear processing
• Estimate transmitted symbols at receiver and simplify the
receiver design.
– Different receiver design procedures:
• Complex orthogonal design
• Generalized complex orthogonal design
– Complex orthogonality of transmission matrix in temporal
sense is a sufficient condition for linear processing at
receiver.
– Alamouti code: code with code rate of unity.

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6.6 Space-Time Codes for MIMO

Wireless Communications
6.6.1 Preliminaries

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• Two functional units:

– Mapper
• Take incoming binary data stream and generate a new
6.6 Space-Time Codes for MIMO
sequence of blocks.
Wireless Communications
– Block encoder
• Converts each block of complex symbols produced by 6.6.2 Alamouti Code
mapper into an l-by- Nt transmission matrix S, where l and Nt
are temporal dimension and spatial dimension

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• Two-by-one orthogonal space-time block code. • Multiply code matrix S by its Hermitian transpose, obtaining
~ s* −~s2* 
S =  1~ * ~ s* ~ s *  ~
s* −~ s *
~  → Space (6.88)
SS + =  1~ * ~2*   ~1* ~ *2 
 − s2 s1* 
− s2 s1   s2 s1 
↓
Time  ~ s1
2
+ ~ s1
2
−~
s1 ~
s2 + ~ s1 
s2 ~
=  ~ *~ * ~ *~ * ~ 2  (6.90)
+ ~
2

• Hermitian transpose of S − s2 s1 + s1 s2 s1 s1 

~s*
S + = ~1*
−~s2* 
 → Time (6.89) (
= ~
s1 + ~
2 2 1
s2  )
0

~ 0 1
 s2 s1* 
↓ • This result also holds for alternative matrix product S+S, which is
Space proof of orthogonality in the temporal sense

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• The transmission matrix of Alamouti code satisfies the unique • Four Properties of Alamouti code
condition
• Property 1. Unitarity (Complex Orthogonality)
SS + = S + S = ~
s1 + ~
2 2
s2 I ( ) (6.91)
– Alamouti code is an orthogonal space-time block code
– Product of transmission matrix with its Hermitian transpose
is equal to the two-by-two identity matrix scaled by the
• And Note that
sum of squared amplitudes of transmitted symbols.

1 • Property 2: Full-Rate Complex Code

S −1 = S+ (6.92)
~
s1 + ~
2
s2
2 – Only complex space-time block code with a code rate
unity.

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With s%1 and s% 2 transmitted simultaneously at time t ,

• Property 3. Linearity the complex received signal at time t' > t , is
– Alamouti code is linear in transmitted symbols. x%1 = α1e jθ1 s%1 + α 2e jθ 2 s%2 + w1 (6.95)
• Property 4. Optimality of Capacity The complex signal received at time t' + T is
– For two transmit antennas and a single receive antenna, x%2 = −α1e jθ1 s%2* + α 2e jθ2 s%1* + w2 (6.96)
the Alamouti code is the only optimal space-time block
code that satisfies the log-det capacity formula of Eq. Reformulate the variable x%1 and complex
(6.63). conjugate of the second variable x%2 in matrix form
 x%1   α1e jθ1 α1e jθ 2   s%1   w%1 
 ∗ =  − jθ
   +  * (6.97)
 x%2  α 2e 2 −α1e− jθ1   s%2   w% 2 

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• Multiply Eq.(6.97) by hermitian transpose of two-by-two channel • Recast Eq.(6.98) in matrix form of input-output relations describing
matrix− jθ the overall behavior of Alamouti code
α1e 1 α 2e − jθ2   ~ x1  2 
1 0  ~ s1  α1e − jθ1 α 2e − jθ2   w ~
  *  = (α1 + α 2 )  ~  +  − jθ
2 1
 − jθ 2 − jθ   ~ 
α 2 e − α1e − jθ1   ~
x2  0 1  s2  α 2 e 2 − α1e 1   w2  ~y1  ~  v~1 
2 s 1

~ ~
s  α e − jθ1 w ~∗ 
α 2 e − jθ 2 w ~ ( 2
)
 = α1 + α 2  ~
~ ( )
2 ~ ~
 + ~  in expanded form, yk = α1 + α 2 sk + vk k = 1,2
2

= (α12 + α 22 )~1  +  1 − jθ ~1 2
− jθ ~ ∗ 
 y2   s2  v2 
 s2  α 2e 2 w1 − α1e 1 w2  (6.98) (6.102)
• And let
• Due to complex orthogonality of Alamouti code, the unwanted
 ~y1   α1e − jθ1 α 2e − jθ 2   ~ x1   v~1  α1e − jθ1 w
~ ~∗ 
+ α 2 e − jθ 2 w symbols are cancelled out in the equations. This cancellations are
 =  − jθ 2 v~  =  − jθ 2 ~
1 2
~  *  and − jθ1 ~ ∗  responsible for the simplification of receiver.
 y2  α 2 e − α1e − jθ1   ~
x2   2  α 2 e w1 − α1e w2 
• The detrimental effect of fading arises when diversity paths suffer
 α e − jθ1 ~
x + α 2 e − jθ 2 ~ x2∗  from it. This means a wireless communication system based on the
=  1 − jθ ~1 − jθ1 ~ ∗  Alamouti code enjoys a two-level diversirty gain.
α
 2 e 2
x1 − α 1 e x 2 
(6.99)

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• Maximum-likelihood decoding rule:
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Wireless Communications
6.6.3 Performance Comparison of
Diversity-on-Receive and Diversity-on-
Transmit Schemes
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• Generalized complex orthogonal designs of space–time
6.6 Space-Time Codes for MIMO
Wireless Communications
6.6.4 Generalized Complex Orthogonal
Space-Time Block Codes
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– Given that receiver has knowledge of
• Channel fading coefficients α1andα2.
• Set of all possible transmitted symbols in the mapper’s
constellation denoted by S, the maximum-likelihood estimates
of transmitted symbols defined by
sˆ = arg min {d 2 (~
1 y , (α 2 + α 2 )ϕ )} and sˆ = arg min {d 2 (~
1 1 2 2 y , (α 2 + α 2 )ϕ )} (6.1)
2 1 2
ϕ∈S ϕ∈S
where the φ denote the different hypotheses for the linear
combiner output.
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block codes distinguish themselves from the Alamouti
code in three respects:
– Nonsquare transmission matrix
– Fractional code rate
– Orthogonality of transmission matrix only in temporal
sense.
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• Let G be a an m-by- Nt matrix, Nt is the number of transmit • Construction of space-time block codes using generalized complex
antennas and m is the number of time slots, the entries of the orthogonal design is exemplified by rate-1/2 codes.
matrix
• Case 1: For three transmit antennas (l=4, m=8)
0,± s1 ,± s1* ,± s2 ,± s2* , K ,± sl ,± sl*  ~s1 ~s2 ~
s3 
− ~s ~
s − s4 
~
 2 1

− ~s3 ~s4 ~
s1 
 ~ 
−s −~s ~
s
• G is said to be generalized complex orthogonalized design of size G 3 =  ~ *4 ~ *3 ~2*  → Space (6.107)
Nt and code rate is l/m if  s1 s2 s3 
 ~* ~* 
− s2 s1 −~s4* 
 l
− ~s3* ~s4* s1* 
~
2 
G + G =  ∑ s j  I (6.106)  ~* ~* ~ 
 j =1  − s4 − s3 s2* 
↓
Time
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• Case 2: For four transmit antennas (l=4,m=8) • Compare with Alamouti code, space-time codes G3 and
 ~s1 ~
s2 ~
s3 ~
s4  G4 are at a disadvantage in two respects:
− ~ ~ −~ ~  1. The bandwidth efficiency is reduced by a factor of two.
 s2 s1 s4 s3 
− ~s3 ~
s4
~
s1 −~s 2
 2. The number of time slots across which channel is
 ~ 
− s −~
s3 ~
s2 ~
s1  required to have a constant fading envelope is increased
G 4 =  ~*4 → Space (6.108) by a factor of four.
 s1 ~
s2* ~
s3* ~s4* 

 ~* ~ 
 − s2 s*
1 −~s* 4
~ *
s3 
− ~s* ~s4* ~
s1* −~s2* 
 ~3* 
−
 s4 −~s* 3
~
s*
2
~s1* 
↓
Time

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• To improve the bandwidth efficiency, we may use rate-3/4 • Case 2: For four transmit antennas (l=3,m=4)
generalized complex linear processing orthogonal designs referred
to as sporadic codes:
 ~ s1 ~
s2 ~s3 2 ~
s3 2 
• Case 1: For three transmit antennas (l=3, m=4)  ~* ~ ~ 
 − s2 s1* s3 2 −~s3 2  → Space
H 3 = ~*
 ~ s1 ~
s2 ~
s3 2 
s
 ~3*
2 ~s3* 2 (
−~s1 − ~
s1* + ~
s2 − ~
s2* ) 2 (
−~s2 − ~
s2* + ~
s1 − ~
s1* ) 2

 ~* ~ ~   s3 2 −~s3* 2 ~ (
s2 + ~
s2* + ~
s1 − ~
s1*) 2 − ~ (
s +~ s* +~
2 2s −~
1 s*1 ) 2 
 − s2 s1* s3 2  → Space ↓
H 3 = ~*
s
~3*
2 ~s3* 2 (− ~s − ~s + ~s − ~s )
1 1
*
2 2
*
2

Time (6.110)

 s3 2 −~s3* 2 (~s + ~s + ~s − ~s )
2 2
*
1 1
*
2 
↓ (6.109)
Time

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6.6 Space-Time Codes for MIMO

Wireless Communications
6.6.5 Performance Comparisons of
Different Space-Time Block Codes
Using a Single Receiver

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6.7 Differential Space-Time Block 6.7 Differential Space-Time Block

Codes Codes
6.7.1 Differential Space-Time Block
Coding

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• Given the new pair of complex signals to be transmitted at time t+2, • Similarly, we can write
the row vector can be expressed as [− a *
2 ,t + 3 ] [
, a1*,t +3 = − ~
s4*.t +3 , ~ ]
s3*,t +3 S t+,t +1 (6.113)
[~s3, t + 2 s4 ,t + 2 ] = a1,t + 2 [~
,~ s2 , t ] + a 2 , t + 2 − ~
s1,t , ~ [
s2* , ~
s1*,t ] (6.111)
• Coefficients matrix is a product of two orthogonal Alamouti
• a1,t+2 and a2,t+2 are coefficients of linear combination and defined as (quaternionic) matrices.
inner products of the row vector, therefore

[a 1,t + 2 , a2,t + 2 ] = [~ s4,t + 2 ][~

s3,t + 2 , ~ s1,t , ~ [
s2,t ] , − ~
+
s2*,t +1 , ~
s1*,t +1 [ ]] +  a1,t + 2
At + 2,t + 3 =  *
a2 ,t + 2 
a1*,t + 3 
(6.114)

~
 − a2 ,t + 3
s* −~ s2,t +1 
= [~ s4,t + 2 ]~1*,t
s3,t + 2 , ~ ~  = S t + 2,t +3S t+,t +1
s
 2 ,t s 1,t +1 
= [~
s ,~ s ]S +
3,t + 2 4 ,t + 2 t ,t +1
(6.112)

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• Since St,t+1 is a unitary matrix by virtue of orthonormality of its tow • Similarly, the received signal matrix in response to the next
constituent row vectors, it follow that transmitted signal matrix St+2,t+3 is
S t−,+t +1 = S t ,t +1 X t + 2,t +3 = S t ,t +1H (6.117)
• Basis for differential space-time block encoding at the transmitter • New two-by-two matrix

S t + 2,t +3 = A t + 2,t +3S t−,+t +1

(6.115)
Yt + 2,t +3 = X t + 2,t +3 X t+,t +1
= A t + 2,t +3S t ,t +1
= S t + 2,t + 3 H (S t ,t +1H )
+
(6.118)
• In the absence of channel noise, the received signal matrix in
+ +
response to transmitted signal matrix St,t+1 is given by = S t + 2,t + 3 HH S t ,t +1
X t ,t +1 = S t ,t +1H (6.116)

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• From the solution to problem6.12, we note that • With two sets of signal points involved in formulation of Eqs (6.115)
and (6.121), we identify two signal spaces
 α e − jθ 1 α 2 e − jθ 
( )I
2
+ +
H =  1 − jθ  and H H = HH = α 2
+α 2
(6.119, – A, is spanned by pair of complex coefficients (a1,a2) constituting
− α 1 e − jθ 
1 2
α 2 e
2 1
matrix A
6.120) ~ ~
• Accordingly. Eq.(6.118) reduces to – S, is spanned by the complex signals s1 , s2 constituting matrix S
• Properties of these signals:
( )
Yt + 2 ,t +3 = α12 + α 22 S t + 2 ,t +3S t+,t +1
• 1. With M-ary PSK as the method of modulation transmitting
= (α )A (6.121)
2
1 + α 22 t + 2,t + 3
Alamouticode,
– points representing signal space S are uniformly distributed on
circle of unit radius
• This is the basis for differential space-time block decoding at the – Points representing signal space A constitute a quadrature
receiver. amplitude modulation (QAM) constellation

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• 2. Minimum distance between the points in signal space

S is equal to the minimum distance between the points in
signal space A. 6.7 Differential Space-Time Block
• 3. To construct matrix A Codes
– Bijective mapping of 2b bits onto the signal space A.
– The mapping bijective in the sense that it is one-to-one 6.7.2 Transmitter and Receiver
and onto.
Structures

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Differential space-time block encoder Differential space-time block decoder

1. Differential decoder
1. Mapper
• Delay unit feeds forward the matrix Xt,t+1
• Generate the entries that make up matrix At+2,t+3
• Multiplier multiplies the matrices Xt+2,t+3 and Xt,t+1 to produce new
2. Differential encoder matrix Yt+2,t+3
• Transforms the matric At+2,t+3 into matrix St+2,t+3 2. Signal estimator
• Delay unit feeds back the matrix St,t+1 to input of differential • Computes the matrix that Ât + 2,t + 3 is closest to Yt + 2,t +3
encoder 3. Inverse mapper
• Multiplier multiplies matrix inputs At+2,t+3 and St,t+1 to provide • Operates on estimate Ât + 2,t + 3 to produce corresponding
the transmitted signal matrix St,t+3 in accordance with estimates of original pair of data bits transmitted at time t+2 and
Eq.(6.115) t+3.

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6.7 Differential Space-Time Block

Codes
6.7.3 Noise Performance

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6.8 Space-Division Multiple

Access and Smart Antennas

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• Advantages of 120o sector antennas at base station

– Can be applied with FDMA, TDMA or CDMA
– Allows multiple users to operate on same frequency and/or
time slot in same cell
– More users in same spectrum and improved capacity
– Can be applied at base station without affecting mobile
terminals

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• SDMA • Advantages of smart antenna

– user terminals can spatially separated by virtue of their – Greater range
angular directions. – Fewer base stations
• SDMA relies on smart antennas – Better building penetration
• Examples of smart antennas – Less sensitivity to power control errors

– Sector antenna – More responsive to traffic hot spots

– Switched-beam antennas • SDMA improves system capacity by

– Minimization of effects of interference.
– Adaptive antenna
– Increasing signal strength

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6.8 Space-Division Multiple

Access and Smart Antennas
6.8.1 Antenna Arrays

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• Complex envelope of transmitted signal • Under the above assumptions, analysis depends solely on phase
relationship of different elements.
s (t ) = m(t )e j 2πft
~ (6.122)
• If antenna element k is at distance lk from the transmitting antenna,
• Received symbols
(6.123) then the carrier phase is
r (t , l ) = A(l )m(t − l c )e j 2πf (l c )
~ φ (t ) = 2πf (t − lk c )
• Key assumptions = 2πf (t − l0 c ) − 2πf (lk − l0 c )
(6.124)
≡ φ0 (t ) − 2πf∆lk / c
1. Incident field is a plane wave
≡ φ0 (t ) − ∆φk
2. The attenuation A(l ) ≈ A(l0 ) ≡ A0
• The phase offset is
3. . m(t − l c ) ≈ (t − l0 c ) ≡ m0 (t ) ∆φk = (2πf c )(kd sin θ )
4. There is no mutual coupling between the antenna elements. (6.125)
 kd 
= 2π   sin θ
 λ 
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• The received signal at element k is

kd  
j 2π   sin θ
sk (t ) = s0 (t )e  λ 

 kd 
= 2π   sin θ where s0 (t ) = A0 m0 (t )e jφ0 (t ) (6.126,127)
 λ 
• Complex rotation
 kd 
j 2π   sinθ
ak (θ ) = e  λ  (6.128)
• A phased array computes a linear sum of the signals received at
each element in Fig 6.29, yielding the received signal
N 2
r (t ) = ∑ w s (t )*
k k (6.129)
k =− N 2

( +
)
= w a s0 (t ) where w = w− N 2 ,K , wN 2 [ ]T
[
and a (θ ) = a− N 2 (θ ), K, a N 2 (θ ) ] T

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6.8 Space-Division Multiple

Access and Smart Antennas
6.8.2 Multipath with Direction Antennas

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