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Grammar of The Film Language PDF
Grammar of The Film Language PDF
o f th e
F ilm
La n g u a g e
Daniel Arijon
Silman-James Press
Los Angeles
C opyright © 1976 by Daniel Arijon
Ariion, Daniel
G ram m ar of the film language / by D aniel Arijon
p. cm.
Includes index
1. C inem atography.
2. M otion pictures— Production and direction.
I. Title
TR850.A8 1991 778.5'3— dc20 91-28390
ISBN: 1-879505-07-X
Silman-James Press
1181 A ngelo Drive
Beverly Hills, CA 90210
CONTENTS
1 F IL M L A N G U A G E AS A SY STEM O F V ISU A L
C O M M U N IC A T IO N 1
Beginnings o f film language 2
Types o f film m aker 3
F orm s o f film expression 3
Defining out aims 4
2 T H E IM P O R T A N C E O F P A R A L L E L F IL M
E D IT IN G 6
Two basic types 6
A ction and reaction 8
Peak m om ents and the understanding 9
How parallel editing is obtained 10
A wider perspective 11
3 D E F IN IN G T H E BASIC TO O LS 12
Newsreel 12
D ocum entary 13
F iction film 14
T hree types o f scene 14
Elem ents o f film gram m ar 15
The shot 15
M ovem ent 15
Distances 16
Types o f editing 17
Visual p u n ctuation 18
Scene m atching 19
O pposed glances 21
C entre o f interest alternates 23
4 THE T R IA N G L E P R IN C IP L E 26
Basic body positions 26
Line of interest 27
Im portance o f the heads 30
Five basic variations o f the triangle principle 32
Em phasis by com position 36
Types o f visual em phasis . 39
Triangle principle: One person 46
6 T H R E E -PL A Y E R D IA L O G U E 75
R egular cases 75
Irregular cases 76
External/interna! reverse cam era positions 80
Internal reverse cam era positions 84
Parallel cam era positions 84
Pivoting p oint 85
Emphasizing the centre o f interest 90
Partial em phasis 91
Total em phasis 93
A ‘north-south’ to ‘east-w est’ change 95
Using only four cam era positions 95
Introducing internal shots 98
Eight cam era sites are em ployed 100
A simple m ethod using three cam era sites 103
Using a pivoting shot 104
Deliberate om ission 105
Summing up 107
7 D IA L O G U E IN V O L V IN G F O U R O R M O R E
PE R SO N S 109
Simple cases 109
1 Using a com m on visual axis 110
2 U sing a right angle cam era site 111
G roups arranged round a table 112
Subdividing the g roup 116
G eom etrical p atterns 118
Several opposed sectors 121
H andling large groups 124
A perform er faces an audience 124
A crosswise change o f the line o f interest 127
C row d with m ain player a t centre 129
A ctors as pivots 130
8 E D IT IN G P A T T E R N S F O R ST A T IC D IA L O G U E
SCEN ES 135
A pproaching and receding patterns 136
How a sequence begins 136
Re-establishing shots 137
Im p o rtan ce o f silent reactions 138
Inserts a n d cut-aw ays 138
N u m b er co n trast 149
Parallel editing o f m aster shots 149
Line o f in terest—changing sides 152
Pause between dialogues 152
T im e com pression 156
Speeding dialogue tem po 159
9 T H E N A T U R E O F S C R E E N M O T IO N 160
M o tio n b ro k en dow n 162
C hanging view with m ovem ent 163
U sing cut-aw ays 164
N eu tral d irection 164
P erform er indicates the change 164
C o n trastin g m otions in the sam e h a lf screen 172
C onditions o f the cut 175
W here to cu t 175
C utting on action 176
10 C U T T IN G A F T E R T H E M O V E M E N T 378
11 M O T IO N IN S ID E T H E S C R E E N 188
T urning 189
U sing a com m on visual axis 213
B rief sum m ary 245
A personal preference 248
12 M O T IO N IN T O A N D O U T O F S H O T 249
M ultiple fragm ents 249
M o tio n in three fragm ents 250
13 P L A Y E R A M O V ES T O W A R D S P L A Y E R B 261
C onverging m o tio n 261
R ight angle cam era sites 262
Reverse cam era angles 266
Parallel cam era sites 268
C om m on visual axis 268
A w alks beyond B 274
14 U S IN G M A S T E R SH O TS T O C O V E R M O T IO N S
ON THE SCREEN 276
15 IR R E G U L A R CASES 289
Visual pause w ith larger groups 290
T h e pause is om itted 293
U sing reverse angles 294
D ivergent m otions 298
C o n stan t screen position for one player 298
Both players m ove 299
16 P L A Y E R A M OVES A W A Y F R O M P L A Y E R B 301
17 P L A Y E R S M O V E T O G E T H E R 322
In term itten t m o tio n 339
18 SO L V IN G D IF F IC U L T E D IT IN G S IT U A T IO N S 340
M ovem ent betw een cam era and static subject 340
M o tio n at the beginning o f the second shot 343
M o tio n beyond the static players 345
Using right angle cam era sites 346
Both players m ove 348
Hiding a m oving subject in the first shot 349
Using a strong foreground m otion 351
Substitution o f the static subject 351
Redirecting attention 353
Using non-hum an m ovem ent 357
Parting curtain effect 359
19 O T H E R TY PES O F M O T IO N 360
C ircular m ovem ent 360
Vertical m ovem ent 370
D ynam ic stops 376
20 T W E N T Y BASIC R U LES FO R C A M E R A
M OVEM ENT 380
M ovem ent and the cam era 380
Basic guidelines for cam era m ovem ent 380
Solid dram atic m otivation 384
21 T H E P A N N IN G C A M E R A 385
Scanning panoram ically 385
C hase sequences 386
In term ittent panning 399
Full circle panning 401
Fast panning 403
In tw o directions 405
Vertical tilts 406
Side tilts 409
Jointing a static and a panning shot 409
Editing two consecutive panning shots 415
A crobatic pans 421
22 T H E T R A V E L L IN G C A M E R A 424
Interm itten t action covered by a continuous tracking 424
Joining a static and a tracking shot 426
In term ittent cam era tracking 433
Using b o th sides o f the track 436
W inding paths 437
Panning while tracking 443
C am era and perform ers move in opposite directions 446
Single file form ations 454
T racking speed 456
r
23 T H E C A M E A R A C R A N E A N D T H E ZO O M
LENS 469
Follow ing action 469
F oreground props stress height 469
T o visually unite tw o o r m ore story points 470
To inject m ovem ent into static situations 471
T o single ou t a story point in a panoram ic m ovem ent 472
T o provide strong m ovem ent for cutting on action 474
Zoom ing 475
Zoom ing speeds 476
Zoom ing and panning com bined 477
Tilt shots using zoom effects 479
Cam era tracks as it zoom s 479
Zoom ing through foreground obstacles 482
25 E D IT IN G IN T H E C A M E R A 502
Pre-planning is required 502
The pause between m ovem ents 503
The change o f zone 503
A pproaching o r receding from the cam era 508
Changing the body position 514
Substitution by sectors 516
Switching screen sectors 523
Num erical contrast 533
Editing within the film fram e 538
26 M O V IN G F R O M Z O N E TO Z O N E 542
G eneral principles 542
A g ro u p m oving from zone to zone 543
T he g ro u p expands 545
Two fu rth er variants 548
A player moves, the other rem ains stiil 551
The group contracts 554
Devices for zone change 554
27 C O M B IN E D T E C H N IQ U E S 564
Shot by sh o t editing 564
M erging the techniques 571
Sum m ing up 577
28 F IL M P U N C T U A T IO N 579
T ran sitio n s from scene to scene: fade o u t— fade in 579
W hite-outs and colour fades 579
Dissolve 579
W ipe 580
Iris 580
Use o f d ark areas 581
Titles 581
Props 581
Light change 581
Q uestion and answ er 582
A m ovem ent in the sam e direction 582
S u b stitu tio n o f an object 582
W ord repetition 582
A deceptive visual m atch 582
C u ttin g aro u n d a p ro p 587
A sudden close up 588
T ran sitio n by parallel editing 588
Scene openers 589
T he a c to r 590
T he cam era 590
In tro d u cin g points o f view 591
A b ru p t ju m p cuts used as pu n ctu atio n 595
Ju m p cuts as tim e transitions 597
Selected peaks o f action 597
In actio n as p u n ctu atio n 599
Single shots as pauses in n arratio n 599
An entire sequence used as a narrative pause 601
O ut o f focus im ages as p u nctuation 602
D ark screen used as p u nctuation 603
P unctuation by cam era m otion 604
Vertical p u n ctu atio n 611
F rozen fram e 614
IN D E X 616
FOREWORD TO THE PRESENT EDITION
D aniel Arijon
M ontevideo, U ruguay
April, 1991
INTRODUCTION
Daniel A rijon
M ontevideo, U ruguay, 1975
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Daniel Arijon
This book is dedicated
to Delmer Law rence Daves
who ignited the spark
and to H ector M ario R aim ondo Souto
who propelled my efforts
into reality
1
A cross the open d o o r o f m y office, I can see the editing equipm ent
we have been using for several weeks in p utting together o u r last
film. From my desk I can partially see the sm all screen o f the
editing m achine. N ow it is only a white rectangular sp o t—lifeless,
ju st a piece o f coated glass. O n a sudden im pulse I rise and w alk
into th at room . I stop a t the d o o r and survey it in a way I have
never done before. T he objects are fa m iliar^ -th e cans o f film, the
bins full o f strips o f celluloid, the scissors, the splicing m achine.
On sm all hooks hang num erous strips o f film, some o f only a
few fram es length, o ther o f countless feet unreeling loosely into the
bins.
I select one o f the strips o f film a t ran d o m an d thread it into
the m oviola. 1 pull som e switches a n d the strip o f film starts to
move. O n the small screen suddenly an im age appears. W e are
inside a church, large, m odern, ascetic. A girl, young and innocent,
walks to w ard s us. W e follow her until an o th er figure appears on
the screen. It is an actor dressed in a d ark spacesuit an d wearing
a strange and b rilliant helm et. We only catch a glimpse o f the
lone glass eye o n the projecting front o f his helm et and there the
shot ends. T he small screen becom es blan k again with only a
flickering light shining beneath the glass.
W h a t I have seen is ju s t a fragm ent o f a pho to g rap h ed
reality. A reality th at was carefully arranged an d rehearsed in front
o f a m ovie cam era. A sim ilar process was registered on the other
strips o f film. H ere, reality is broken dow n into little fram es and
here in the cutting room I stand, thinking ab o u t this aspect o f my
craft.
T hose pieces o f film were selected by me, recorded on film by a
photo g rap h er, im m ersed in chem icals in a lab o rato ry until the
images were clearly visible and fixed on the celluloid base. And
1
they are destined to be shadow s, ungraspable, ever-changing
patterns o f light when projected on a screen in the m oviola, the
cinema th eatre o r a m illion television sets across a nation.
W hat had we been doing in th at room for the last few w eeks?
We played w ith fragm ents o f recorded time, arranged shadow s and
sounds to convey a story, pursued som e m om ents o f truth, tried to
com m unicate som e feelings and reached for the clues th at would
gran t those im ages the pow er to grasp the atten tio n and em otions
o f a n audience th a t will always rem ain anonym ous to us.
A nd how did we attem p t to do it? T he answers would be
m ultiple an d all interdependent. But they rest on a com m on base,
w hich is b oth solid an d yet shifting— the knowledge o f our craft.
F ilm editing, m ontage, schnitt are the w ords used to describe it.
A n d in its m ost simple sense they also define a simple o p eratio n :
the jo in in g together o f tw o strips o f celluloid. T h a t is the final
step in a long process. G o o d film editing starts with the writing
o f th e script intended for representation in front o f a registering
m echanism , the movie cam era. W here d o we learn the process?
H ow has it evolved? W hat are its tangible rules?
1 Sight and Sound S pring 1966 Vol. 35 N o. 2. “ P utting the M agic in It" by R oger
H udson.
2
A wider perspective
Parallel editing covers greater possibilities in the interaction of
tw o narrative lines. W here the degree o f knowledge shared between
the characters o f th e story, o r between the film and its audience is
variable th e alternatives can be seen as those in which:
1 Both story lines su pport each other, and the d ata th at both
contribute (alternately) builds up the story.
2 In o n e line, the m ovem ent o r intention is kept the same, while
on the o th er th e reactions to th at steady repetition are varied.
3 T he characters involved in b o th narrative lines are unaw are o f
w hat the o th er group is doing, and only the audience has all the
facts.
4 T he inform ation given in both narrative lines is incomplete,
so th at the characters have all the facts, but the audience is
purposely kept in the dark, to stim ulate its interest.
W hich one o f these approaches is to be used m ust be decided by
the story w riter and the film m aker concerned. B ut one fact
rem ains, parallel film editing will always provide the best way of
conveying the desired inform ation to the audience. T he two basic
elements, action an d reaction, will help com plete the presentation.
11
3
Films m ade with a cam era alm ost always tel! a story. Usually in
these movies, real persons and objects are recorded on film and
reproduced on the screen a t the sam e film cadence: 24 frames per
second. But on som e occasions that procedure is altered and m an-
made drawings, patterns, objects, anim als, and persons projected
at 24 fram es per second, m ay have been recorded at speeds th at
go up to hundreds o f frames per second, o r dow n to fram e by fram e
phn(ography with variable time lapses between each exposure.
In the first group, we can place the following film form s:
newsreel
docum entary, and
fiction.
In the second category we can include all the films th at require a
radical change in recording techniques. This second category
would cover:
anim ated cartoons,
anim ated puppets,
time lapse photography o f objects,
plants, anim als o r hum an beings.
We are particularly concerned here with film techniques applicable
to the first three.
Newsreel
Newsreels attem p t to cover an unrepeatable act o r event. The
film m aker has m inim al control over the incident he records. He is
a spectator with a visual recording m echanism . In its crudest form
this coverage produces a series o f disconnected shots th a t register
portions o f the total event but when projected on the screen present
12
I
total chaos. M any things arc missing b u t a n arrato r can give
some unity to the ensem ble. A m iddle stage is reached if these
shots are bridged by others where spectators arc seen reacting.
This creates a sort o f action-reaction relationship, which the
audience accepts though still conscious th at they are seeing an
incom plete occurrence.
T he m ost com plete film record is o b tain ed by using one or
m ore m o to r driven cam eras synchronized with a tape recorder
registering all the events, interesting or dull, as in som e “ verite”
films.
But o n film, there is no such thing as the ideal cam era position
to cover a situation fully and im partially. C am era operators have
to choose their sites, heights, lenses, lights. All this leads to a
com prom ise— an unavoidable selection. A nd even then, few
people w ould cover a situation in exactly the sam e way,
D ocumentary
T he docum entary film form offers fu rth er variants. T o start with,
m ost docum entary films deal not with one, bu t w ith a succession
o f occurrences th at take place under a com m on m otivation.
W hen presenting this m aterial o n the screen, changes are intro
duced in the real order in which the situations occurred. M any
m otives m ay be involved, such as the follow ing:
a Several situations th a t respond to a com m on stim ulus are
grouped into a sequence. As the n atu re o f the stim ulus is
changed, the subjects are grouped in new sequences. Each
individual subject was perhaps filmed reacting consecutively
to the chain o f stim uli, bu t now his actions are fragm ented
and p u t together in p atterns o f behaviour, thus disrupting
the tem poral continuity to achieve an idea progression,
b The linear recording o f an event is interrupted to introduce an
explicative visual variant different in nature, i.e.: anim ated
draw ings to show a process th at can n o t be photographed
using the real elem ents,
c T he series o f events are repeated in different pattern s o r order
o f p resentation, to explore diverse approaches and solutions.
T he list can be longer. B ut the fact rem ains th a t manipulation is
necessary— facts have to be arranged to be show n at their best
and an event is often repeated to be filmed several times. R epetition
m eans staging.
13
We are m anipulating the occurrence, selecting w ith a technique
th a t cloaks o u r tam pering with reality. T he result borders on the
realm o f fiction.
Fiction film
M any o f the best docum entaries have profited from a dual a p
p roach th at blends unadulterated reality with carefully recom posed
fiction. This statem ent leads us to the ultim ate film form — total
fiction. H ere the events are also real, b u t can be repeated a t will
as m any times as necessary, until the exact nuance o f behaviour or
acting is captured on film from one, two o r several angles. Each
situ atio n is carefully planned an d enacted for the benefit o f the
cam eras. The end result strived fo r is an im itation o f reality. In
fact, w hat we see is a richer version o f reality. T here is no t a single
view point, b u t a plurality o f them , such as no hum an being is able
to o b tain in real life. R econstructed reality is the m ost popular o f
film form s.
F ilm stories m ay be planned o r unplanned. The techniques to be
discussed here m ostly concern the planned approach where events
are selected, arran ged an d staged for a series o f related actions.
U nplanned events m ust be treated in a way th at perm its them to
blend with plan n ed scenes.
The shot
N ow , let us define which are the gram m atical tools o f the film
language. F irst o f all we have the shot.
T he length o f the shot o r take is lim ited only by the am ount o f
film th at can be exposed in the cam era w ithout reloading—say,
four, ten o r thirty three m inutes. T he shot can be used in its
entirety in an u ninterrupted flow, o r broken up into sm aller strips
o f film to be intercut w ith other shots. A staged event can be shot
repeatedly, in whole o r p a rt from the same or different positions.
G enerally, when the scene does no t play too well the repeat shots
are taken from the sam e position. Changes o f cam era position are
used m ore conciously, to allow the film editor to cross-cut.
M ovem ent
D uring a shot the cam era can rem ain fixed , or it can pan (sweep
horizontally on its axis), o r it can tilt (pivoting either up or down)
o r it can travel a t different speeds attached to a moving vehicle.
It can record simple o r com plex events. It can move supporting
the action th a t it records.
It can do all th at from different distances. Those distances can
be obtained either physically or optically.
15
r
Distances
The gradation o f distances between the cam era and the recorded
subject can be infinite. A ctual practice has taught th at there are
five basic definable distances. They are know n as:
close up, or big close up
close shot,
m edium shot,
full shot, and
long shot.
However, these denom inations do not imply a fixed m easurable
distance in each case. The term inology is quite elastic, and deals
mainly with concepts. It is obvious th at the distance between
cam era and subject is different between a dose shot o f a house and
close shot o f a man.
Figs. 3.1 to 3.5 illustrate the areas th at each cam era position
covers.
If a full shot o f the hum an figure is fram ed, the feet o f the subject
m ust be included. C attin g above the ankles will n o t give a pleasant
com position. Figure 3.6 illustrates the diverse cutting heights.
Types o f editing
T here are three m ain ways in which a scene can be edited:
1 A m aster shot registers the whole scene. T o avoid m onotony,
there are several techniques for editing ‘w ithin the film, fram e or
‘in cam era’.’
2 A m aster shot is inter-cut with o th er sh o rter takes. These other
takes cover fragm ents o f the scene from a different distance or
introduce subjects in an o th er place, and are intercut into the
m aster shot to provide em phasis on key passages o f the scene.
3 Two o r m ore m aster shots are blended together in parallel.
O ur point o f view alternates fro m one m aster shot to the other.
By using any o r all o f the three m ethods we can cover a sequence.
A sequence envelopes a scene o r a series o f related scenes th at have
a time and space continuity. U sually a sequence has a beginning,
a m iddle and a conclusion. This conclusion ends either on a high
point or a low point o r a iow m om ent o f intensity o f the story.
Visual punctuation
Sequences are jo in ed together by two types o f punctuation :
1 A straight cut.
2 A n optical.
In a straight cut the transition is visually ab ru p t. T he several ways
18
o f achieving it will be discussed later on. In the case o f an optical,
a fa d e out, fa d e in, dissolve o r wipe, can be em ployed to obtain a
sm ooth visual transition.
Scene matching
In m atching scenes the following three requirem ents m ust be
satisfied. It is necessary to m a tc h :
1 T he position.
2 T he m ovem ent.
3 The look.
T he movie screen is a fixed area. If a perform er is shown on the
left side o f the screen in a full shot, he m ust be o n th a t side if there
is a cut to a close shot placed on the same visual axis. If this rule
for m atching the position is no t respected, aw kw ard visual jum ps
on the screen will result, so th at the audience has to switch
atten tio n from one sector to an o th er to locate the m ain character
FIGURE 3.7 The central subject o l the scene should, in normal cases, be kept In the
same frame position, as in the first example, when making a cut from one shot to
another, *
19
f
whose adventures they are following. This is both annoying and
distracting. The spectator m ust be given a com fortable eye scan
o f the shots with a constant orientation th at allows him to co n
centrate on the story (Fig. 3.7).
F o r this purpose the screen is usually divided in two o r three
vertical parts, in which the m ain perform ers are placed. All
position m atching is done in any o r all o f these areas.
M atching the movement has a sim ilar logical base. D irection o f
m ovement should be the sam e in two consecutive shots th at record
the continuous m otion o f a perform er otherw ise the audience will
be confused ab o u t the supposed direction o f m ovem ent (Fig. 3.8).
RIGHT WRONG
FIGURE 3.8 Movement is of a sim ilar kind and in the same direction in the first
example illustrated. The audience follows the motion of the subject easily. But if the
dlfeciion of movement is suddenly reversed in the second shot, there will be con
fusion as to where the subject is Qoinc.
FIGURE 3,10 If both players are featured in separate shots, their glances should
still be in opposed directions.
FIGURE 3.11 When both players look In the same direction, they are not looking at
each other, but at something or at somebody else.
Opposed glances
Establishing and m aintaining a co n stan t opposition in the direc
tion o f a look exchanged between two players, can be achieved
very simply. The only requisite is th at their heads face each other.
T he physical distance betw een them is unim portant. I f a player
moves to a position where he now has his back to his fellow player,
the opposition o flo o k s is m aintained as he periodically glances at
the other person over his shoulder, o r if after a m om ent, he turns
to face his in terlo cutor again. In a group o f three, one o f them is
the arb iter o f attention. W hen one o f the actors speaks, the other
two look at him. As the interest shifts, one o f the players looks
to the new centre o f attention, m aking an effective and clear change
for the audience to follow. See Fig. 3.12.
FIGURE 3.12 Player 8 acts as the arbiter of attention, shifting the Interest from A to C .
He achieves this change by moving his head from one pfayer to the other.
RIGHT WRONG
FIGURE 3.13 In the first example tw o players concentrate on the person In the fore -
ground, who thus becomes the dominant one. In the second case. B looks In another
direction, drawing away the attention of the audience, who are forced to choose and
are unable to. Either player C is Im portant or something of! screen is really upstaging
her. The audience cannot know.
25
4
Line o f interest
The line o f interest between tw o central players in a scene is based
on the direction o f the looks exchanged between them . A line of
interest can be observed fro m three extrem e positions, w ithout
crossing to th e o th er side o f the line. These three extrem e positions
27
28
form a triangular figure with its base parallel to the line o f interest
(Fig. 4.3).
FIGURE 4.3 Basic positions Into the triangular method of covering tw o players
located on a common line of Interest.
r^L
v\
e
J 1
1 f
■ w
1V - r
'v HL.
s>J'<3
.•y
/
> *
V
2
FI SURE 4.S Two triangular formation® can be employed one on each *tde of the tine
Interest. One of them has to be chosen, excluding the position on the other.
FIGURE 4.6 The two incompatible right angle positions relative to the line of
Interest, position 2 and position 5.
31
difficult. Y et it is quite simple if we rem em ber only th at the central
points o f two persons talking to each other are their heads.
They attra ct o u r atten tio n im m ediately, regardless o f the posi
tions o f the bodies, because the head is the source o f hum an
speech and the eyes the m ost pow erful direction pointers th a t a
hum an being has to a ttra c t o r direct interest. The positions o f the
bodies therefore do not really count, it is the heads th at m atter.
Even in situations where one actor has his back to the other, or
they are back to back, a line o f interest passes between their heads.
In all film scenes, the line o f interest m ust flow between the heads
o f the two central perform ers.
FIGURE 4.7 External reverse angles. The cameras In the two positions parallel
to the line of interest are directed Inward towards the players. Note that the symbol
represents a human figure—the flat tid e Indicates the fro nt o l the figure.
32
triangle are behind the backs o f the two central players, angled in,
close to th e line o f interest between the perform ers and covering
them both.
-------
FIGURE 4.8 Internal reverse angles. In this variant the two camera positions parallel
to the Une of interest point outwards, covering each player individually.
W ith the cam eras back to back anyw here on the base o f the
triangle the effect represents the subjective view point o f the player
excluded from the shot.
FIGURE 4.9 Subjective camora angles. If the camera positions are back to back on
the line of interest itself, they each become the subjective point of view of the player
excluded from the shot.
FIGURE4,11 Thethree basic variants outlined in the previous figures can be com bin
ed into a major triangular deployment. Thus, varied and ample camera coverage
is obtained tor two statfc players during their exchange of dialogue.
34
right a n g l e p o s i t i o n s . W hen the a c t o r s are placed side by
side in an ‘L’ form ation, the cam era viewpoints on the base o f the
im aginary triangle acquire a right angle relationship,' close to the
line o f interest passing between the players. In this case with the
camera in front o f the perform ers.
FIGURE 4,12 When the players are placed side by side In an L formation, a right
angle camera relationship is assumed by ttie two sites located on the base of the
triangular figure for camera placement.
FIGURE 4.13 The right anole camera positions cannot orify be in froDt ot the actors,
but behind. ,
35
com m o n v i s u a l a x i s . To cover only one o f the players i n a
m aster shot while fram ing both players on the other, the cam era
in one o f the two viewpoints on the triangle base, m ust be ad
vanced on its visual axis.
Advancing on either o f the tw o viewpoints (optically o r physi
cally) we obtain a closer shot o f the selected perform er, thus
em phasizing him over his partner. Fig. 4.14 shows the arrangem ent.
The above m entioned five basic variations are used not only to
cover static conversations o f a group o f players, but also the m ove
m ent of those players on the screen.
Emphasis by composition
W hen two speaking perform ers face each other, the strongest
cam era positions to record their dialogue, are located on the base
o f the triangle, parallel to the line o f interest. Positions 1 and 3 o f
the external reverse cam era arrangem ent, have two im m ediate
advantages over the cam era site situated on the apex o f the tri
angle. They give com position in depth, because from their view
points, the actors are placed on two different planes: one close
to the cam era and the other further back.
The second advantage is that one o f the actors faces the cam era,
getting our full attention, while the other has his back to us. In
theatrical term s, the second actor has an open body position
(face to the audience), while the first has a closed body position
(his back to the audience). T herefore the p erform er facing the
cam era is the d o m inant one.
O n the screen this is accentuated further by the distribution o f
screen space in the com position o f the shot, as show n in Fig. 4.15.
FIGURE 4.15 Emphasis by com position on the two external raverse master shots can
be achieved by olvlno tw o-thirds of the screen space to the player who faces the
camera, and the remaining third to the one with his back to the camera.
FIGURE 4A7 By dividing the screen Into three eq sectors, the dominant player
In each master shot can be placed In the centre of e screen w ithout breaking the
trlanole principle for camera deployment. Thus at tlon Is always retained In the
centre of the screen. ,
39
FIGURE 4.18 A half area of the screen is blocked by the body o f She player in th e
fo re g ro u n d, w hose back is m inim a lly lit, to em phasize the lig h te r fig u re in the back
ground.
foreground player and a small sector o f the screen is left free for
you to see the d o m in an t actor in the background (Fig, 4.19).
The device is particularly em phatic, because o u r attention is
centred on a small (usually upper, occasionally lower) area o f the
screen. R ight and left top angles o f the screen are contrasted from
shot to shot, as the two extreme external reverse cam era positions
are edited in parallel.
W hen an internal and an external reverse cam era position are
com bined, some film m akers place the perform ers off-centre in
b o th shots, close to one o f the lateral sides. The em pty tw o-thirds
o f the screen are filled w ith colour, o r inert shapes th a t do not
interfere with the players. Fig. 4.21 illustrates the concept.
O n other occasions a dark area th at blocks the same tw o-thirds
o f the screen in bo th shots is em ployed to obtain the sam e effect,
as seen in Fig. 4.22.
»
A i
i
I i
i
i
FIGURE 4.19 Here a very small upper area of the screen is used to frame the dom
inant player in each reverse master shot.
FIGURE 4.20 In this example a smafl lower area o f the screen is used to compose the
key figure in each of the reverse master shots.
41
I
FIGURE 4.21 A n in te rn a l reverse angle and an e xte rn a l reverse cam era p o s itio n use
p icto ria l c o m p o s itio n s th a t co n ce n tra te th e players in th e sam e lateral area o f th e
screen.
FIGURE 4.22 The ce ntre o f in te re s t in both m a ste r sh o ts is reta in e d on th e feft side
o f the p icture . The re s t o f th e screen is darkened to stre ss th e key, w e ll-lit area.
D ire c to r S idney J .F u rle uses m any c o m p o s itio n s o f th is type In his Aim s, espe cia lly
in The fpcress Fiie, The Apaloosa and The Naked Runner ,
i
42
This technique is also extended to internal reverse camera
positions. These cam era sites cover each o f the two central figures
individually. B oth players occupy the same screen area in each
reverse shots.
T w o-thirds o f the screen in both pictorial com positions are kept
empty (Fig. 4.23).
I
I
I
I
I
FIGURE 4.23 Two Internal reverse shots are used for this example, and the same
area o f the screen Is employed to frame the players. Note the opposed glances that
relate the players to one another visually.
FIGURE 4.25 Bizarre way of framing two players for a pair of reverse master shots.
Its shock effect can often heJp to oblafn an alienated mood in the scene.
J
!
FIGURE *.26 Here, (ha player's face Is placed close to one side of the screen frame,
leaving half the screen empty behind, This unusual way of com posing tw o related
internal reverse master shots brlnos a special visual enhancement to the scene.
T hose types o f com position quickly grasp atten tio n and tend to
d istract fro m the m ood o f the scene. A nd yet, to certain types o f
situations such as intim ate love scenes, they bring a strange im
balance th a t can enhance the situation. E xternal reverse angles
FIGURE 4.27 Hera, both external reverse camera positions are directly behind the
players, on the line o f Interest Itself. Only high angles permit this alignment.
45
FIGURE 4.28 From (he three points o f the triangular camera placement figure stem
axis tines on w hich the camera can be placed at any distance to cover the two central
players In a scene.
W R ON G
FIGURE 4.30 When the lone figure is looking straight ahead (north-south) the tri
angular camera placements cannot be in an east-west direction. The external reverse
angles will present conflictino directions of gaze, which is incorrect.
48
Likewise, if the cam era is on a n o rth -so u th axis when o u r lone
player is looking sideways it will no t work. The direction o f his
gaze m ust be adhered to as the line o f interest, with the triangular
cam era deploym ent set parallel.
FIGURE 4.31 When the tone pfayer turns his head in a half circJe this Is covered by
east-west camera positton. W ith a rig h t angle turn a north-south camera placement
will suffice.
Fig. 4.31 illustrates b o th cases, for which the trian g u lar cam era
coverage m ust be shifted.
49
DIALOGUE BETWEEN TWO PLAYERS
Visual form ulae to cover dialogue are few in num ber— though
v ariations can be achieved through dress, background, lighting,
etc.
T h e two strong cam era positions parallel to the line o f interest
are those from which m aster shots are m ade to cover the static
dialogue. T he scene is first covered partially or in full from one
cam era position, an d then repeated from the o th er to be edited in
parallel later.
W orking from the two dom inant cam era positions, the following
analysis uses as a basis the five trian g u lar variations for cam era
deploym ent exam ined in the preceding chapter.
Face to fa ce
T he m ost sim ple ap p ro ach w ith face to face dialogue is to use a set
o f external reverse angles. W ith the perform er appearing in
foreground (with his back to us) in external reverse shots the tip
o f the nose should not extend beyond the line o f his cheek—we
do n o t see his nose a t all from such a n angle. T he one third/tw o-
th ird s screen space distribution is basic, although the variants
already discussed in the exam ination o f the triangle principle can
be used if desired.
Fig. 5.1 shows the classic arrangem ent, which is the one more
widely favoured by film m akers all over the world.
An internal reverse angle can be com bined with an external
reverse cam era position. T he perform er singled ou t is the more
prom inent. Two solutions are available (Fig. 5.2).
50
FIGURE 5.1 Dialogue between two players. This is the m ost common framing for
external reverse master shots of two players who face one another,
FIGURE 5.2 Two com binations of an external reverse angle and an Internal camera
positron are possible. *
51
T he next possibility is to cover b o th subjects individually by
using internal reverse shots. Only one o f the actors is shown in
each m aster shot (Fig. 5.3).
o
FIGURE 5.3
Number contrast
2,
Two Internal reverse master shots cover the players Individually.
FIGURE 5.4 External shots applied to a linear arrangement fo r the actors, where both
are looking in the same direction.
FIGURE 5.5 Internal reverse shots applied to a coupfe of performers sitting on the
front seat of a car,
FIGURE 5.7 Right angle camera arrangement to cover two actors who assume an L
formation.
FIGURE 5.11 External earners coverage for (wo players aligned one behind the other.
Word o f caution
When filming individual shots o f two or m ore players, m istakes
may occur. W hen the cam era is repositioned on the set, an d lens
and lights changed and adjusted, frequently the direction in which
the player was looking is forgotten, especially if the new shot is a
head-on close shot.
A n acto r who was previously looking to the left, m ay now
unconciously deliver his lines looking to the right, thus ruining the
sequence.
W hen m aking individual shots o f a player engaged in con
versation, it is a good idea to keep the second actor in his form er
place, b u t o u t o f cam era range, for tw o reasons:
1 it will ensure th at the cam era is n o t placed on the other side
of the line o f in te re st;
2 the acting o f the player on cam era will be m ore natural, since
he has som eone to whom his lines can be delivered, instead o f
addressing them into em pty space.
If for any reason, the second player is n o t available when the single
shots are recorded on film, a reference point beside the cam era
hood (sun-shade) m ust be given to the perform er.
Either a technician stands there substituting the m issing player,
or an object is selected for th at purpose. Some technicians prefer
to put their clenched fist against the hood as a reference point.
Fig. 5.13 shows the situation.
59
FIGURE 3.13 The om itted player Is kept out o f camera ranfle to ensure proper
placement of the camera position. The actor o r substitute 6 Is positioned out o f shot
to provide the correct reference point for actress A whose attention Is supposed to
be fixed on a definite object or person who might have been seen In the previous shot.
Perform ers m ust avoid looking into the cam era lens. It violates
the direction o f the line o f interest a n d the audience feels th at the
player is looking at them directly and no t at the o th er players.
In a fiction film players m ay look into the cam era lens only for a
special purpose.
1 T he perform er m onologues w ith the audience, as Laurcnce
Olivier did in his film Richard III. It is a recourse derived from the
theatre, where players break the flow o f the scene an d address the
audience to give their own personal view o f the events. I t is an
accepted convention b u t can destroy the flow o f a staged event.
2 A m ore legitim ate use is w hen the player addresses the audience
as a radio o r TV announcer.
In the first case, the player relates directly with the audience. We
suddenly becom e participants and n o t spectators o f a staged story.
It shocks o u r feeling o f security in the darkness o f the m ovie
theatre, while in the second instance the p erform er relates with
an other player (show n or no t in the preceding o r follow ing shots).
60
T h at is why in the second case the audience accepts the actor
looking straight into the cam era lens as m ore natural.
These scenes m u st be used sparingly, and w ith strong dram atic
m otivating. The player need n o t continually look into the cam era
lens, H e m ay look elsewhere, with a detached gaze no t particularly
fixed o n a given p oint, an d suddenly tu rn to the cam era a n d look
in to it as he delivers the im p o rtan t lines o f his m onologue, thus
stressing th a t passage.
Camera distance
L ooking back a t the exam ples given for the coverage o f con
versations betw een tw o players in a film scene, we notice three
lim itations:
1 All the takes were close shots;
2 T he two players had the sam e body level;
3 T he cam era had the sam e level in b o th shots.
F u rth er variatio n s are available. The three points o f the triangle
principle generate axis lines on which the cam era can be m oved.
D ifferent cam era distances can em phasize a dialogue visually, and
afford a livelier presentation o f the scene. In an exam ple involving
external reverse angles, P osition 3 can be a m edium shot, while
Position I is a close shot. Fig, 5.14 illustrates such a case.
61
Likewise, when covering tw o actors placed wide a p a rt, this
difference in distances is useful to concentrate atten tio n on the
m ost im p o rtan t o f the two.
Let us say for exam ple, th at in a bare prison cel! a lawyer
questions a prisoner, and the lawyer dom inates the scene. His
questions a n d th e way he w aits for the answ ers are vital to the
story, b u t th e prisoner’s attitu d e is passively uncooperative.
C hanges o f cam era to subject distance w ould stress this situa
tion by alloting a close shot to the lawyer, a n d a full shot to the
prisoner (Fig. 5.15).
FIGURE 5.17 Suitable heights must be selected for each camera position to ac
commodate the differing heights of the players themselves.
63
The previous examples used external reverse angles. If internal
reverse positions are used to cover the sam e situation (one actor
stands, the other sits) for single shots o f each player the cam era is
alternately high and low, as if seeing the scene from each player’s
view point (Fig. 5.18),
FIGURE 5.18 D ifferent camera heioht* are applied to a pair of Internal reverie ahot*.
I f the cam era tilt is to o acute the effect will be unreal, since we
norm ally do n o t look at o th er people from such extrem e low or
high viewpoints. Such angles should be reserved as shockers to
stress im portant story points o r special events. O n o ther occasions
when both players are standing, we can obtain a contrast in
heights by merely placing the cam era low in bo th external reverse
m aster shots (Fig. 5.19).
One player can be stressed with a different cam era height on the
external reverse shot coverage o f two players who are standing up
(Fig. 5.20).
A line o f interest is no t necessarily horizontal. W hen one player
lies flat while the o th er stands o r kneels, an d using the triangular
cam era disposition, Positions 1 a n d 3 (those close to the line o f
interest) are near the heads o f the perform ers, an d therefore have
different heights. A vertical line o f interest is also possible (Fig.
5.21).
The head o f each player is covered by vertical cam era positions
shown in the diagram .
64
FIGURE 5.19 W hen both camera positions are low they create an interplay of h e ifih tt
b etw een th e players.
FIGURE 5.20 This com bination o f a high and a low camera position serves to throw
emphasis on to one of the players.
The players heads are kept in the sam e sectors o f the screen. There
is, perhaps, an altern atio n in heights within the screen. Fig, 5,22
shows (in the illu stration corresponding to Position 1 o f the
cam era) the head o f the m an on the left placed iow on the screen,
while cam era P osition 2 his head is high on the left. T he same
happens to the w om an on the right, w ho w ithout abandoning
her area o f the fram e, shifts up and dow n from shot to shot. The
higher position in each shot is occupied by the dom inant player.
W ith one cam era placed low er th an the p erfo rm er’s position, there
is a reverse play o f m aster shots. F o r this purpose the players m ust
be placed in such a way th a t the cam era has full scope for changing
position above o r below the Ievei o f the artists where the ground
66
FIGURE 5.22 A right ancle camera deployment used to cover (wo players lying side
by side.
Telephone conversations
Tw o players talking to each o ther on the phone, are seen in single
takes, an d edited alternately to cover the length o f their conversa
tion. But to obtain the feeling o f a norm al conversation the actors
should look in opposite directions especially with split screen
sequences.
F o r the perform ers are filmed separately and com bined in
printing with m attes (Fig. 5.24).
68
FIGURE 5.24 Opposed glances are usually maintained between shots o f Iw o people
talking on the phone.
Opposed diagonals
W hen people talk to each o th er they do n o t necessarily keep th eir
bodies erect.
Som etim es the head is unconsciously tilted to a side to express a
m ood o f ease o r intim acy—a n o p p o rtu n ity fo r interplay o f opposed
diagonals in com posing close shots (Fig. 5.25).
This can b e achieved with any one o f th e trian g u lar cam era set
ups already discussed. W ide screen com positions can also benefit
from this treatm en t. Fig. 5.26 gives an exam ple.
People have p artic u la r ways o f standing w hen facing each o th er
and in a conversation. T heir bodies are seldom perfectly aligned.
Standing a little to one side o f the o th er is psychologically a m ore
com fortable position. So, from the tw o external reverse cam era
positions the players m ay be aligned o r there m ight be a small o r
large lateral gap betw een them .
I f the players are perfectly aligned the reverse cam era positions
m ust be close to the axis line form ed by th eir line o f interest, n o t
parallel to the line itself which w ould give a m uddled view o f the
d o m in an t player. A good result will register a diagonal com posi
tion o f b o th bodies on the screen. T he tip o f the nearby a c to r’s nose
69
FIGURE 5.25 A n Interplay of opposed diaaonats in the com position of the shots can
be obtained with any one of the triangular camera set-ups.
FIGURE 5.26 W ide screen com positions can also benefit from diagonal pictorial
arrangements.
70
should rem ain within the profile. W hen one sm all lateral gap
exists between b oth players, the external reverse cam era positions
assume th e relationship shown in Fig. 5.27.
FIGURE 5.27 External reverse angles featuring a small gap In the alignment of the
players.
Vi
FIGURE 5.28 Right angle camera deployments applied to a wide gap between the
players. '
71
FIGURE 5,29 Three example# where the positioning o f the actor’s bodies or their
direction of travel appears to violate the triangular camera placement principle. Yet
all these examples are correct because they adhere to the line of Interest.
72
O ften, the op p osition o f an internal an d external reverse shot
violates the sense o f direction o f one o f the players portrayed.
N evertheless their use is correct, since the line o f interest is always
d o m in an t (Fig. 5.29).
In these cases the cam era rem ains on the sam e side o f the line of
interest. It is the direction in w hich the bodies p o in t fro m shot to
shot th a t m akes it ap p e ar as a blunt reverse. In the first exam ple for
instance, the legs o f one player extend to the left on the external
reverse shot, a n d to the rig h t on the internal reverse. B ut bodies
do n o t count, only the line o f interest flowing betw een b o th heads
m atters, an d all these exam ples adhere to this rule. If b o th reverse
takes are tracking shots, such as in the third exam ple, the directions
o f travel ap p e ar opposed on the screen.
even panned the cam era keeping the m ask on, a n d did forw ard
tracking shots to which the m ask conferred a rare m ethod of
isolation as darkness crept aro u n d the m ain subject as it was
approached.
74
6
THREE-PLAYER DIALOGUE
Regular cases
As before, for the m aster shots the cam era is positioned close to
the line o f interest. It is an easy situation if the three players are in
istra ig h t line— each player m aintains his screen area from shot to
shot {Fig. 6.1).
Irregular cases
W hen the players are arranged in a triangle, tw o lines o f interest
converge on the d o m in an t perform er, and one line prevails. The
centre o f atten tio n for the audience, and for the group on the
screen, can be shifted by any subordinate player. He becom es the
arbiter o f attention. By turning his head from the dom inant
perform er to the other, the second person becom es the im p o rtan t
character in the scene. This recourse can be applied in two w ays:
1 the centre o f atten tio n m oves back and fo rth betw een two
players. T he third has only a passive role, deciding w ith the m ove
m ent o f his head which o f his tw o com panions predom inates.
2 the centre o f atten tio n moves in a full circle aro u n d the tri
angle o f players, each successively becom ing the centre o f attention.
76
FIGURE 6.2 The throe players standing in a C formation are covered by two external
reverse camera positions. They all maintain the same screen area in both shots.
T here are three basic form ulas fo r external reverse cam era shots.
They provide irregular variants bccause this geom etric arran g e
m ent o f players does no t give each player a steady screen area.
T he cam era sites fo r these form ulas are obtained by selecting
two o f the six positions depicted in Fig. 6.3A. In the illustration
each player, acting as the apex o f their trian g u lar arrangem ent, is
given tw o external reverse cam era shots.
FIGURE 6.3a Player3 arranged In a W angle with si* possible external camera sites.
Formula A
The d o m in an t player, in the centre o f the group, rem ains in his
place in b o th m aster shots, while the players a t either side ex
change positions from shot to shot.
In this form ula the three players (placed on a neutral line of
interest) are located precisely betw een bo th reverse cam era points,
which give alternately a rear an d a frontal view (Fig. 6.4.)
This solution is best applied to closely knit groups, where the
intim acy or bluntness o f the situation requires scrutiny o f the
action an d reaction o f the players, divided into tw o sections and
featured alternately.
78
Formula B
Here the perform er acting as arb iter o f attention (as a silent
spectator) is placed at one side o f the screen. In the next shot she
appears on the opposite side.
T he o th er tw o players, conversing (along a diagonal line of
interest) m aintain their relative positions and occupy the screen
area shown in Fig. 6,5.
C om binations o f seated and standing players and different
shooting distances add variety.
Formula C
The d om inant player, placed o n one side o f the screen, stays in that
area in b o th shots, while the o th er two perform ers exchange their
positions from take to take.
In F orm ula B, the d om inant line o f attention flowed diagonally
to the background, an d the arbiting acto r was close to the side of
the screen.
In F orm ula C the dom inant line flows horizontally betw een the
two players in the foreground, and the arbiting ac to r is placed
beyond (Fig. 6.6.).
N otice th at in all three figs. the order o f players (show n above)
rem ains A, B, C.
T he shift in o rd er (shown below) dem onstrates the effect o f the
different form ulas.
FIGURE 8.9 A i to I number contrast obtained by using two internal reverie s h o ti.
Pivoting p o in t
Three players can be show n in a filmed scene by including only
two in each m aster shot. The person appearing in b o th can occupy
85
T
FIGURE 6.11 Parallel camera positions applied to a group of three persons, Number
contrast, 2 to 1, is obtained in this way.
86
FIGURE 113 Two camera sites on a common visual line cover a trianQufar group of
three performers. One of the shots emphasises the central player in the scene.
FIGURE 0.15 In this example the pivoting player shifts from foreground to back
ground as each master shot is edited In parallel with the other while keeping a con
stant screen area.
88
T he ac to r used as a pivot m u st m ove his head to vary the centre
o f in terest th a t shifts fro m player B to player C in reverse shots.
In o u r next exam ple the tw o cam era positions are external re
verse angles aro u n d the player used as pivot in the scene (Fig.
6.16).
F1GURE6.15 A set of external reverse camera positions around aside player use him
as a pivot to cover the group o f three players.
FIGURE 6.17 Irregular coverage of a straight line arrangement of players, wh<re the
pivoting perform er shifts from one side o f the screen to the other as each master shot
Is alternated In parallel editing.
89
In the cases exam ined the pivoting player was dom inant, as
he had an im p o rtan t role in the scene. But a passive stance for
him is also possible. In Fig. 6.18 players A and C are dom inant.
Perform er B in the centre m ay be ju st listening to a heated dis
cussion betw een the o th er two. Y et player B has been used as a
pivot for the cam era sites, an d is featured in both shots, on the left
an d right sides o f the screen respectively. H is passiveness can be
stressed by the profiled position, eyes dow ncast, purposely to
avoid throw ing em phasis on either o f the others. His role is also
m inim ized by being given only a th u d o f the screen area.
FIGURE 6,18 In this example the pivoting player has a passive role. His flflure shifts
from one side of the screen to the other as the master shots are alternated.
Partial emphasis
Partial em phasis is possible by using any one o f the three basic
linear arrangem ents: a straight line, an ‘L ’ shape o r a triangle.
Fig. 6.20 shows partial em phasis being applied to a straight line
arrangem ent o f players.
A v arian t is show n in Fig. 6.21, where the set o f external-
internal cam era sites is m oved to the other end o f the straight
line com position.
A n ‘L ’ shaped arrangem ent o f the players can be easily treated
with partial em phasis. Fig. 6.22 gives a simple case.
91
FIGURE 6.20 Partial emphasis applied to a lino form ation of the group of three
players.
FIGURE (.21 A variation o f partial emphasis applied to the group of three players In
a straight ilne arrangement.
92
F o r a triangular grouping two m ain solutions are available.
Fig. 6.23 shows the first, w here the subdued perform er is placed
on one side o f the screen.
FIGURE 6.23 The secondary perform er Is placed on one aide of the screen In this
variant o f partial emphasis applied to a triangular com position.
FIGURE 8.24 Tha secondary player is placed In the centre of this other variant of
partial emphasis applied to a triangular form ation o f players.
Total emphasis
Total em phasis, as we said before, can be obtained by tw opairs o f
m aster shots—featuring three, and tw o players respectively. All
93
fo u r cam era positions are external reverse coverage points o f the
group. Fig. 6.25 shows a sim ple case.
FIGURE 6.25 Total emphasis applied to a group of three players. The editing paltern
progresses from a 3 to 3 relationship to a 2 to 2 opposition of the principal performers
In the group.
of the trian g u lar principle for cam era deploym ent whose apex
is the neutral site 0, the one chosen to establish the scene.
When the line o f interest shifts to an ‘east-w est’ direction as seen
from site 1, this cam era position becom es the apex o f a new tri
angular fo rm atio n consisting o f sites 3— 1— 4, a n d angles 3 and 4
m ust be on the side o f the new line o f interest. So, if the change is
seen from site 2, positions 3 and 4 m ust be on the side o f the line
o f interest th at faces the apex o f that new triangular formation.
Fig. 6.28 shows this.
To retu rn to a ‘north-south* direction where the whole group
is seen, position 2 m ust be used to effect the change in direction,
A sequence using position 2 for the shift in the line o f interest,
w ould look like this:
Shots 1—2— 1— 2—3—4— 3—4— 2— 1—2 — I
T he form ula ju s t described is adm ittedly a bit com plicated to
describe, though once grasped is sim ple to pu t in to practice.
(- .) (-------- ) ;
Shots - 1-4 - 1 -4 -1 -4 -1 -2 - 3 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 2 - 3 - 1- 4 - 2 - 3 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 1 -
(---------------) (----------------------------) ( _ ) .1
‘a ’ ‘b* ‘c’ l
f IG, 6-28 This lifte d Interest shifts from a north-south to an east-west direction In a
similar way to that preceding except that in this case the change is seen from the
second position.
FIGURE 6.29 Four camera positions are used for this shift in the line of interest but
one ot them is an Internal reverse shot.
Figure 6.30 shows the eight basic cam era positions. The order o f
the sequence could be som ething like this:
Shot 1 Players B an d C in the b ackground talk w ith p erform er
A who is in foreground, his b ack to the cam era.
Shot 3 A replies. He looks off screcn, right.
Shot 4 B a n d C as seen from A ’s view point, lo o k to him off
screen, left.
Shot 3 A still talking.
Shot 4 B an d C answ er A.
Shot 3 A ends talking.
Shot 2 C an d B in foreground tu rn to look at each other.
Player A in the centre o f the screen becom es unim
p o rtan t.
S hot 5 Reverse. C a n d B talk.
Shot 6 Reverse. C an d B talk.
Shot 5
Shot 6
S hot 8 B is featured alone.
S hot 7 C is featured alone.
S hot 8
Shot 7
S hot 3 A re-enters the conversation. H e is facing us, looking
o ff screen, right.
Shot 4 B a n d C tu rn their heads to us to look a t A off screen left.
S h o t 3 A talks again.
S hot 1 T he whole g ro u p again: A— B— C.
Fig. 6.30 shows how sites 1— 2— 3 an d 4 cover the ‘north-south’
line o f interest, while positions 5— 6— 7 and 8 fram e an ‘east-west'
shift.
T o show the shift o f the line o f atten tio n from N -S to E-W
position 2 is used. N otice th a t this differs from position 4 (pre
viously used to show the players o n w hom visual em phasis is now
b ro u g h t to bear) in th a t the actors exchange positions on the
screen. In position 4 the o rd e r on the screen is B— C , while from
po sitio n 2 these players are seen arranged in the foreground as
C— B.
S h o t 3, however, (an internal reverse position) bridges this ano
m aly. A nd it w orks because shots 3 a n d 4 have a reverse angle
relationship, while shots 3 a n d 2 are placed on a com m on visual
axis. In fact, P layer A is used as a pivot to effect the bridge
betw een those two positions.
I f the direction is reversed E-W to N-S later in the sequence,
this is achieved by using the sam e principle. Shot 3 is once more
bridged between 7 a n d 4 w hich are covering a n E-W line from each
side o f it. T he shift from E-W to N-S actually takes place a t site 4,
which starts covering a E -W line and ends as an extrem e o f the
N -S line th a t d o m inates again.
A sequence featuring three persons, em ploying a crosswise
sh ift o f th e line o f in terest covered by sets o f external-internal
reverse cam era sites, can be filmed using fewer than the 8 positions
given, Only those positions needed are brought into play.
In the exam ple ju st exam ined, the acto r excluded by the shift
of the line o f interest, was placed in the centre o f the group. The
same principle applies if you w ant to exclude either o f the other
two, placed on the base o f the triangle.
The tw o previous approaches m ay seem a bit com plicated to
someone n o t fam iliar with the w orkings o f the triangular cam era
placement for coverage o f static dialogues. Perhaps it will help to
fa the simple principles ju st described, in which the line o f interest
shifts from north-south to east-west, if we keep in m ind th a t the
camera positions deployed around the players assum e the form o f
across. The two em phasized players become the arm s o f the cross
or T* figure, while the lone player from w hom attention is
momentarily released, is positioned at the bottom o f the cross or
T figure. W hether you use four cam era positions (all external
reverse shots o r a com bination o f internal-external reverses) up to
the full eight cam era sites, the basic p attern assum ed by the
camera coverage is a cross o r T figure. Two sim pler m ethods th at
cover a players’ L configuration are discussed next.
The m arks under the num bers underline the points where the shift
o f direction o f the line o f interest takes place.
FIGURE 8.32 A player Is used as a pivot to achieve a change of direction for the lino
ot Interest In the scene.
Deliberate omission
Suppose one o f th e players is to be deliberately om itted, as we cut
from take to tak e using reverse shot positions giving the ap p a ren t
illusion th at all rules are broken.
105
Fig. 6.33 shows a n exam ple w here advantage is taken o f an
o b stru ctio n in the set d eco ratio n to hide the player located in the
centre (and also in the background) o f the triangular arrangement
o f perform ers.
FIGURE 6.33 A case of deliberate om ission, fn which one player is hidden by an ele
ment of the d^cor.
FIGUREfl-34 In the preceding example the pivoting player was located In the back'
nround In both shots. Here, he is in the foreground and shifts from one side of the
screen to the other as either one of the other two players Is consciously omftted
from each alternate master shot.
Summing up
A brief review o f the topics covered in this chapter is now given to
underline the essential points exam ined in relation to dialogues
among static groups o f three persons. W e have seen th at:
107
1 Three players can be deployed along three linear arrangements:
a straight line, a right angle and a triangle.
2 W ith three perform ers engaged in conversation, and where
there are two do m in an t centres o f atten tio n an d a silent arbiter,
the actors can rem ain in the sam e screen sector by employing the
triangular cam era site principle.
3 A triangular arrangem ent o f players can be covered by
fifteen pairs o f external reverse angles. These sets o f takes fall
within three m ain irregular form ulas.
4 N um ber co n trast can be obtained by com bining an externa!
and an internal reverse shot, o r by using internal reverse shots
exclusively. Parallel cam era sites give the same effect.
5 A player featured in bo th reverse shots can be used as a pivot
to relate the takes th a t cover the three players.
6 A pivoting shot can be used to ease the transition between two
takes where the players exchange their screen positions.
7 Visual em phasis can be applied over a single line o f interest
using external reverse shots exclusively. This em phasis can be
p artial o r total
8 The iine o f interest in a scene can be shifted to a crosswise
direction. Five different m ethods were outlined. In the first three
a com bination o f external-internal reverse shots were applied,
while in the last two a pivoting player was used.
9 One o f the players can be deliberately om itted from shot to
shot giving the illusion th a t all ‘rules’ are broken in the coverage of
actors arranged in a triangular form.
Scope for covering a g roup o f three static persons is wide enough
to offer some visual variety.
108
7
Simple cases
If both the whole g roup and the ccntre o f interest m ust be covered
visually this presupposes at least tw o basic m aster shots— one
framing the g roup full view, the o th er a close shot o f the m ain
actor/s. Some exam ples:
109
FIGURE 7.1 The principle of visual balance in action. A standing player can balance
a group of seated performers, and vice versa.
a
b c d
iff
r1
A
FIGURE 7.2 A group Is covered using two master shots arranged on a common
visual axis. In one of them the whole group is framed, tn the other the centre of
interest of the group is visually emphasized.
130
conversation an d then, turning, m akes a com m ent to A. If
players A and D have their backs to us they throw audience
attention on to perform ers B an d C, bu t if A and D turn to face
us, they them selves becom e the centre o f attention.
A further variation is for A an d D to act only as witnesses to
the conversation, and then onJy find their facial o r body reactions
to it are im p o rtan t. Shot 1 serves merely as a re-establishing shot
and is periodically intercut into m aster Shot 2 to give colour to the
dialogue by expanding the group.
MGIJRE 7.3 The right angle camera arrangement used here covers the whole group
end Its centre of attention. «
Groups arranged round a table
G roups o f people aro u n d a table are com m on in film scenes. Ways
have been found to present them dlearly to the audience. The
triangular cam era placem ent principle is valuable for solving many
tricky script situations in this type o f scene. O nce m ore the two
extremes o f the centre o f interest dom inate in the scene.
Case A
The visual axis and right angle sites outlined above can be used
together to cover two im p o rtan t actors in a group by giving them
individual atten tio n (Fig, 7.4),
FIGURE 7.4 Coveraoe of a group where the two central players are emphasized by
individual shots.
112
The procedure is simple. Shot 1 shows the whole group. A ctors
A. and B are the centre o f attention. Player A addresses the whole
group. W hen he turns his atten tio n on. B. cut to Shot 2, where A
speaks his lines to B off screen. N ow cut to Shot 3, to show B
replying. T hen cut back to shot 2 where A replies to B, and again
to Shot 3 where B m akes his point clear.
Now we re-establish by going back to Shot 1 to show the group
reacting. If A an d B speak to one an o th er again, we may cut
once m ore to an interplay o f their individual shots and then
return to the full shot num ber 1 to hear the com m ents o f
another in the group.
Case B
In Fig. 7.2, 7.3 and 7.4, the second cam era was placed closer to
the group, thus excluding some actors from the shot. In Fig. 7.5,
the cam era distance is the sam e in both positions.
This right angle set up creates on the screen a visual ruie sim ilar
to one o f the three irregular form ulas em ployed for covering
roughly trian g u lar groups o f three. W ith the second cam era on the
left, the first acto r on th at side in position 1 shifts to the right in
position 2. O th er actors rem ain in the sam e o rder:
Shot I : A B C D E
Shot 2 : B C D E A
With the second cam era on the right, the reverse occurs: the
first acto r on the right in Shot 1 m oves to the left in cam era
position 2.
Shot 1 : A B C D £
Shot 2 : £ A B C D
Groups o f fo u r and five persons can be visually covered using
these right angle cam era sites.
Case C
A group o f five persons covered by external reverse angles,
although adhering to the same rule, offers a slight variant th a t is
simple to define. Fig. 7.6 shows tw o possibilities for the sam e
example. In one o f them the line o f interest flows betw een players
C and E, an d in the o ther between C and A. T he tw o actors o n the
opposite side o f the line o f interest shift from one side o f the
screen to the o th er an d interchange positions, while the others
113
FIGURE 7.5 Irregular camera coverage, where a player at one extreme of the frame
area shifts to the other side as the shot is changed. The remaining group maintain
the same visual order on the screen.
114
maintain the same order. W here players C and E dom inate, the
coverage is as follows:
Shot l ^ S C D E
Shot 2: C D E B A
In the instance where C and A dom inate, the form ula is reversed:
Shot 1: A B C D E
Shot 2: E D A B C
Study Fig. 7.6 and you will see how the form ula works for diagonal
lines o f interest.
FIGURE 7.6 A group with a diagonal line of interest covered by external reverse
sliots obeys the visual rule shown. The two p layers not involved in the line of interest
move to the other side of the screen in the second shot and exchange positions.
The illustration features the solutions available for both diagonal lines of interest.
Case D
In our next case, external reverse angles are also applied to a group
of persons seated at a table, but with different results.
The im portant conversation is between B and C (Fig. 7.7). O ur
camera positions are concentrated on one side o f the line of
interest generated between the .two central actors.
FIGURE 7.7 When the dominant players are placed in the centre of the screen tor an
interplay of external reverse shots, the players on the extremes o f the frame change
position from shot to shot*
FIGURE7.8 The croup is subdivided, and the dominant player is placed in opposition
to the res! of the group.
Geometrical patterns
A group m ay be assem bled in one o f m any geom etrical shapes—
a circle, rectangle, square, triangle, etc., o r an am orphous shape
with no clear pattern at all. B ut the screen com position is governed
by the floor plan distribution and the heights o f the players. Both
present balanced screen com positions. The floor plan distribution
118
FIGURE 7.10 The ensemble Is subdivided into two smaller groups, and the resultant
master shots are edited in parallel.
FIGURE 7.12 The group of players covered in Shot 1 has a dominant triangu!ar
form ation. The reverse shot conform s to one of the irregular ruies applied to this
form of arranoement, using internal reverse shots.
Several opposed sectors
In a group distributed in three o r m ore sectors, using establishing
and internal reverse shots, the dialogue coverage is sim ilar to
single shots o f three persons in a triangular form ation except that
here, from some angles, m ore th a n one person is fram ed. (See
Fig. 7.13 for a three-sector group covered by four cam era sites.)
121
A sequence using this principle, could be edited as follow s:
Shot 1 W hole group is established.
Shot 2 P erform er C throw s atten tio n to the left.
Shot 3 Perform er A an d B talk to C off-screen.
Shot 2' C replies and m oves his head to right.
Shot 4 Perform ers D an d E reply to C off-screen.
Shot 2* C replies.
Shot 4' Perform ers D and E reply and then move th eir heads,
and instead o f looking to the left where C is off-screen,
they now look off-screen right.
Shot 3' Perform ers A an d B looking off-screen left, reply
to D and E.
Shot 4" D and E reply. Still looking off-screen right.
Shot 3’ A and B end talking to D and E off-screen left, and
tu rn their heads right, tow ards C, who is ou t o f the
screen on th a t side.
Shot 1' W hole group. P erform er C is again dom inant. The
o th er four players are looking at him.
In the sequence ju st described the line o f interest m oved in a full
circle shifting from group to group (see Fig. 7.13),
The m ultiple plane arrangem ent has endless variations. One,
for example, (illustrated in Fig. 7.14) deals with triangular arrange
m ents o f six players, com posed in depth. The whole group is
established in the first m aster shot. O f two vertical triangular
form ations the one on the left has its apex in the foreground on
A, seated; the o th er has its base in the foreground and its apex
on F, beyond. C am era sites 2 an d 3, fram e these triangular
form ations separately bu t parallel. Site 4, at right angles to 2 and
3, fram es the seated foreground figures in a trian g u lar composi
tion.
In this group the d om inant players are sitting in the fore
ground, while the subsidiaries stand.
A further variation is to split the group in changing patterns, ie:
the whole group is established and then broken up in three parts,
each covered by different cam era set-ups. A fter returning to the
establishing shot they are seen again in other, closer, shots. But
this time the group has been divided only into two parts, present
ing visual arrangem ents that differ from the previous three master
shots. A step further is to mingle these five m aster shots into a
free-form editing pattern, where the establishing shot picks up the
whole group again from time to time.
f
123
Handling large groups
If, instead of being so closely knit, several groups are scattered
ab o u t the set, fixed cam era set-ups can still cover a dialogue that
m oves by zones. It is advisable to have a central group o r person
on w hom the action is hinged, show ing him as speaker and
listener, and shifting audience atten tio n from player to player.
M aster shots can be used, edited in pairs, occasionally re
establishing larger sections o f the group. If the line o f interest is
co nstantly changing direction, keep these changes simple. Use a
player as pivot in two m aster shots (or in a re-establishing take} to
clearly indicate the change o f direction when he m oves his head
fro m one centre to another.
M ost film m akers prefer sim pler situations or, if faced with
such a complex set-up, m ove the cam era o r the players during the
sequence to simplify the problem . The m easure o f a good director
is seen when he handles such a com plex dialogue situation using
only static cam era set-ups, with a m inim um o f m ovem ent for the
players an d then only when strictly necessary for the requirements
o f th e story. Alfred H itchcock handles a sequence like this in his
film The Birds. This is the scene in the cafe, after the birds have
attack ed the schoolchildren, and where an elderly w om an specializ
ing in ornithology puts the whole event in doubt. N otice how
M elanie Daniels, the barm an, the lawyer, the lady ornithologist, a
m o th e r with two children, the cook, the waitress, the travelling
salesm an, the local barfly an d a sea captain, are all involved in a
conversation th at covers a whole reel o f the film (around 8
m inutes). H itchcock handles them separately o r in groups using
static cam era set-ups.
126
FIGURE 7.16 FJoor plan showing the camera positions used when lone playerfacing
a crowd shHts his gaze from one side to the other changing the direction of the line o f
interest.
Y ou need not, o f course, use all the key cam era positions
shown o n the floor plans in Fig. 7.18. The num erous editing
com binations give adequate coverage for situations in this
category, with fewer cam era positions.
A ctors as pivots
W hen dealing with exam ples with three players, we explained how
one o f those players could be used as a pivot to assemble the
interplay o f m aster shots covering the group. T here we said that
the player used as a pivot could be o n the same side o f the screen
in b oth shots, o r assum e an irregular solution where he alternated
130
between sides o f the screen from shot to shot. Both rules apply to a
perform er in relation to a crowd. H e can be placed in the centre
of the crow d (large or small) o r on the rim. In this example a
central p erfo rm er is used as a pivot w ithin a sm all group.
FIGURE 7.20 A central player is used as a pivot w ithin a group to present it as sub
divided into two smaller units. The pivotinB player is used In an Irregular manner,
shifting his position from one side of the screen to the other.
FIGURE 7.22 Two central players in the group used as visual pivots to show the
whole group around them. The key performers in this instance are located in the
centre of Lhe group.
132
FIGURE 7.23 The two dominant players In the group are placed on the rim of It. For
this reason the group is featured in only one oi the shots.
W hen the pivoting perform ers have a passive role in the scene,
they can be placed in foreground to help relate a group divided
into sectors. These tw o players always rem ain on the sides o f the
screen, b u t the person o r persons in the centre change from shot
to shot. This is achieved by placing bo th cam era positions at
right angies. Fig. 7,24 shows a simple case involving only four
persons seated a t a table.
FIGURE 7,24 The two pivoting players have, in tills case, a passive nature and the
dominant pleyers appear aJternately in the centre of the screen as each master shot is
edited in parallel.
The parallel editing o f the m aster shots obtained from those two
right angle cam era sites, allows a little trickery in shooting the
scene.
Two groups o f players w ho, for some reason, cannot be present
on the stage o r o n the location a t the sam e time, can be related
perfectly by arranging two pivoting players in the foreground in
b oth shots. The only requisite is th a t these two perform ers be
available for filming bo th shots. In the first take, a group of
persons situated in the centre o f the screen talk to som eone off
screen whose place is taken by a substitute w ho provides the
replies in the conversation.
L ater on, a week o r a m onth afterw ards, the second shot is
filmed w ith the missing g roup fram ed betw een the two pivoting
players in the foreground. The second cam era site is used. The
central players look off-screen, too, b u t in the opposite direction
to th a t in the first m aster shot.
W hen, a t the editing stage, b o th takes are com bined (in parallel)
the difference will no t be noticeable if the lighting has been matched
carefully This form ula allows for further trickery: two different
sets o r locales can be used, one for each take— producing on the
screen a n im aginary set which is an am algam o f both.
EDITING PATTERNS FOR
STATIC DIALOGUE SCENES
H ow a sequence begins
O n th e screen we d o n o t usually begin a conversation with the
ac to rs already in their allotted places, have them say their lines,
an d cu t straight to the next sequence. We norm ally record a more
n a tu ra l o rd er o f events. O ur perform ers meet first, then talk, and
finally, p art. There are variations to this, bu t no t fro m this need.
O n o th er occasions, when the sequence begins the characters
in th e story are already in position and needing no introduction
to o n e another. Nevertheless, we like to meet them visually before
we ca n listen to w hat they have to say. We are then fed in to a
closer view for the dialogue.
B ut such sequences seldom begin with the players already on
the screen speaking their first lines from the beginning o f the first
shot. T here is nearly always a m ovem ent at the beginning or at the
end o f the sequence. H ere are six generic variants w here such
m ovem ent lapses into static body positions from which a con
versation can be com fortably developed.
136
1 Both players enter into cam era range, walk tow ards us, and
stop to talk.
2 One perform er is already on the screen, the other enters and
stops beside him and they start talking.
3 In the two previous exam ples the cam era was fixed, bu t it
could have panned or travelled follow ing both o r one o f the actors
to their stopping places.
4 If the panning or travelling technique is used, a third character
can start the sequence by w alking up to the couple, giving them
som ething and going aw ay. T he cam era rem ains with the o u r two
main perform ers (or larger group) who w ould then begin to speak.
5 A panning o r tracking m ovem ent th at starts on an em pty part
of the set a n d moves to one side to fram e the m ain players can also
be used to begin the scene. The voices o f the players are heard
before th eir figures are revealed.
6 The opening m ovem ent in the sequence can be covered in
several shots prior to the start o f the static dialogue.
The possibilities outlined can be applied to larger groups. F or
the exits a t the end o f the sequence we would only have to reverse
the m ovem ents described above. It m ust be understood th at these
opening an d closing m otions are an essential part o f the dialogue
sequences where the perform ers stop to talk in a fixed place.
Re-establishing shots
To keep o u r interest adequately aroused in the situation, we m ust
be rem inded from tim e to tim e o f the place in which the action
that attracted o u r atten tion is happening. This presupposes the use,
at least once, o f a re-establishing shot halfw ay through the
sequence. The shot can serve several purposes;
1 It re-estates the place, rem inding us o f the spatial relationship
between the perform ers and their placem ent on the set— som e
thing we tend to forget as we concentrate on the closer shots.
2 Lt serves as a pause in the n a rra tio n —a visual pause that
breaks the satu ratio n o f the close shots accum ulated during the
development o f the dialogue.
3 [t serves to end the sequence, giving the perform ers space in
which to p art o r go away together.
4 If the sequence continues, it serves to m ask a change in editing
patterns, o r allow s the actors to m ove from zone to zone before the
new editing pattern is introduced.
137
5 If some ac to r is tem porarily excluded in an interplay o f close
shots that concentrate on the central perform ers, a re-establishing
shot rem inds us o f his presence. I f he is no t re-established his
disappearance w ould be baffling to us, since we w ould n o t have
been aw are o f his exit.
O f course, there are exceptions to this pattern o f establishing
shot dialogue in closer shots—re-establishing shot. W e can start
a scene w ith close shots an d establish the locale after a suitable
period has elapsed (the opening o f the M asoch C lub sequence in
The Tenth Victim , (see Page 6) w here the an n o u n cer is first
introduced alone, in close up, and his location is revealed at a later
stage in the story). T h at procedure is correct. B ut w hat we can
seldom do is dispose com pletely o f the establishing shot.
Case A
Let us exam ine the use o f inserts first. L et us say th at we have a
scene where one player is explaining som ething to another.
There is a m ap o n the wall behind them (Fig. 8.1). Suddenly, to
m ake a p o in t clearer, o ne o f the players indicates a section o f the
map. I f we cu t to a close shot o f him o n the sam e visual axis o f the
m aster shot, the audience, to o , will be able to appreciate the
point.
W e th en retu rn to the form er m aster shot. T h at small shot
spliced into the m aster shot served to highlight a p art o f the
dialogue an d its use was justified. In fact, it w ould have been a
m istake n o t to avail ourselves o f the situation to present a clearer
visual story to the audience.
The next possibility is to m ake the insert shot from a reverse
camera position. F o r instance, a ca r is o n the road parked beside
a policem an who is adm onishing its driver. W e cover this dialogue
from a full sh o t position (see Fig. 8.2). As the policem an hands a
139
FIGURE B.1 The insert has the same visual axis as the master shot.
Case B
A n insert can be used twice w ithin a m aster shot. F o r example,
Tw o persons talking as seen from a m aster shot th a t fram es them
in full shot. Two inserts o f the sam e perform er are m ade where he
reacts silently to the w ords o f his partner. As these m om ents come
FIGURE ».2 Tlie insert has a reverse erteie relationship with She master shot.
Case C
An insert shot is often used as hinge to unite two m aster shots.
141
F o r exam ple: Three officers are discussing a situation in front o f a
m ilitary m ap. The m ap is placed sideways to the audience and
cannot be clealrly seen. W hen one o f the players points to it, we
cut to a close shot o f the m ap and the hand o f the perform er
roam ing over it. This shot could be from a right angle cam era
position, and is o u r insert.
But then, instead o f returning to the previous m aster shot, we
cut to a second m aster shot th at continues the scene (Fig. 8.3).
This second m aster shot can be m ade from any one o f the points
o f the triangle cam era disposition for coverage o f a group, and
this group can be fram ed in its entirety as before. O r the view may
become selective and fram e only a section o f it.
142
Case D
In the old days, and in fact in quite recent times, especially in
A m erica, static dialogued scenes were shot according to a standard
p ro c e d u re :
1 A m aster shot, (usually a full shot), is m ade o f the scene all
the way th rough.
2 The ensem ble o f players is split in groups, and each g roup is
pho to g rap h ed repeating the whole scene from beginning to end
with the o th er players sitting o r standing out o f cam era range all
th ro u g h the scene.
3 C lose-ups o f every player involved are shot covering the w hole
event.
This m eans th a t the film editor has a wide field o f selection w hen
editing the scenes, since he has all the lines o f dialogue and silent
reactions he needs. H e is the one w ho selects the cam era angles
to a p p e ar on the screen. I f the director later w ants to delete som e
piece o f dialogue o r phrase, the editor can do th at very easily,
because he has num erous cover shots (inserts an d cut-aways) to
choose from to bridge the gap where the w ords were rem oved.
Case E
In scenes which are essentially psychological and greatly depend
on dialogue, the perform ance a n d truthful staging m ust tak e
precedence over the arrangem ent o f the shots. T he classical m ethod
o f shooting the scene, as described above in case D, is the easiest
way o u t, b u t p erh ap s not the m ost econom ical. It allows the
director and film ed itor to try' several different versions o f the
scene till they arrive at the m ost satisfactory.
If the scene has special bits o f business w orth stressing visually,
the d irector shoots th em for the editor to use a t the proper tim e in
the sequence. Such inserts can be sim ple facial reactions, the
m ovem ent o f a hand, the m otion o f a m echanism seen in detail,
etc. In fact, the w ord insert is often synonym ous with close shot.
It is n o t necessary for the film editor to use them all, perhaps none
m ay be used in the final version o f the scene. But a wise director
shoots them anyw ay to be adequately covered. On the stage floor,
am o n g all the rush an d cxcitem em t o f getting the scene on film,
the quality o f all ideas cannot be assessed properly, and the final
editing p attern m ay n o t yet, perhaps, have been decided.
143
On o ther occasions an insert is used to repair technical errors
unw ittingly com m itted—for exam ple, if a piece o f him has been
fogged for some reason or som eone out o f cam era range moved in
front o f a light during the shot. Such errors m ight not be seen until
printed, at which stage it is perhaps too costly o r im possible to
reshoot the scene. An insert spliced in place o f the dam aged spot
o f film often saves the day.
Case F
Som etim es during the course o f a conversation the characters refer
to som ething off screen: a building, an anim al, a vehicle or,
p erhaps, a person. It is quite natural then, if the subject involved is
really im p o rtan t, to splice a shot o f it into the single take that
covers th e dialogue. T h at insertion is called a cut-aw ay.
M o re th an one cut-aw ay shot can be introduced into a master
sh o t to show the different points o f interest th at the players cover
in the developm ent o f their dialogue. F o r exam ple: two persons
are stan d in g on a hill talking, we see them in m edium shot. One
p o in ts off screen to the right. W e insert a cut-aw ay in which a far-
o ff bu ild in g is seen. We return to the m aster shot o f the two
players. After a m om ent the second perform er turns and points to
som ething off screen, left. W e insert an o th er cut-aw ay showing a
d istan t bridge. Then we return to the m edium shot o f the two
acto rs where they conclude their conversation and turning, walk
aw ay to the background. Thus the sequence is neatly resolved, in
a straig h tfo rw ard sim ple presentation.
In th e example exam ined bo th cut-aw'ays covered different
subjects. Instead o f two different cut-aw ays being inserted into the
m aster shot, the subject m atter o f both inserts can be the sam e, but
the second is a closer shot on the sam e visual axis as the first,
insert. Repeating o ur example, both players are standing on the
hill, talking, facing us. (Fig. 8.4). They look up, off screen, to the
sky. W e insert the first cut-aw ay, a tall tree with an eagle seen
perched 011 a top branch. This is a full shot o f the tree and the
eagle.
W e retu rn to the m aster shot, an d m om ents later insert the
second cut-away, a closer view o f the eagle on the branch.
The m ethod can also be applied to silent scenes, where a group,
or g ro u p s, witness some far off event, o r are w atched by another
group.
144
145
1
C ase G
The next step is to insert m ore than two cut-aw ays in the same
m aster sh o t—always covering the' sam e subject. The form ula is
simple. The m aster is a full shot o f the m ain perform er or per
form ers. The inserts progress from a full shot for the first, to
m edium shot for the second, to close shot for the third and close
up for the fourth.
This form ula can be applied to dialogues o r silent situations.
One can recall tw o exam ples from well know n films. In Max
O phuls’ Lola M o n tez, Peter U stinov is seen as the circus master
perched on a high scaffold, recounting the life o f Lola M ontez to
the public. D ow n below in the arena Lola M ontez (played by
M artine C arol) turns on a m erry-go-round where several groups of
m idgets represent stages o f her life. T he take covering Peter
U stinov is a static Full Shot, and is the m ain m aster take. On it are
intercut a series o f shots o f Lola M ontez beginning to recall a
particularly painful event in her life. A s a p o unding sound in
creases in the sound track o f the film, we get progressively closer
views o f her on the m erry-go-round, intercut w ithin the shot of
Peter U stinov.
The second exam ple happens in A lfred H itchcock’s film The
Birds. M elanie D aniels has stepped out o f the school building and
sits dow n close to the playground to sm oke a cigarette. Un
noticed by her, several birds began to gather on the clim bing bars
iocated on the school playground.
The playground is fram ed in full shot, while a progressive
succession o f closer shots o f the girl are spliced within that master
shot. The scene is played com pletely in silence, and runs roughly
like this:
Full shot. A lone bird arrives and lands on the clim bing bars.
Full shot o f M elanie D aniels sm oking.
Full shot. Several birds on the bars. A n o th er crow arrives.
M edium shot o f the girl. She sm okes.
Full shot. N ew birds arrive.
Close shot o f girl. She sm okes slowly.
Full shot. M ore birds jo in the crows already gathered in on
the playground.
Close up o f the girl. She stops sm oking and turns her head to
the left to look off screen.
A lone bird flying in the sky. The cam era fram ing it in long
146
shot follows its flight from left to right, to show how the crow
joins the ran k s o f birds now fully covering the metal construc
tion on the playground.
Close up o f th e girl. She reacts frightened.
All the shots o f M elanie D aniels seated o n the bench, sm oking,
had the same visual axis.
Case H
C ut-aw ays can be tracking o r panned shots, as well as static set
ups. F o r exam ple: an actress is addressing a group. It is a long
speech she is delivering.
W e face her in m edium shot.
The first cut-aw ay inserted in a full shot o f the group w atching
h er silently.
Back again to her m edium shot.
T he second cut-aw ay is a panning shot across the faces in the
group.
W e retu rn to the m aster m edium shot o f the actress.
T he th ird cut-aw ay is a full shot sim ilar to the first insert.
W e close th e sequence by returning again to the m aster m edium
sh o t where she finishes speaking.
Case I
A cut-aw ay can evoke an event in the past. A kira K urosaw a an d
Alain R esnais are two film m akers very adept at this sort o f usage.
The rem em brance can be provoked by the subject th at dom inates
in the m aster shot, o r it m ay be a sudden visualization o f the
character’s inner recollections.
In his film Rashomon, A kira K urosaw a has a scene in which the
bandit (Toshiro M ifune) tells the co u rt how he recalls the events
on the day o f the crime. T here is a particu lar m om ent that is built
like this:
The b an d it says he rem em bers having covered a great distance
with his horse th at day.
W ithout in terrupting the verbal n arratio n o f the bandit, a cut-aw ay
is introduced fram ing the horizon low o n the screen, and on its
edge the small figure o f the bandit riding his horse is seen travers
ing the screen.
The b andit reappears as in the previous m aster shot, and co n
tinues his n arratio n to the tribunal.
In this cut-away to a past event tw o different times co-exist
briefly on the screen. The audience accepts this cut-aw ay without
difficulty because it is m otivated by the p erform er’s train of
thought.
A lain Resnais specializes Ln the sudden intrusion o f the past on
the present, w ithout w arning and usually for a b rief flash. His film
H iroshim a, M on A m our is full o f such examples.
T he French w om an in the hotel room fixes her atten tio n on the
hand o f her Japanese lover asleep on the bed.
W ith o u t warning, a b rief take is inserted showing in close up the
han d o f ano th er m an wriggling in agony.
It is a b rief pan shot th at moves upw ards over the prone body
o f the G erm an.
T he wom an looks at her sleeping lover. T here is no immediate
ex p lan atio n for th at sudden, b rief shot. It com es as a shock. It is
only later, when the p a rt recurrs several tim es m ore, th at we
u n d erstan d th at the hand belonged to her dead G erm an lover, a
sold ier in W orld W ar II. It is a m ore difficult for the audience to
grasp the point. O u r first reaction is one o f shock, we do not
u n d erstan d at all.
As the experience is repeated we learn to accept th at appearance
passively, waiting for the explanation th at we are sure will later
be provided by the author.
Case J
F o r how long should an insert o r a cut-aw ay be held on the screen ?
It depends on the content.
I f it frames a m otion th at is em phasized, it should begin with
the sta rt o f the m ovem ent an d finalize when it com es to an end. In
fact, the length o f the shot in such a case dictates itself. If the
m ovem ent em phasized is p a rt o f a larger m otion, the visual rapport
betw een the m aster shot and the insert should be achieved by
cu ttin g on the action.
M o re o f this, later.
I f a static object is the one fram ed on the cut-aw ay, o r a silent
close sh o t o f a person with neutral expression, two seconds is
enough, o r sometimes even to o long. But if the silent player giving
a passive countenance to his screen interpretation is listening to a
phrase, dialogue o r a piece o f m usic, this im age can be easily held
up to 10 seconds w ithout seeming over-long.
148
Number contrast
W hat I have called ‘n um ber c o n tra st’ is one o f the m ost useful
recourses fo r covering long dialogues, since it m asks the ap p ro ach
ing and receding visual pattern o f the film by featuring a different
num ber o f actors on the screen from shot to shot. N um ber
contrast is obtained by parallel cam era positions in groups o f three
and m ore actors, but m ore often m ainly by opposing a reverse
external position to an internal reverse cam era site. This approach
works with groups o f two actors and m ore. Its m ost simple
application would be a decreasing contrast in num bers, such as:
2 players to 2,
2 players to 1,
1 player to ],
This w ould correspond to a visual pattern o f m edium shots, close
shots, close ups, th u s perhaps building to a peak m om ent in the
dialogue. The p attern is reversed to retu rn to the subdued curve o f
dialogue before m ounting to the next peak.
A pair o f reverse shots (in any o f the five variants o f the triangle
principle) can be at different subject ranges for variety in the final
edited result. I f the apex o f the triangular cam era disposition (the
establishing shot site) is a full shot, and the other two positions on
the base o f th e triangle figure are close shots, the extrem e diff
erences in subject distance will provide a dram atic introduction
and conclusion to the sequence.
Variation A
With this technique inserts a n d cut-aw ays are em ployed for effect
only, to stress an object, a spoken line o r a facial expression
within one o r several o f the editing patterns o f the sequence.
The film m aker need n o t be awed by the large num ber o f pairs
o f key shots he has at his disposal. H e selects and ad ap ts for the
needs o f his story those types o f com binations m ore suited to his
purpose.
Variation B
Using shots at different distances for variety can be carried a step
further (Fig. 8.5).
The four m aster cam era sites show n could be edited in a simple
pattern, such as the follow ing:
Shots 1— 4— 1— 4— 2—3—2 —3
progressing from close shots to close ups. T o achieve th at we group
together the reverse shots o f the sam e distance: 1 and 4 are close
shots, 2 and 3 are close ups.
Yet, both distances can be contrasted, so that a close up follows
a close shot, reversing the form ula half-way through the sequence.
The sequence will then becom e as follows:
150
FIGURE 8.5 Four key master shots th a t can be used to obtain a dynamic visual
presentation of a dialogued scene by contrasting distances on the reverse shots.
Variation C.
Here is an o th er widely used variation, applied to parallel editing
o f a tw o-player static dialogue. The system im plies the use o f tw o
cam era sites placed o n a com m on visual axis to cover one o f the
players, while only one cam era position is given to the o th er
player. I f you pick two key cam era positions to cover a dialogue,
and feel th at the conversation is to o long, you can move forw ard
on the axis o f one o f the m aster takes to cover the second h a lf o f
the conversation.
Fig. 8.6 illustrates tw o exam ples where tw o players are used as
pivots in a group. I f the dialogue is a short one the editing o rd er
of the sequence could b e :
S hots 1— 2— 1— 2— 1— 2
Since the dialogue is longer, halfw ay through it we move to a
closer position on the same axis o f one o f the m aster shots (thus
em phasizing one o f the players). T he editing order now becomes:
Shots 1—2— 1— 2— 1—2—3— 2— 3—2
B oth exam ples illustrated have subtle differences in number
co n trast when the closer shot on one o f the visual axes is introduced
in th e sequence.
153
FIGURE 8.7 Crossing a triangular formation to the other side of the line of interest.
A diversion, in this case a momentary crosswise change in the fine of direction
is used to achieve the shifting of the triangular camera placement scheme.
Tim e compression
T here are situations in which lengthy dialogue seems necessary to
convey properly w hat is happening. A nd yet, we m ay still feel that
th e scene is too wordy, an d slows dow n the rhythm o f the film.
T here is a solution which is very cinem atic in its results and is
always an attention getter. Basically, w hat is done is to compress
the tim e span o f the dialogued sequence, specially in its central
p art.
T he opening and closing parts o f the sequence are treated
n o rm aly. Fig. 8.8 gives us a visual idea o f the principle.
FIGURE 8.8 The line represents the total length of the scene, out o f wtileh key
passages are selected and edited together, om itting other fragm ents considered not
reievant Jo the spirit of the scene. Thus, time compression is achieved.
C<?.re if
If this technique is applied to two people, each shot may contain
only two phrases, a question and an answ er perhaps and those
phrases cover a com plete th o u g h t o r idea. The scenes are very
brief giving a staccato rh y th m on the screen, due to the direct cuts
with which th e takes have been joined. This m ood is em phasized
by the acto rs changing sites, body positions, and fram ing in the
picture area.
A pause introduced in one shot would break the m onotony o f
(he staccato rhythm .
By presenting the scene with a contraction o f real time, we have
eliminated the hesitations, repetitions an d verbal pauses betw een
the peaks o f dialogue, keeping o n the screen only the im p o rtan t
sectors o f the scene.
Cnye C
The same technique can be taken a step further and one o f the
players can be periodically replaced in the sequence, as the co n
versation moves along a central them e.
In the French film W ithout Apparent M otive, J. L, T rintignant,
157
playing the police inspector, interrogates a suspect. The inspector
questions—the suspect answ ers, after a tim e this pattern is broken
by having a second suspect unexpectedly answ er a question, and
then the first suspect answ ers the following question, and then the
second, an d then the first till the sequence concludes. What
happens is that two different interrogations were held in the same
ro o m a t different times. These scenes are edited in parallel to give
the audience non-repetitive inform ation, which w ould happen
when the second suspect answers the sam e questions with the
same results. W ith this approach only the inform ation that differs
as supplied by both is given to the audience.
T he scene gained in clarity by a simple contraction o f time.
In M ilos F orm an film Taking O ff a song called L e t's Get A
L ittle Sentim ental is presented as sung in a fragm ented jum p-cut
m ontage by a variety o f girls at an audition. Each girl sings a
single phrase or only a few words, an d the lyrics are continued by
the one th at follows. U p to tw enty girls are used to render the song
o n the screen.
Case D
A kira K urosaw a in his film Ikiru used the same technique b u t in a
different context. The film begins with a group o f w om en com
plaining in the m unicipal offices. T he em ployee sends them
to an o th er section. By a series o f swift wipes across the screen a
succession o f em ployees from different sectors o f the establish
m ent is presented, all saying in their ow n way th a t they are not
involved and referring the w om en to the next office. At last, the
whole thing com es full circle, and the women are returned to the
first em ployee they saw.
O ne of the wom en suddenly gives vent to her indignation on the
m an and on the system he w orks for.
W hen the sequence begins we are shown the wom en and the
em ployee, but after he directs them to the next office and the first
wipe crosses the screen, the succeeding takes are a series o f close
shots o f the em ployees, w ho, speaking directly into the camera
lens, give their excuses in tu rn . T he wom en are no t seen o r heard
during the whole succession o f faces, till the first employee re
appears,
K u rosaw a’s social com m ent is pu t bluntly enough by this
technique.
158
Case E
David Lean adopted this m ethod o f tim e contraction in Doctor
Zhivago. B ut his v ariation is to use a n a rra to r to express verbally
the m ood o f the scene whose visual p arts he contracts. Y evgraf
finds Z hivago tearing pieces o f wood from a fence. Y evgraf
recognizes him as his h alf brother (so his interior voice inform s us)
and follows him hom e. T here is a sh o rt scene betw een Zhivago
and the tw o com m issars who are rem oving his books from his
room. The discussion is interrupted by the arrival o f Y evgraf who
snaps his fingers an d disbands the group o f neighbours.
Once m ore the internal voice o f Y evgraf is heard on the sound
track, while on th e screen Zhivago em braces his step-brother, they
eat together, and talk. But only the n arrative voice o f Y evgraf is
heard. Suddenly there is a close shot o f Z hivago where he says:
‘N o t liked? M y poem s are n o t liked? By w h o m ?’ A nd over a
silent face o f Y evgref his narrative voice on the screen gives the
real answ er he w ould have liked to have m ade b u t did not.
The scene progresses, w ith the players gesticulating and m oving
silently, until th e n arrative voice o f Y evgraf is once m ore in
terrupted by Z hivago speaking.
Y evgraf’s visit is visually reduced to a series o f images com
pressing tim e and representing only the peak m om ents of their
meeting.
Speeding dialogue tempo
There is a curious ph enom enon for w hich I know n o t of a valid
explanation. W hen you shoot a scene at a norm al pace and project
it later on a small screen, the pace reproduced on the screen equals
th at o f th e scene when it was photographed on film. B ut when this
same strip o f film is projected on a large screen to be viewed by a
large audience, the pace o f the scene slows dow n. This is a fact to
which m any film directors will attest.
W ith an actio n scene, the cam era is undercranked, thus in
creasing the speed o f the subject when, later, the film is projected
at the n o rm al rate. But how do we solve the sam e problem when
dealing w ith a static dialogued scene ? Speed up the tem po o f the
scene to ab o u t one-third o f the norm al pace.
This m ethod should no t be used w hen you w ant to convey
m ood, b u t when the dialogue is o f an inform ative nature.
W hen a dialogue scene is speeded up, in this way actors tend
to speak louder. I f you instruct them to speak quietly their voice
level will sound n atural in the finished sequence.
159
9
THE NATURE OF SCREEN MOTION
x:;_
FIGURE 9.1 A continuous movement recorded by several cameras requires that
these cameras be pieced on Ih e sam e side o f the path travelled by the moving subject.
i;
_A —
■"" \
II
i
or by tw o o r m ore on the trian g u lar principle. H orizontal m ove
ment (the m o st com m on) can be across the screen, diagonally on
[lie screen, from a neutral direction (com ing straight tow ards us
or going aw ay) and in an arc. Any change in direction m ust be
shown o n the screen, so th at the audience is n o t confused when a
perform er is suddenly seen m oving in the opposite direction to th at
just shown,
F o r exam ple, if you m ove from your chair to your table to pick
up a book (see Fig. 9.3), your rising m ovem ent would be show n
with Shot I, y o u r walking m ovem ent to the table in Shot 2 and
your arrival a t the table in Shot 3. T here you pick up the b o o k and
turn to go back to your chair. W c see you turn an d go out,
returning to the previous cam era position (2) on your way back,
and your arrival a t the chair seen from position 1.
Using cut-aways
Cut-aw ays m ake the audience forget the sense o f direction in the
last m ovem ent show n, so th a t a new direction does n o t seem un
n atu ral. A n audience w atching a film is always w aiting for new
shots. Their atten tio n is so m uch involved th a t recent visual
m em ory becom es very poor. They will rarely rem em ber m ore than
one o r tw o shots preceding the one they are w atching. A mind
busy grasping story points, does not concentrate fo r long enough
o n screen directions to object to a change b ro u g h t a b o u t by inter
posing cut-aw ays. A racetrack sequence, for exam ple, where you
w ant to cross to th e o th er side o f the track for a w ider view could
be planned as follows:
C ars cross screen from right to left; m ore cars, right to left, at a
diag o n al; o th er cars cross right to left in fro n t o f a crow ded stand; ^
close sh o t o f a clock giving the tim e ; a close shot o f a b o ard giving ;
the p o sitio n s; wide shot in w hich the cars m ove from left to right,
closer shot in which o th er cars ru n from left to right.
13
FIGURE M The opposed directions of tracking shots 1 and 3 can be properly refated
by interposing a shot of a person who Indicates the change. This Indication can be
achieved by a simple turn of this person's head.
to right, thus confirm ing th at the player’s view was fro m the same
side o f the vehicle. T his is n o t exactly a changc o f direction across
the screen, b u t a change o f view point along the sam e line o f M ove-
jn e n t.
T here are three o th er ways o f m oving to the o th er side o f a line
o f m o tion o r o f interest. The first one involves using the ho ri
zontal action o f a player, the second com bines th a t horizontal
m otion o f a subject with an accom panying pan n in g displacem ent
of the cam era. T he third ap p ro ach uses the vertical m otion o f a
person on the screen to m ask the crossing o f the cam era to the
other side.
167
-J
FIGURE 9.6 The person Indicating the chanQe of direction from shot to shot can exit
from the firs t and enter view in the other, thus relating tw o different places.
FIGURE y.7 Opposed directions of movement are suggested when two tracklrifl s io ts
covering two central characters are intercut in parallel. These players either walk, >r
sit inside a vehicle.
FIGURE 9.1G Opposed movements of a subject In a hall area of the screen, will seem
continuous to the audience, despite a pause in the movement introduced halfway
through the scene.
Subject B enters from the left in Shot 1 and stops to talk to player
A. W e cut to Shot 2 where perform er B ends talking to A, and
exits left. A lthough perform er B m oved in opposite directions in
the same screen sector, his sense o f direction was continuous with
respect to player A.
Case C
FIGURE 9.9 Contrasting movements of a subject, if remaining in the same half of the
screen help to maintain a continuous sense o f direction to r the audience despite the In the two exam ples ju st discussed, the cam era occupied fixed
change in camera anale.
positions in b o th external reverse shots. But it is possible to m ake
one o f those cam era placem ents a m oving one, keeping the
Perform er B moves from right to centre in the first take. As she contrast in m ovem ents on the screen. (Fig. 9.11).
arrives there, there is a cut to the second shot, w here we see her Shot 1 C am era high, looking dow n on em pty seats in a theatre.
move from the centre o f the screen to the right. T hus, she was seen O ur only perform er walks along an aisle centre to right.
m oving to the left in Shot I an d to the right in reverse Shot 2. As he nears the edge o f the screen, o u t to . . .
173
\y
S'
S'
FIGURE 9.11 The same principle of opposed movements in the same screen sector is
seen tn action here. The variation is that the second shot is a track.
Shot 2 F rom the other side, the cam era travels in medium
shot from right to left, with o u r lone perform er framed
constantly o n the right side o f the screcn.
The solution outlined w orks because the opposed movements
happen on the sam e side o f the screen in bo th shots.
T hough it is im p o rtan t to m aintain a co n stan t screen direction,
there is an o th er factor which m ust be taken care o f prior to
shooting the film.
The disconnected film shots will have to be assem bled later, and
it is essential to know when to cut from take to take to obtain a
sm ooth visual flow. T o achieve th at, certain conditions m ust be
observed.
174
Conditions o f the cut
The cut m ust afford continuity elem ents th a t prevent a confused
presentation o f the m aterial show n to the audience.
Three basic rules m ust be observed w hen joining two strips o f
film th a t record segm ents o f the sam e continuous m ovem ent.
These three rules involve m atching op eratio n s th at can be defined
is follow s:
1 m atch in g the position,
2 m atching th e m ovem ent, and
3 m atching th e look.
The first rule involves two types o f position m atching:
a the physical p o sition o f the a c to r s : their gesture, posture and
place o n the stage. T heir clothing m ust, o f course, be the
sam e from shot to shot,
b T heir po sitio n in the film fram e.
c The m ovem ent o f the people in the fram e m ust be continuous
as we m ove in closer o r aw ay fro m them by m eans o f a cut.
d The direction o f th eir m ovem ents m ust be m atched from shot
to shot.
The th ird m atching rule has only one requirem ent:
e two persons o r tw o groups addressing o r facing each o th er
look in o p p o sed directions.
When tw o people o r tw o groups m ove tow ard each o th er, we have
opposed screen directions, a n d yet their individual m ovem ents
m aintain co n stan t screen directions in respect o f the cam era.
One group always m oves to the right, an d the o th er to the left.
Both opposed scrcen m otions are in tercu t until the final reunion
is achieved. This use o f co ntrasted m otion is the basis o f conflicts—
soldier m oving against soldier, ta n k against tan k , the In d ia n riders
against th e US cavalry, all m oving to a pay-off, a take where bo th
meet, always m ain tain in g the sam e direction o f m ovem ent.
Where to cut
At w hat stage o f a m ovem ent should we c u t? D uring, before, or
after th a t m ovem ent takes place?
Let us see w hat happens in a cut. T ake a sim ple exam ple: a
person stands facing the cam era. W e w ant to show a full sh o t o f
him where he is seen in relatio n to his environm ent, and th en we
would like to show him in m edium shot (on the sam e visual axis)
175
to highlight his facial expression. T here is no m ovem ent in either.
So we simply splice one shot after the other.
If these two edited shots are taken to a projector and watched on
the screen, the tran sitio n fro m take to take is jerky. There is a
visual ju m p on the screen a n d the transition from shot to shot
is an atten tio n -g etter th a t disturbs us m om entarily. W hy? Because
there is a change iri volum es. T h a t change is inevitable as we move
closer to o r farth er aw ay from a specific subject. T here is no way
to avoid it. O r is th ere ? W e need a distraction. T h at distraction
m ust take place in the m om ent o f the change o f shot, that is, on
the cut.
W hat sort o f d istraction is there so potent to shift o u r attention
du rin g a change ? T he answ er is sim ple—m ovem ent, any movement.
H ence it is b est to either cut o n the m ovem ent o r cut after the
m ovem ent. The m ore frequent cutting on the m ovem ent, i<T‘
generally applied to two types o f m otion peculiar to the screen:
m ovem ent inside the screen and m ovem ent entering and exiling
th e screen. These two types o f coverage serve to present the three''
basic m o tio n s o f a subject—circular, horizontal an d vertical.
C utting on action
A lm ost every shot begins recording m ovem ent o f some kind.
T here are very few exceptions to this. The m otion show n may be a
cu t m atched with the m ovem ent a t the end o f the previous take.
O r if it is a cut-aw ay o r a newly introduced shot, a m ovem ent of
the person o r thing show n m ust sta rt it. It m ay even be a camera
m ovem ent. " \
The reason for this is simple. C utting on the m ovem ent will j
ease the cu t to such a n extent th at the visual ja r produced when ’
changing the distance an d placem ent o f the cam era w ith respect to“ ■]
the subjects, will pass unnoticed by the audience. \
Even the big close shots th at cover dialogue between static i
persons, start with m ovem ent. The perform er m ay be ju st opening ;
his m o u th to talk, o r m ight be m aking a facial expression previous j
to the delivery o f his lines. O r one m ight see the attentive move- i
m ent o f his eyes as he reacts to w hat is said to him, or his head ^
bending forw ard. T here are, in fact, quite a num ber o f small j
unconscious m ovem ents th at an ac to r m akes when concentrating :j
— m ovem ents th at are m agnified by the cam era in close shots.
M ost m atched cuts are m ade w ith the m oving character placed
in the centre o f the screen, particularly if only one subject is
involved in the coverage. W hen two o r m ore perform ers are
shown, the screen is often divided in tw o halves, with the m atched
movement taking place in either half. Oniy the d om inant m ove
ment is m atched by cut. B ackground m otions, an d the direction
of those m ovem ents, are also m atched in addition to the m ain one
in foreground, if they are conspicuous enough an d if bo th shots are
done o n the sam e visual axis. G enerally, th at kind o f m ultiple
matching is avoided b u t in certain situations where m ovem ent is
difficult to control, such as in a m oving crow d, som e special
methods are applied to insure the sm oothness o f the cuts.
W hen actually film ing scenes whose action m ust be m atched,
the m ain ac to r’s final m ovem ent a t the end o f the first shot is
tepeated once m ore in full at the start o f the next. Later, in the
editing room , they can be m atched. M ore often th an not, ab o u t
one-third o f the first shot m ovem ent an d tw o-thirds from the
second are used.
10
Case 1
Seen in full shot is the distant window o f a sm all bungalow.
Som ebody inside raises the blind. As soon as it is fully opened,
cut to a m edium shot o f th a t person, his arm still stretched up
wards to the to p o f the window. He is standing still and looking
out.
The first take contains all the m ovem ent. The second is a static
shot. (Fig. 10.1).
178
FIGURE 10.1 A fte r the completion of a vertical movement in the first shot there is
a cut to a second wherer to begin w ith, the subject is held stationary.
Case 2
Here is an o th er exam ple o f a perform er’s vertical m ovem ent. In
the previous exam ple an upw ard m otion was show n, now a dow n
ward m ovem ent is exam ined.
A young girl is seen o n her knees in full shot. She is searching for
som ething inside a bag.
Suddenly she picks out som e loose clothes contained in it and
throws them up, bending h er body dow n and then after th at
remaining m otionless.
As soon as she becom es static, there is a cut to a close shot o f her
on the sam e visual axis.
Fig. 10.2 shows the exam ples described.
179
FIGURE 10,2 A downward movement covered by using the principle o f cutting after
the action.
Case 3
T he conclusion o f a m ovem ent in a neutral direction, particularly
a n o t too fast m otion, m ay be treated in this way. Tw o people
w alk tow ard us. T hey stop, facing us, in fuil shot.
As soon as they stop we cut to a m edium shot o f them , standing
still (Fig. 10.3).
N o u n p leasant ju m p should be visible in the tran sfer from one
shot to the o th er if the change in im age size is sufficiently great and
the subjects do n o t m ove substantially.
Case 4
This technique can be used o n the circular m ovem ent o f a subject
who tu rn s a n d throw s attention o n a static perform er standing
behind him (Fig. 10.4).
180
p8
FIGURE 10.3 An action in a neutral direction can be subjected to the technique of
cutting after the movement to advance the view to a closer shot.
FIGURE 10.4 An actor turns and throws attention on the player positioned behind
hirrt. As soon as he concludes the turn, there is a cut to a close shot o f the other
performer.
FIGURE 10.5 A situation in w hich a person moves away from the camera and towards
another person or object in the background throw s emphasis on that person or object.
This lends Itself to the technique ot cutting after the movement. As soon as t h B
moving player stops, cut to a closer view o f the person in the background.
Case 6
A m ore conventional cut can be achieved w ith the same receding
m ovem ent as shown in Fig. 10.6.
FIGURE 10,6 In this example both players are featured in the second shot, after the
performer in motion has stopped near his partner.
pm
4§1
FJGURE 10.7 A reverse anole is used lr> this example, where a cut after the movement
serves to Join both shots.
Case 8
On some occasions the c u t is m ade in the pause o f the m ovem ent,
(Fig. 10.8).
184
FI SURE 10.8 A pause In the middle of a continuous motion can be used for the tech
nique of cutting after the movement to Join both shots.
Case 9
Case 10
O ur player is seated in the background. The cam era tracks from
right to left, showing an em pty conference table. Through an
archw ay we see a player, seated. The cam era travels until it frames
him centrally, then stops. Then, cut to a close shot on the same
visual axis, showing the m an slum ped on the seat, sleeping peace
fully.
186
mmm
^ o _ J = _ = —L
<■
6 o
m o *
FIGURE 10.10 The camera movement involved here is a vertical tilt. The camera pans
up from subject A to performer B seen in the background. A s soon as the camera
ceases to pan upwards, cut to a closer view of player B.
Case 11
The technique is sim ilar fo r a panning shot. T he cam era is tilted
up from a subjcct in the foreground to fram e the open w indow o f a
building in the back ground where a person is seen, in the centre
of the screen. C ut to a closer shot on the sam e visual axis. (Fig.
10. 10).
187
11
Turning
A person turning o n the spot where he is standing, sitting o r lying,
moves on the central axis o f his body in a right angle turn (90°),
an ab o u t face (180°) o r a full circle turn. T he third possibility is
the least interesting o f the three for an action cut. All these turning
movements can be covered by three o f the five variants inherent
in the triangle principle for cam era placem ent (page 32). It can be
readily u n d erstood th a t a set o f internal reverse angles and a pair
of parallel cam era positions are unsuitable for shooting a con
tinuous m otion, due to the divergent coverage given by these
camera set-ups. Let us take a look a t the possibilities:
Case 1
A pair o f external reverse shots can be used to p h o tograph the
turning m otion o f a player in a group. In the first shot both
players face the cam era, one located in foreground and the other
fuTther back. The player in fro n t turns. His turning m otion is
completed on the second shot. B oth players m aintain the same
screen positions in b o th shots (Fig. 11.1).
Case 2
A right angle tu rn with a right angle cam era coverage is o u r next
example. Figure 11.2 shows both cam era sites and the pictorial
composition they record. Only one player m oves in the scene.
The ap p ro ach is quite sim ple as can be seen here.
Case 3
.An advance on the sam e visual axis is one o f the m ost com m only
used devices for cutting on the action o f a person who turns.
189
FIGURE 11.1 One player's single turning movement Is divided Into tw o shots. Both
players maintain their screen areas. A reverse angle camera coverage is employed.
Case 4
W idening the group o r narrow ing it to one player as the second
shot is introduced, as p art o f the m atched m ovem ent, is the next
FIGURE 11.3 A n advance on a co m m on visual axis fs used here to cover th e tu rn fn g
movement.
possibility. Several exam ples will give an idea o f the various
treatm ents which are feasible.
The use o f a right angle perm its two approaches in the second
shot. In the first shot, the d o m in an t player is alone, facing the
cam era. A s he tu rns 90° to one side, we cut to a right angle
cam era site where he is either in the centre o f the screen or to one
side o f it. I f he is in the centre the o th er players w ho have been
introduced occupy the sides. If the do m in an t player is in a side
area, the rem aining screen area is occupied by the newly introduced
perform ers. Fig. 11.4 shows bo th approaches.
FIGURE 11.4 The exampfes shown here show two approaches for the second shot
where the group j$ broadened to include one or several more players. The central
player turns, covered by a righ t angle camera position which unites both shots.
192
Case 5
Ihe same principle works when an advance on a com m on visual
axis is em ployed to widen o r narrow the group presented to the
audience, using the d o m inant turn in g m otion o f one o f the players
as an excuse to introduce o r exclude the group around this
dominant player in the scene (Fig. 11.5).
1
J
1
FIGURE 11.5 Here the group Is reduced from two persons to one by moving closer
to the turning player. Emphasis is given to her and her movement.
Case 6
If a com bination o f external and internal reverse angle is used,
the same effect o f w idening or reducing the group on the screen,
can be obtained (Fig. 11.6).
All the exam ples quoted so far have involved groups o f players
placed on firm ground. But if they are located on a moving
193
FIGURE 11.6 A n Internal and external reverse camera position deployed around tfc?
turning player are used In this example to throw visual emphasis on the central
performer,
vehicle, this turning m otion will dom inate the background move
m ent. If the approach to the second shot is on the sam e visual
axis, the background m ovem ent will alw ays be in the same direc
tion. I f a reverse external com bination is resorted to, the movement
in the background will have opposed directions. If a right angle
is used, one o f the cam era positions will register a background
m ovem ent, while the o ther m ay have its background blocked by an
obstruction. If the background can be seen, the direction of
m otion glimpsed there will be in a neutral direction, either for
w ard o r backw ards.
In all instances, the foreground m otion dom inates, and is the
one th at m ust be precisely m atched.
194
Case 7
There is a situation where opposed sense o f direction in the two
fragments o f the same continuous m otion occurs. This is where a
lone perform er is covered by a p air o f external reverse angles
on the extrem e p o in ts o f a n 180 degree arc th ro u g h w hich he turns
(Fig. 11.7).
' I
FIGURE 11.7 Opposed senses o f direction are obtained when a lone player is shown
turning as recorded from external reverse camera positions.
Case 8
A sudden tu rn by two persons can be covered by the same pro
cedure. B oth players begin to tu rn aw ay from us together, from
th e centre to a side o f the screen, in the first shot, a n d end turning
from the o p p o site side to the centre as seen from the second
(Fig. 11.8).
FIGURE 11,8 Tw o players who turn round sim ultaneously Switch their screen
positions in the second shot, if the movement is film ed from external reverse camera
sites.
W ith external reverse angle cam era sites, the players switch
screen positions. -
Case 9
W here an ac to r tu rn s as he walks, the p ath o f m ovem ent is an
arc shaped figure. I f we wish to stress the change o f direction here
a p air o f reverse external sites o r a right angle cam era position
will do it.
N o t only m u st we c u t on the action, bu t also locate the per
form er in the same screen sector in both shots. Fig. 11.9 shows an
exam ple involving external reverse angles.
FIGURE 11.9 The turning movement of a sinote performer should occur In the same
area o f the screen for both shot3 into which the movement Is divided.
Rising
This is a vertical m otion. It does not m atter by which com bination
of takes we record the rising m ovem ent (approach on the same
visual axis, right angles o r external reverse shots). T he m otion will
always have the same direction—upw ards.
Case 10
If we wish to keep the m ovem ent within the boundaries o f the
screen fram e, it is best to cut from a m edium shot to a backw ard
full shot, o r to a forw ard close shot.
197
Fig. 11.10 illustrates a rising m ovem ent th at begins in m edium
shot and is com pleted in full shot. Both shots have a com m on
visual axis.
FIGURE 11.10 A common visual axis on w hich the camera retreats lor the second
shot l i used here to record a player rising.
Case 11
In this exam ple the m otion begins in m edium shot and concludes
in close shot o f the sam e subject. A gain the second sh o t has the
same visual axis as the first, where the m ovem ent originates
(Fig. 11.11).
Case 12
Here a right angle cam era position registers the upw ard m otion of
the rising player (Fig. 11.12).
198
FIGURE 11.11 A common visual axis is used for both shots, but In this exampfe the
second camera position Is forw ard of the first.
FIGURE 11.12 A righ t angle camera arrangement is used to cover the central player
rising.
199
Case 13
A com bination o f an external and an internal reverse angle, pro
vides num ber co ntrast (page 52) w hen dealing w ith a rising motion
in the picture area (Fig. 11.13).
u
FIGURE 11.13 A n Internal and external reverse angle around the rlBing performer It
employed In th is example.
FIGURE 11.14 A common visual a*ls Is ussd here to cover a player's downward
rrc vem ert.
Case IS
A lone perform er sitting dow n, covered from external reverse
angles is registered as two opposed arc m ovem ents on the screen.
201
The hum an body, due to its peculiar constitution, achieves a
sitting position by bending its fram e in an arc shape and travelling
a curved p ath dow nw ards.
The opposition o f directions is obtained because the player has
a profiled body position in bo th shots.
FIGURE 11.15 A reverse angle camera arrangement shows the actor sitting down.
Opposed senses of downward directions (to the rig h t first and to the (eft after) are
obtained with th is approach.
Case 16
Reclining m ovem ents done from the waist, are subject to the same
rule o f opposed direction in the tw o fragm ents into which the
continuous m otion m ight be broken.
202
FIGURE 11.16 The recllnino player on the righ t o f the screen moves w ith opposed
senses of direction in the change from one shot to another. In the firs t shot he moves
from right to centre, and in the second from centre to righ t.
The exam ple in Fig. 11.16 has an external reverse angle coverage,
and only one player m oves.
Shot 1 Player B is going to recline on his right elbow. His
body m oves fro m right to centre o f the screen as he
begins to recline.
Shot 2 Player B in the reverse shot finishes reclining b u t now
m oves centre to right.
The reclining player m oves always in the sam e screen sector b u t
with opposed m ovem ent directions in each shot, and the second
part o f the m ovem ent com plem ented the one show n in the first
shot. B oth players retained th eir screen areas o n b o th shots.
203
Case 17
The ju x tap o sitio n o f external a n d internal reverse cam era positk
aro u n d the reclining player produces opposed senses o f m otic
different sectors o f the screen. Fig. 11.17 shows th a t the perfor
reclining to the left, as seen in S hot 1 (internal reverse), m oves fr.
centre to left. But he com pletes his m o tio n fram ed in Shot
(external reverse) where he m oves from centre to right. In Shot I
he faced us, b u t in S hot 2 he has his back to the cam era, which
accounts fo r the opposed directions.
Case 18
In the two previous cases we cut from a fro n t view o f the subject
in m o tio n to a re ar view. A reversal o f the procedure can be used,
covering with external a n d internal cam era sites. Contrasting
directions o f m ovem ent in the sam e sector o f the screen are ob
tained. Fig. 11.18 shows one player pushing the other across the
204
screen, covered from an external reverse shot. T he falling m otion
is com pleted using a n internal cam era position.
I
FIGURE I f .18 Opposed directions for a continuous movement are obtained by using
an internal and an external reverse shot.
The external cam era position is level with the players, b u t the
internal coverage is from a low angle showing the end o f the
pushed m an’s fall.
Case19
It is conceivable th a t b o th players m ight m ove together, reclining
0 1 one side. This m ovem ent is fragm ented in tw o sections an d the
205
players will have opposed directions o f m otion in the external
reverse shots. They would move as a single unit. Their positions
would be constant on the same areas o f the screen from shot to
shot. A bout one-third o f the m ovem ent is seen from the first
cam era site, the rem ainder in the second (Fig. 11.19).
FIGURE 11.19 W han both players move to one side, reclining together. a reverse
angle camera coverage produces opposed senses o f direction fo r both characters
on the screen.
Case 20
In these tw o exam ples the actors m aintained the sam e screen
sectors bu t the following exam ple introduces a v arian t—the
moving p erform er in Shot I m oves from side to centre o f the
206
screen and com pletes his m o tio n in the second shot by moving
from the opposite side o f the screen to the centre (Fig. 11.20).
FIGURE 11.20 Opposed senses of direction and an exchange o f screen areas is ob
tained by the method depleted here. In the first shot the reclining player moves from
left to centre, and in the second she moves from righ t to centre. She Is always kept
In the centre of the screen. Her partner shifts sides.
Case 21
A n external reverse coverage o f a walking o r running movement
records m ovem ent o f the player in tw o neutral directions, going
straight aw ay from an d tow ards the cam era. These tw o directions
can be altern ated in their presen tatio n to ob tain tw o sim ple and
basic variations. T he o p eratio n is sim ple. In the first shot we see
o u r m ain perfo rm er m ove away. In the second he com es towards
us a n d stops. O ne-third o f the m ovem ent was covered in the first
sh o t an d the rem aining tw o-thirds in the second (Fig. 11.21).
N otice th a t b o th cam era positions are on the sam e side o f the
line o f m ovem ent. This becom es im p o rtan t if an object seen in the
b ack g ro u n d in th e first shot is included in foreground on the second.
T his object m ust be in the sam e sector o f the screen in b o th shots.
The cam era can be placed a t the sam e o r different height in the
shots. Instead o f w alking tow ards a n object, o u r player m ay walk
to a w aiting person, using the sam e technique. T he am o u n t of
trajectory recorded in each sh o t can be reversed. T w o-thirds of
the m o tio n in the first shot (going aw ay), one-third in the second
tak e (com ing tow ards us).
Case 22
A reversal o f the tw o basic shots is the next solution, as pointed
o u t above. In the first shot the player com es tow ards us, and in the
second he m oves away. H e does n o t go ou t o f the screen in either
shot. W hen he reaches a full shot o r a m edium shot moving
straight tow ards us in the first shot, cut to the second shot where
he is seen from behind m oving aw ay in a neutral direction, also
fram ed in a full shot o r m edium shot (Fig. 11.22).
208
FIG U RI 11.!! A n external reverse camera coverage lo r a line of movement.
Case 23
The walking or running m ovem ent m ay be a continuous or dis
continuous m ovem ent.
N ow fo i the second variation. The m otion is interrupted once
near its middle. O u r perform er approaches, stops for a m om ent,
and th e n goes aw ay to his goal. Here is how the takes are edited
as show n in Fig. 11,23.
I
I
J
FIGURE 11.22 Movement in a neutral direction is covered by a frontal and a rear
camera position, w ithout letting the player go out of the screen on either shot.
i
f
FIGURE 11.23 A discontinuous walking movement can be covered with two shots.
210
FIGURE 11.24 A player advancing towards an Identifiable goal, in a discontinuous
movement can be covered w ilh four camera positions.
Case 24
This co ntinuous m ovem ent within the screen can also be recorded
using four cam era positions, as in Fig. 11.24.
211
Shot 1 Player A in foreground w ith his back to us. B in the
b ack ground waiting. A starts to move. H e w alks away
from us.
S hot 2 Reverse. Player A approaches and stops in close shot,
looking off screen, right.
S hot 3 Reverse. Player A in foreground with his b ack to us.
B seen b eyond in the background. A again starts to walk
tow ards the w aiting perform er.
S hot 4 Reverse. P layer B in foreground w ith his b ack to us. He
waits. A arrives an d stops in fro n t o f B.
B oth actors m aintained co n stan t sectors in all the shots into which
the d iscontinuous m o tio n o f one player was fragm ented.
Case 25
I f the n eutral m o tio n o f the w alking o r running player is filmed
from tw o high cam era positions, the player will ascend in one take
an d desccnd in the o ther (Fig. 11.25). As we cut from shot to shot,
FIGURE 11.25 A neutral direction covered by two high camera positions set on re
verse angles, records this movement as a descending one in the first shot and
as an ascending movement in the second.
212
the objects or persons aro u n d the m oving perform er will change
from one side o f the screen to the other.
Case 26
The m ovem ent covered from tw o external reverse cam era positions
Is no t always in a neutral direction. M ost o f the tim e this m otion
has a diagonal p ath th a t extends from one side o f the screen to its
centre. The five preceding exam ples can be filmed w ith the walking
or run ning player m oving obliquely.
Som etim es the sense o f direction o f this oblique m ovem ent can
be changed to m ake it ap p ear continuous on the screen. T h at is
what happens in o u r next exam ple, as illustrated in Fig. 11.26.
The real direction in which player C m oves, is changed from
shot 1 to shot 2, so th a t on the screen it appears to be the same
continuous m o tio n in b o th shots.
In the tw o shots in to which the m otion is fragm ented, Player C
moves in th e sam e sector o f the screen, from right to centre, in a
diagonal path. In the first shot A an d B have their backs to the
camera. Player C is seen m oving behind B an d approaching the
centre o f th e screen.
W hen we cut to the reverse shot, B an d A reverse positions on
the screen a n d face the cam era. Player C, seen in foreground close
to the lig h t side o f the screen, m oves aw ay from us to the centre
and stops, facing th e o th er players.
The second fragm ent o f the m otion is false because the reverse
position o f the second cam era site changes the sense o f direction
of the m oving player: she ought to m ove from left to centre.
T o obtain, sm ooth continuity her direction o f m ovem ent is
changed, giving this fragm ent the sam e direction as the first.
The floor plan illustrated in Fig. 11.26 shows the situation clearly.
Case 27
Now exam ine a walking o r running m ovem ent from two cam era
sites on. the sam e visual axis. These neutral m ovem ents aw ay from
or tow ards th e cam era straight o r obliquely and in the same
screen sector. Fig. 11.27 illustrates a simple ap p ro ach to running
movement, A p lay er m oves from foreground to a position far
213
FIGURE 11.26 Sometimes the direction of movement is changed fo r the second shot
to make It consistent with the direction shown in the first.
away. T w o-thirds o f the p ath are covered in the first shot. In the
second, (forw ard, o n the sam e visual axis) the player nearest the
cam era m oves aw ay to his goal an d halts. T he cut is m ade on the
action w ith the rem aining one-third o f the p a th covered in the
second shot. The player m oved in the sam e sector o f the screen in
b o th sh o ts: fro m the right to the centre.
O f course, we can reverse the direction o f the oblique path jo
th a t it runs from left to centre in both shots. The same principle
app lies. It is the concept used th at m atters m o st—the execution is
quite simple.
214
FIGURE 11,27 Two camera positions are placed on a common visual axis, used here
to cover a running player.
Case 28
This sam e solution can be applied to tw o people m oving together
away from the cam era. In the Fig. 11.28 exam ple this is a short
distance.
Case 29
In the previous exam ples the second cam era position was forward
o n th e com m on visual axis. It could have been fu rth er back (Fig.
11.29).
S h o t 1 M edium shot. T he p layer is facing the cam era in the
centre o f the screen. H e tu rn s and walks away.
S h o t 2 L ong shot. T he p erfo rm er in the centre walks away.
Case 30
In the preceding case the first sh o t covered a sh o rt distance travelled
by th e player, the second a lengthy one. Reversed, b u t using the
sam e visual solution is Fig. 11.30.
216
Shot 1 M edium shot. Player A standing nearby, back to the
cam era an d on the right side o f the screen, w alks away
in a n oblique p ath tow ards B, who is waiting in the
background, left. W hen A is close to B, cut to . . .
Shot 2 Same visual axis. Full shot. A (centre) walks two steps
tow ards B a n d stops beside her.
The key to this technique consists in having the m obile subjcct
concludc his m ovem ent a t the beginning o f the second shot, in the
centre o f th e screen, by walking only one or tw o steps and stopping
at th at point.
The same principle can be applied to a full sh o t—m edium shot
camera coverage.
Case 31
Now consider som e cases where the player moves, n o t aw ay from
but tow ards us.
In the first o f these shots the m an (or vehicle) is approaching in
217
full shot (centre). W hen he is crow ding the film fram e (and this
does no t m ean th a t his body obscures o u r view com pletely, it
suffices fo r instance to have his head reach the to p boundary o f the
screen), cut to Shot 2. O n the sam e visual axis this, to o , is a full
shot.
T he m an placed in the centre o f the screen approaches once
m ore and stops in foreground. T he effect is to w iden the view in
the second take because the approaching m otion o f the player made
him grow on the screen, an d creates the visual need to cut back to
relate him w ith his surroundings and show his final goal. The first
fragm ent o f this continuous m ovem ent served to identify the playei
to the audience as well as to show his intentions o r feelings. Fig,
11.31 show s this situation.
T here was alm ost equal m ovem ent in these shots b u t a higher
or lower cam era position could be used for the second to contrast
with the (level) first.
Case 32
The follow ing exam ple is widely used by film m akers to show the
beginning o f a w alking m ovem ent. It m akes use o f repetitive
motion in th e sam e zone o f the screen (Fig. 11.32).
First, A is seen in close shot looking off-screen right. H e then starts
to m ove to th a t side. H is head approaches in a diagonal from the
centre to th e right. W hen his face touches the edge o f the screen,
cut to the second shot. This new (full) shot is placed fu rth er back
on a com m on visual axis w ith the player seen centrally, m oving
diagonally right.
Case S3
Now a static subject is seen in the shot o f a rapidly approaching
agure. P erfo rm er B in m edium shot, b ack to the cam era an d o n the
right o f the screen, w aits for A w ho approaches in a straight line
peft side o f screen). T he second shot is a close sh o t placed fo rw ard
on the sam e visual axis as the first. H ere B is seen in foreground
on the rig h t, w ith his b ac k to the cam era, an d in a huge close shot.
219
Mu
FIGURE 11*32 The beginning of a movement indicating departure can be Initiated
in a close shot and completed in a full shot placed on a common visual axis. There is
screen sector repetition for the fragments of motion.
FIGURE 11.33 A m otion Indicating the arrival of a player at a destination in the fore
ground on both shots.
Com 34
Two cam era sites on a com m on visual axis can be used twice to
film a discontinuous action such as th at shown in Fig. 11.34.
Shot 1 The lone rider m oves in the centre third o f the screen
in a full shot. He is seen small over the ridge m oving
obliquely left to centre.
Shot 2 M edium shot. T he rider at the left screen edge a p
proaches us an d stops in m id-screen, looking to right.
Shot 3 C ut-away. F ull shot. H erd o f horses grazing on the
plain. This shot represents w hat the rider is seeing.
Shot 2 M edium shot. The rider in the centre o f the screen
begins to m ove again, advancing until his figure is
close to th e right edge.
Shot ] Full shot. The rider in the centre o f the screen m oves to
the right, advancing tow ards us. His m otion in this shot
always takes place w ithin the central screen area.
Shot 3 Reverse full shot. T he herd o f horses grazing on the
plain, the rider in centre foreground m oving aw ay from
us tow ards the herd.
Shots 1 and 2, on a com m on visual axis, were used twice, to cover
the discontinuous m otion o f the rider. N otice how the first time
those shots were em ployed, only the left area o f the screen was
used in b o th shots. A fter the cut-aw ay, both takes showed rider
moving from the centre to the right.
Thus th e left an d right screen areas were used in pairs, with
repetitive m otion in each sector before changing shot. The sequence
was; left sector (twice)— cut-aw ay—right sector (twice)— reverse
shot (same site as cut-away). The rider was placed in foreground,
descending the slope tow ards the valley, thus capping the sequence
and reaffirming the value o f the cut-aw ay show n before, by the
rider covering the sam e ground. In fact, this cut-aw ay an d reverse
shot could have been shot on a different location from th at o f the
player.
By intercutting these tw o shots the two locations ap p e a r to be
the same place.
This time and place m anipulation is quite frequent on the
screen for practical reasons. It perm its the film m aker to m ake use
of outstanding locations th at are far a p a rt geographically. I f the
situation being shot allows it, we should resort to this recourse.
221
i
■fw
m
FIGURE 11.34 Each o f the takes shown here Is used tw ice to cover the discontin uoua
motion of an approaching player who stops to reconnoitre the terrain and advances
again Into new territory.
Case 35
I
J
FIGURE 11.35 A diagonal movement across the screen Is covered using half screen
areas In each s h o t
Case 36
M o tio n by halves o f screen space is em ployed in the following
exam ple, using positions with a right angle ra p p o rt. In the first shot
th e player w alks across one h alf o f the screen, while in the shot that
follow s he m oves diagonally in the o th er h a lf area o f the picture
fram e (Fig. 11.36).
FIGURE 11.36 A noth er variant of movement covered by hall screen areas In each
shot. A right angle is used fo r the camera viewpoints.
Case 37
A perform er m oving from one place to an o th er w ithout leaving
the boundaries o f the screen, m ay cover a long trajectory using two
shots th a t have a right angle relationship, by applying a neutral
225
direction m otion in the second shot. Fig. 11.37 illustrates a device
frequently em ployed by film m akers.
A crosses screcn right to left. As he reaches the third sector, left,
cut to a right angle cam era position, where we sec him move
away from us. The end o f Shot 1 an d beginning o f Shot 2 are on
the same picture a re a —an im p o rtan t condition for this type of
cut. If the m oving figure is no t precisely positioned the cut will
not be sm ooth.
Case 38
Shot order can be reversed to cover an approaching movement,
instead o f a receding one as above (Fig. 11.38).
\ „ - ' i
^ " i
FIGURE 11.39 R lflht angle coverage for a movement that takes place in the centre
o ith e screen In both shots.
Case 39
When a n eutral m ovem ent in the first shot ends in a half-screen
227
m otion in the second shot, it is n o t necessary for the moving
subject to enter the boundaries o f the screen in the second. He
may ap p ear from beh in d one o f the perform ers already located in
foreground. Thus, his horizontal m otion is shortened.
In Fig. 11.39 we see th a t in the first shot perform er A moves
tow ards us centrally o n the screen. W hen she is near B, we cut to
the second shot. S hot 2 is a side shot where A m oves from behind
B a n d walks across the picture area, stopping in the centre between
the static B an d C. T o shoot A leaving, after speaking to C, we have
only to reverse th e shot order b u t using the sam e cam era sites.
W hen A d isappears behind B (as seen from the second camera
position) cu t to the first cam era site, where player A (centre)
walks aw ay in a n eutral direction.
Case 40
T he fram e o f an open d o o r o r any o th er type o f fixed aperture
seen in the first shot, can be used to fram e the second p a rt of the
fragm ented m o tio n in the second shot (Fig, 11.40).
— i w if- ^ r i
FIGURE 11.40 A noth er variant for righ t angle coverage of a movement that takes
pJace in the centre of the screen in both shots.
Both fragm ents o f m otion were centrally placed in the picture and
the player m oved from left to centre in the second take, because
the door was on the left side o f the corridor. But if instead th at
door were on the right, the cam era (site 3, Fig. 11.40) w ould see
him appearing from the right. Shot 1 would rem ain the same
because o f the n eutral m ovem ent.
Case 41
If the ap p ro ach in the first shot is oblique the second shot m ust
be placed on the sam e side o f the line o f m otion (Fig. 11.41).
t
FIGURE 11.41 Right angle coverage that uses halt screen movements in different
sectors for each shot.
Case 42
N ow consider a case where /n the first take the m otion is from the
centre to one side and in the second shot from the opposite side
to the centre o f the screen (Fig. 11.42) i.e. the reverse o f the above.
i
FIGURE 11.43 Two different zones on the set are linked by the movement of a player
seen from right angled camera sites.
231
Case 44
Finally, a case where three takes (one at right angles to the
others) cover a running m an. T he exam ple has one peculiarity:
m ovem ent is cen tral in all three shots (Fig. 11.44).
FIGURE 11.44 The second camera position In this example Is at right angles to the
other two camera sites. The motion of the player Is recorded on the central sector
o f the screen In the three shots.
Case 45
A. simple situ atio n ; in the first shot the perform er (centre) faces
the cam era and, tu rn in g round, he m oves to the left. His face
does n o t leave the screen in this shot but, on reaching the left
margin, cu t to the m edium shot where the perform er now in the
centre moves o u t o f fram e left (Fig. 11.45).
FIGURE 11.45 A movement across the screen seen (rom two camera sites on a
common visual axis.
233
Case 46
The next exam ple (Fig. 11.46) differs from the preceding one only
in th at the perform er is already profiled o n the screen in the first
shot. H is m otion there is sim ilar to the first shot in the previous
example, while the second shot is the same.
FIGURE 11.40 T his example Is sim ilar to that preceding, with the difference that the
player Is already profiled to the camera In the first shot.
Case 47
The variation shown next (Fig. 11.47) uses a long shot for the
second shot. The first shot is sim ilar to the one in the preceding
exam ple; w hen his face reaches the side o f th e screen, cut to the
long shot w here the tiny figure o f the player, right, walks slowly
to the left w here he stops.
Case 48
The technique o f m atching action in the sam e screen area in
consecutive shots, serves also to unite a panning shot an d a static
cam era shot th at record an across-the-screen m ovem ent (Fig.
11.48). T he player in the first shot runs from right to left framed
in the right screen sector in a m edium shot th a t pans with him.
His body position is m atch cut at the end o f this first shot with the
beginning o f the second, where he is fram ed in full shot with a
234
FIGURE 11,47 The difference between this exampJe and the two preceding Is that a
long shot is used for the second shot. The player does not need to go out o f the
second shot as In the previous cases.
FIGURE 11,48 By keeping the player constantly in the same sector o f the screen, a
panning and a static shot can be Joined smoothly.
235
static camera. In the second shot he runs from right to left, where
he stops. Both tak es have the same visual axis. T his solution is
often used to conclude a w alking o r running m otion across the
screen.
Case 49
H ere a h o rizontal m otion is filmed using opposed screen sectors
b u t with the m otion alw ays having the sam e sense o f direction.
In th e first shot (close shot) the m oving player walks from centrc
to right, close to the screen edge. In the second (full shot) he
w alks from the left to centre and stops (Fig. 11.49).
Case 50
U sing cousecutive screen sectors side/centre, cen tre/o th er side,
o n a com m on visual axis, Fig. 11.50 shows som eone in fro n t of a
group w ho starts to leave in th e first m edium shot profile view
(screen right), a n d m oves to the centre. C u t to a full shot o f the
group with him m oving centre to left, and so o u t o f the picture.
236
FIGURE 11.SC The horizontal action shown here Is covered for the movement from
one aide to centre in the firs t shot, and from the centre to the opposite side In the
second $hol. Both shots have a common visual axis line.
Case 51
Now the arrival o f a character treated in the same way but in
reversed o rd e r: he arrives (full shot) m oving right to centre a n d in
the second (m edium o r close) shot walks centre to left, which needs
only one o r tw o steps. A slight variation is obtained by repeating
a m ovem ent across a sm all sector o f the screen: the moving
player enters the picture from one side and crosses say, tw o-thirds
o f the screen w idth (Fig. 11.51). T hen cut to a close shot on the
same visual axis, where he m oves from centre to edge on the
rem aining sector.
The repetition in th e second shot uses the central third o f screen
area.
Case 52
All cases o f m o tio n across the screen exam ined up to now have
had cam eras sited o n the sam e visual axis an d the sam e sense o f
direction in b o th shots. B ut two external reverse angles, o r a
com bination o f external-internal angles could be used instead.
In Fig. 11.52 player A is departing. In the first shot he moves from
centre to left. As he reaches the picture edge we cut to shot 2,
FIGURE 11.51 The movement Is repeated In a small sector of the screen In the secanc
shot to conclude the arrival of the walking actor.
FIGURE 11.52 The departure o f a player covered from reverse camera p o sitio r.j. His
movement on the screen is In divergent directions.
238
a reverse view w here A in the centre m oves to the right and, so
out o f view.
i
FIGURE 11.53 A player arriving as shown by tw o contrasting movements on the
screen, tn the firs t shot he moves from one side to the centre, and In the second
from the other side to the centre. The second shot is an internal reverse shot.
This form ula presents a player w ith his b ack view in one shot
an d face~on in the oth er, so, if he is profiled, the suddenly opposed
direction will n o t give a sm ooth effect in editing. This is because in
profiled positions the centre o f interest m oves ahead, in fro n t o f the
player, an d by show ing the m o tio n in opposite halves o f screen,
th at interest is shifted ab ru p tly from one side to the other, thus
breaking th e principle o f co n stan t screen direction. B ut i f the
player in m o tion has his b ack to us in one h a lf o f the m ovem ent,
an d faces the cam era in the o th er half, the centre o f atten tio n
rem ains in the centre o f the screen. So, for this fo rm u la w ith
profiled positions either a neutral direction o f m otion (as in
Fig. 11.54) o r a pause (see p. 289) m ust be introduced betw een the
shots.
239
I
FIGURE 11.54 A n e u tra l d ire c tio n o l m ovem ent is in se rte d between tw o co n flic tin g
s h ots to sm o o th th e p assa g e fro m one s id e view to th e o th e r. T h u s , th e a c tio n Is seen
as a c o n tin u o u s m o vem e n t on the screen w ith a c o n s ta n t d ire c tio n , d espite the
opp o se d d ire c tio n s o f s h o ts 1 and 3.
Case S3
A significant m atching lim b m ovem ent can som etim es serve to
unite two otherw ise incom patible reverse cam era views o f two
players (Fig. 11.55).
T he girl (right) slaps the m an ’s face (left); as her han d reaches
his face we cu t to the second shot w here the arm m otion is com
pleted.
T heir positions are now reversed, yet the shots cut smoothly
because the arm m ovem ent in the sequence has been in a con
tinuous direction,
240
fIG U R E 11,55 T h e co n tin u o u s sense o f d ire c tio n o l m ovem ent. In th is case th e
svrlncing a rc of th e g irl's a rm as she p ro ce e d s to slap th e man. m asks a su d d e n
switch o f screen areas fo r b o th s u b je c ts In th e c u t fro m th e fir s t to th e second shot.
Case 54
This is one o f the m ost frequent m ovem ents in films. W ith a
regular treatm ent, where the cam era sites, inside and outside,
remain on th e same side o f the line o f m ovem ent, the result is as
Fig, 11.56.
Case 5 5
If an irregular solution is consciously chosen, the fragm ents o f
action, are in opposed directions, because the cam era sites are on
opposite sides o f the line o f action (Fig. 11.57).
This solution is m ore dynam ic on the screen, especially if' the
motion is th rough an open d o o r in both shots. I f the d o o r has to
be opened, th at m ovem ent is used to m ake the cut from shot to
shot. The h alf circular m otion will help m ask a change o f direc
tor!.
Case 56
Seme film editors save tim e when showing a perform er walking
through a d o o r th at m ust be opened. Peter H unt, film editor o f
FIGURE 11.56 M ethod o f s h o w in g an a c to r p a s s in g th ro u g h a d o o rw a y u ses th t
tria n g le p rin c ip le fo r cam era p la ce m e nt In th e re g u la r w ay. B o th cam era site s are
o n the sam e side o f th e lin e o f m ovem ent.
Goldfinger, in the first sequence o f the film shows Jam es Bond, clad
as a frogm an kneeling at the base o f a huge tank. B ond presses a
hidden switch and a concealed d o o r hinges open. Cut. Inside the
tank Jam es Bond closes the d o o r behind him and com es forward
(to lay plastic explosives over nitroglycerine drum s). T he actual
m otion o f crossing the threshold was om itted, only the first part
and the conclusion o f the m otion was show n, com pressing time
spent on a m ovem ent th at had no dram atic value.
C onversely, should the opening o f the d o o r take place in a very
dram atic situation, th at could be stressed by delaying the opening
as m uch as possible, w ithout harm ing the effectiveness o f the scene.
FIGURE 11.57 An irre a u la r a pp ro a ch to c ro s s in g a th re s h o ld .
Case 57
If two players are show n w alking together in a neutral direction
towards an open door, their screen positions will be reversed as we
cut to the reverse shot for the second h alf o f the action (Fig. 11.58).
Case 58
The sam e reversal happens if one o f the perform ers stands close to
the d o o r waiting for the o ther to ap p ro ach and enter the room .
The m ovem ent o f the walking player has a neutral direction in
both shots. W henever possible his position on the screen is m atched
(preferably in the centre), so th at the w aiting perform er is seen
first on one side o f the screen and then o n the other, while the
moving player is kept in the centre o f the fram e.
243
FIGURE 11,58 T w o pla ye rs w a lkln o away in a n e u tra l d ire c tio n exchanne screen
areas in th e second s h o t as they a pp ro a ch the cam era.
Case 59
A pause is som etim es used when a player enters a closed door.
In the first sh o t we see him arriving outside the d o o r and stopping
to knock. A fter the knock we cut to the second shot— we see only
the door, from the inside. E ither som ebody answ ers from off
screen telling the player outside to com e in. or after a pause the
player outside opens the d o o r and enters. This pause at the
beginning o f the second shot serves to m ask a change in the
players direction o f m ovem ent. The static view o f the d o o r from
the inside, with no m ovem ent a t all on the screen, held for one or
two seconds before being opened, constitutes the visual pause.
Case 60
As we are dealing with cases involving a d o o r, let us digress for a
m om ent an d retu rn to the coverage o f two static players placed
one on each side o f a closed opaque door. To o b tain the feeling
244
FIGURE 11.59 A r e v e r s a l o f t h e p la y e r s ' s c r e e n p o s i t i o n s a ls o o c c u r s when o n e play
e r m o v e s d o s e to a s t a t i o n a r y p la y e r w h o w a t c h e s h im q o by.
The m ovem ent begins and ends in the centre o r starts o n one
side an d finishes on the other.
FIGURE 11.62 The movement begins in the centre and f$ concluded In the centre or
It starts on one side and finishes on the opposite edge of the screen.
247
T he m otion converges tow ards the centre o f the screen o r diverges
from it. .............
FIGURE 11.63 The movement converoes on the centre of lhe screen or diverge*
from It.
A personal preference
M an y film directors and editors prefer the econom y o f action
offered by ‘m ovem ent inside the screen’. T he filmed m ovem ent is
edited so th at it does no t go o u t o f the screen in the first shot and
enters in the second.
T hese film m akers find th at the suggestion o f m otion given by a
subject m oving from centre to border o r vice versa, is more
effective and econom ical than allowing him to really move out
o f th e film fram e. A nd it does no t m atter how fast the subject is
m oving. T he stan d ard chosen rem ains unchanged.
U sing th at criterion with the form ulas and exam ples examined
so far yo u will really o b tain fast, econom ic and dynam ic transi
tions from sh o t to shot that register a w hole continuous m otion of
a perform er, anim al o r vehicle.
A lternatively, the subject can enter and exit the picture—an
ap p ro ach discussed in the ch a p te r following.
248
12
With this technique the m oving subject in the first shot leaves the
shot totally o r partially, and re-enters (o r not) in the second shot.
But there are two alternatives for the second shot: T he subject
re-enters shot by the o p posite side to his exit, or, he is already in
view in th e second shot, either in the centre o f the picture o r placed
to one side.
The three basic rules sum m arized a t the end o f the previous
chapter are applicable here except fo r the m odification im plicit
in prolonging th e m otion itself, so th at it really enters o r leaves
the sh o t com pletely.
W ith a m ovem ent o u t o f shot the cut would im m ediately follow
the subject’s exit:
1 The cu t occurs when the subject is partially out o f fram e.
2 The shot is held for a few fram es after the exit.
The techniques are reversed for subjects entering the screen. W ith
the triangular cam era coverage (p. 32) all its five variants are
applicable here: external reverse angles, internal reverse angles,
right angles, parallel cam era sites, and a com m on visual axis for
two o r m ore consecutive shots.
249
lengthy m ovem ent is to be retained it m ust be endowed with
1
visual qualities th a t justify its use, although those m ight sometimes
represent a forced, contrived misc en scene. A m ovem ent in which
the subject goes o u t o f the screen in one shot an d com es into it in.
the next helps blend separate locations together m ore naturally
and easier to accom plish as a convincing transition between two
separate areas.
Fig. 12.1 shows a m an walking in fro n t o f a building in the
first shot and in fro n t o f a scenic m ountain background in the
second. The building and the m ountain range m ight be oceans
ap a rt bu t on the screen the m otion o f the player will tend to con
firm th at they are close to one another. If the scene is shot in a
studio the actor merely walks twice in front o f the same back
projection screen o r blue backing for travelling m atte process.
FIGURE 12.1 A player who crosses horizontally in fro nt of two locations framed l»y
the camera makes those places coexist side by side on the screen, notwithstanding
the fact of their actual distance apart.
Case A
Figure 12.3 shows the first possibility described above. T he first
and last takes are close shots where the d ep artu re (beginning)
and arrival (concluding) p arts o f the m ovem ent are recorded. The
in-between tak e is a full shot where o u r perform er is seen entering
from one side a n d w alking only to the centre o f the screen. H e and
his destination are in opposed screen sectors.
In. the exam ple discussed we get screen sector m otion repetition
in the last two shots. T he editing o f these takes is quite simple. In
the first tak e as soon as the perform er is ou t o f the screen com
pletely (or alm ost) cu t to the second shot where he re-enters from
the opposite side and m oves to the centre. O n reaching the centre,
cut to the th ird sh o t w here he again enters into the screen an d
stops.
This co m b in atio n o f close sh o t—full shot— close shot, clearly
shows a perform er changing from zone to zone. T he m iddle take
251
FIGURE 12.2 A n horizontal movement covered by three parallel camera position!.
A li these are fuli shots.
Case B
W hen b o th adjoining zones are show n in the sam e take, the screen
is divided into three sectors, and these zones are placed o n the left
252
FIGURE 12.3 By placing the central camera position further back In a full shot the
de»tinatlo* o f th« m o/lno player is revealed belore he reaches It.
and right, leaving the central area of the screen for the action of
The main performer.
In. such a case there is central m ovem ent only in the picture
area (Fig. 12.4).
The shots are edited as follow s:
S hot 1 Close shot. Player A hits B on the jaw , sending him out
o f screen, right.
Shot 2 Full shot. A is standing on the left. B staggers back in the
centre. There is a w agon on the right.
Shot 3 Close shot. B enters from the left staggering back and
his body slam s against the wheel o f the w agon, stopping
violently.
The violence in the first and third shot is accentuated by the
sudden cu t to a far away viewpoint.
253
FIGURE 12,4 In this example the central shot Includes the 1wo jortes of the set and
the Intermediate space between them re-establishlno the whole locals for the audience.
Shots 1 and 3 record departure and arrival respectively.
Case C
In the previous cases the three cam era sites were parallel to the
path o f the perform er, b u t can he placed in line w ith it, AH view
points have a com m on visual axis, an d the m otion is recorded in
fragm ents which move forw ard behind the walking o r running
player.
A further variation is obtained by com bining m ovem ent inside
the screen and m otion th at enters the screen. As shown in Fig. !2.5.
The first cam era position is located on the stern o f a sailing ship,
pointing to the prow. P erform er A in foreground begins to walk
tow ards B in the background. W hen she is halfway, cut to 2, a.
site on the sam e visual axis as the preceding shot. A enters from
right into the field o f vision o f the second cam era position and
continues walking tow ards B. W hen A is again halfway in he_D—
rem aining path, cut to site 3, where A, close to the cam era on her
right, com pletes her trajectory and jo in s B.
254
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FIGURE 12.5 In the case shown here the three camera positions are located on the
path of the movement itself, and advance as the walkina player moves away to her
destination.
Case D
In the exam ple explained (Fig. 12.5) the subject in m otion starts
from one area close to the first cam era site, and m oves to B. A
further variatio n can be obtained b y placing his destination b e
yond player B, T his m o tion can be either continuous, o r w ith an
interruption in the centre. T he follow ing exam ple, illustrated in
Fig. 12.6 m akes use again o f three fragm ents aligned on a com m on
visual axis.
Shot 1 A m oves from the right hand screen sector. C ut to . , .
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FIGURE 12.6 A nother example of camera sites arranged on the line of movement it
self. Here the moving player goes beyond the stationary one, and on into tha back
ground. Player B on the left side remains stationary but her figure grows In si 2e aa
each new shot is introduced.
Case E
An action fragm ented in three shots may use screen sector repeti
tion in all the shots, a n d can apply a right angle relationship
between shots 1 and 2, an d an advance on a com m on visual axis
between shots 2 and 3.
12.8 we would use only shots 1, 2 and 4. On the first, the moving
player leaves his area. In s h o t 2, he is seen, small, traversing the
space th at separates h i m from his destination o n the right, where
the other perform er waits. Shot 4 w ould begin by showing the
waiting acto r alone on the screen for several fram es, and then the
player in m otion would enter the screen.
The length o f tim e th at the w aiting player rem ains on the screen
before the arrival o f the other, suggests the length o f the path
travelled. A time contraction is usually resorted to when using
this m ethod. M otion o f a repetitive n atu re (such as walking or
FIGURE 12.8 M ultiple fragm ents applied to a lengthy movement of a player. Screen
sector repetition is obtained in the last three shots,
Converging motion
The m oving player com es forw ard on the screen in bo th takes, but
in the first his m ovem ent is from right to centre on the right side o f
the screen, while in the second he m oves from left to centre o n the
left side o f th e film fram e. T he m ovem ent o f the approaching
player converges tow ards the centre o f the screen in both shots,
using b o th right and left areas o f the screen consecutively.
r 1
261
FIGURE 13.1 One of the m ost frequently used formulas for short range movements
employed when only one player moves towards another. The camera positions are
at right angles.
The difference in distance betw een the cam era an d the perform er
in b oth takes (FS to CS o r MS) adds a visual variety. A always
moves in the same sector o f the screen. A lthough we showed
m ovement fro m right to left, the reverse direction w orks in the
same m anner as in all the exam ples following.
An alternative, or ad d itio n to the above is where the beginning
of the m ovem ent is first show n in a reverse close shot (Fig. 13.2).
Player A begins to m ove in close shot (1) where he goes o u t o f
the screen, entering into full shot (2) an d concludes his m otion by
entering again in m edium shot (3). Several o f the follow ing situa
tions also open with a close shot.
A nother so lution is to m ake the first a panning shot. The ac to r
walks in a straight path tangential to the panning arc o f the first
camera site (Fig. 13.3).
T h e illu stratio n shows the 180° pan used in the first shot. It
achieves th e sam e as the tw o first shots in Fig. 13.2.
FIGURE 13.3 The firs t shot is panned. This is another variant of the basic formula
shown in Fig. 13.1.
FIGURE 13.5 in this approach to the basic form ula the stationary player is used as
a pivot for t h e c a m e r a sites, keeping her in the foreground i n both shots.
Fig. 13.6 shows the a c to r’s m ovem ent profiled to the camera in
the first shot, and with his b ack to it in the second.
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FIGURE 13.6 In (his variant the camera sites are deployed In a pattern complementary
to that shown In Fig. 13.5.
The case shown in Fig. 13.7 shows a cam era pan applied to the
second shot. In the first shot A is seen m oving aw ay from us
tow ards B in the background. In the second shot A is in the centre
o f the screen (or entering it from the right) an d being followed by a
sh o rt panning m ovem ent th a t covers the conclusion o f his motion
as he com es to a stop facing p erform er B.
FIGURE 13.8 A simple approach using a set of external reverse camera angles.
I
FIGURE 13-9 The firs t shot is an improvement added to the external reverse angle
camera coverage in the previous example.
FIGURE 13.11 A parallel camera deployment used to register the movement of the
player as he walks towards his stationary companion.
269
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FIGURE 13.12 A commo n visual axis fine for both camera sites is used here to show
the player In motion.
H ere (Fig. 13.13) the line o f m otion runs parallel to the axis line
o f the tw o cam era sites for covering o f the m otion.
In the foregoing exam ples the arrival p o in t (player B) was always
visible in the tw o o r three shots into which the m ovem ent o f A was
fragm ented. Tn the following exam ples she appears only in the
second shot. T his is due to the fact th a t the m otion covered
is a diagonal across o u r field o f vision (Fig. 13.14).
In the first shot player A m oves aw ay from the cam era, in an
oblique path, an d leave the picture, left. H e enters from the right in
the second shot a n d stops, facing B. A is seen from behind in both
shots.
In this case we reverse the situation in the preceding example.
The m oving player faces the cam era in b o th shots (Fig. 13.15).
In shot 1, player A advances to the cam era in a diagonal and
passes o u t o f shot, left. F o r shot 2 tw o solutions are available.
B is included in foreground in both possibilities. A is either in the
centre o f the right sector m oving tow ards us, or he enters from
the right and com es to the foreground.
270
FIGURE 13.13 Movement in a neutral direction Is covered by camera deployment on
a common visual axis.
FIGURE 13.14 In the firs t shot A moves away obliquely from the camera and exits
left. In the second shot he enters from the right, still seen from behind, and stops,
lacing 6.
271
FIGURE 13.15 The difference between this example and that preceding it lies In the
fact that here 1he moving player arrives facino us, whereas in the previous case he
moved with his back to the camera.
FIGURE 13.15A The use of a m irror on the second shot repeats the entrance of the
moving player twice on the same section of the screen.
272
FIGURE 13,16 The variant afforded by this approach fs tha t two stationary players are
involved. The moving actor advances from one to the other in tha two shots.
A walks beyond B
A situation often found in a scene where the player in motion
crosses beside the static one, and stops beyond him. This might be
filmed as follows.
Player B, the static subject, can be used as pivot in both shots,
thus relating visually bo th shots into which the m ovem ent has
been split. As Fig. 13.17 shows,_B has his back to us in the first-
shot and is facing the cam era in the second. A goes out o f the
screen in the first shot and enters the second. His m otion can be
FIGURE 13.IS A right angle camera relationship employed for a movement where Ihe
walking player passes beyond his stationary companion. The firs t shot is used twice
to show the beginning and conclusion of the movement. The second covers the
central part of !he movement.
Very few screen m otions so far exam ined have allowed division
a n d use o f shots in two o r m ore parts. Inserts o r cut-aways in a
m aster sh o t m ay provide a pause in the action recorded, serve to
stress a situ atio n o r allow recognition o f the characters involved.
In the follow ing exam ple the player pauses in fro n t o f a large
building before m oving on tow ards It. A reverse shot is inserted,
M aster sh o t 1 Large building in the background. A enters
view fro m the left a n d stops with his back to us,
L ooking tow ards the building. C ut to . . ,
Insert 2 Reverse shot o f A seen on the sam e side o f the
picture. H e is looking off right. H e advances and
passes ou t o f view right. C u t to . . .
M aster shot 1 A , in the centre o f the picture, m oving away
from us tow ards the building.
T he co m b in atio n is easy to execute. T he m aster shot 1 is filmed
w ith o u t in terru p tion. Player A enters, stops, then m oves away
tow ards the building. Cut.
T he ac to r is b ro u g h t b ack a n d positioned for the second shot.
T here we see his expression as he exam ines the building and then
starts to w alk to w ards it. In editing, a po rtio n o f the m aster shot I,
co rresponding to the action seen in the insert, is rem oved and
replaced by the insert 2. This reverse shot, being a frontal shot
favouring the perform er, show s the player’s reaction m uch more
clearly th a n if we stuck to shot 1 in its entirety.
In a n o th er case a subject seen m oving in extrem e long shot,
generates in the audience the urge to identify him before becoming
involved in his fu rth e r actions. This can be handled as follows,
FIGURE 14.T Player A , afone, faces the building. He enter* shot, stops, then moves
away (In the **cond shot) towards the bulldino. again covered by the first camera
position.
M aster shot 1 A enters view from the left, running to the right.
H e is show n in very sm all scale, silhouetted
against the sky, running across a beach. W hen
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FIGURE 14.2 The firs t shot Is used twice. The horizontal movement o f the player is
through thirds of the screen area—the firs t and third. The movement that sho t Id be
Inthe central part o f the screen In S h o tl is substituted by the movement shown in Shot
2, w hich Is from a right angled camera position, closer to the moving sub je ct
FIGURE 14.3 Floor plan showing the arrangement of the cameras to cover a simple
movement of one player.
280
A t the beginning o f the shot, A enters from the left a n d stops.
They talk.
An elaborate m otion recorded in a single m aster shot can be
enhanced by the in tro d uction o f two inserts. Fig. 14.4 gives the
camera positions in such a case.
FIGURE t4.4 Floor plan of the camera sites that cover a simple movement with
various camera viewpoints, one of them used as a master shot (1).
High long shot again. R iders tu rn the bend to the rig h t an d move
across the screen. P an to the right w ith them .
282
Low ful! shot. R iders ap p ro ach diagonally from left to right
and exit th e screen, right.
In this exam ple the two inserts w ere used to inject dynam ism
into th e m aster shot. T his m aster is a pan o ram ic view. Its value
lies in show ing the riders isolated in the large, w ild terrain. T he
inserts p rovide violent m o tio n th a t co n trasts w ith the calm ness o f
the m aster. An increase in sound level when the tw o inserts ap p e ar
on the screen, a n d a sudden decrease w hen the m aster shot follows
accentuates a feeling o f im pending m enace.
Several m aster shots can be edited in parallel to cover a p er
form er’s m ovem ent in o rd e r to stress all the d ra m a tic possibilities,
and build a succession o f im ages th a t create excitem ent, suspense
or sheer actio n fo r the audience. H ere is a n exam ple from an un
finished film entitled E l Senor del E ste (L ord o f the East). T he
283
J L .
FIGURE 14.5 Sequence of shots edited in parallel as described in the text.
284
Shot 2 Reverse shot. The gaucho enters from the left and
m oves tow ards the background. T here we see his
s
targ et: the arsenal.
0
Shot 4
0
Shot 3 Full shot o f the walls. The gaucho reaches the arsenal
and disappears behind it.
286
S hot 5 T he walls o f the arsenal in foreground. T he gaucho
com es tow ards us from a neutral direction a n d kneels
below the lighted window . H e waits.
287
Shot 5 The gaucho slowly rises and peeps through the slit
w indow o f the arsenal.
T he w hole sequence com prises ten fragm ents, taken from three
m aster shots a n d tw o single shots. These single shots are used at
the beginning o f the sequence to show the tw o extrem e zones
betw een w hich the m ovem ent takes place. In take ] we see the
g aucho leaving his hiding place, a n d in shot 2 we show him
heading for his targ et: the fa r aw ay arsenal. M aster shots 3 and 4
record his bold m ovem ent through the dan g er zone. M aster 3
shows the sentry in foreground who m ight tu rn at any mom ent
a n d challenge him . T he m ovem ent o f the gaucho is show n in this
sh o t in three successive zones o f the screen. T hey are intercut with
m aster 4 th a t show s us the feelings o f the gaucho as he moves
across th e o p en cou rty ard .
As o u r hero reaches the arsenal we cut to the m aster shot 5,
w here we show him com ing to the w indow.
T h en we in tercut the pay-off o f M aster 3. W e h ad toyed with the
em otions o f the audience by stating clearly (in a previous p a rt o f the
story) th at if the sentry tu rn ed , the plans o f our hero w ould be
ruined. (The audicnce already know s th a t there is a curfew en
forced every night w ithin the fortress walls). By show ing the sentry
turn in g now, wc stress th a t the danger was as real as we had
indicated, b u t o u r lucky hero saved him self o n the nick o f time.
T h en we retu rn to m aster sh o t 5 where the gaucho starts the next
phase o f his o p eratio n , a n d the story m oves on.
288
15
IRREGULAR CASES
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attention for the player, and the audience, rem ained in the centre
o f the screen.
W ith the present solution a pause is introduced at the beginning
o f the second shot and the m oving player presents a profiled body
position in both shots. The m otion o f the player o r other moving
subject can be either across the screen o r diagonally.
Both fragm ents o f the m otion converge on the screen tow ards
its centre. This visually interesting presentation works well not
only where two persons m eet, b u t also in cases where one per
293
former, for instance, helps the other c/imb on to higher ground
where the first player is already placed (Fig. 15.4).
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FIGURE 45.4 The pause a lth e beginning of the second shot has been om it led, anda
dire ctcut is m ado.The movement in both shots converges on th e c e n tre o tlh e scrsan.
FIGURE 15.7 Movement In 4 neutral direction where the players exchange screen
positions In the second shot as the moving person a, completes her action.
centre o f the screen, seen in full figure. T heir area reversal covers
less screen space th an the same action pictured in close shots. Shot 1 B (left, static). A (right) m oves aw ay in a neutral
direction. C u t to . . .
Divergent motions Shot 2 Side shot. B (left, static). A enters from th a t side an d
crosses the screen, sto pping in the rig h t sector.
The perform er m ay m ove aw ay fro m the scene from the centre
instead o f com ing in to it.
F irst there is a m edium shot o f the group. A m oves from the Both players move
centre o f the screen to the right, exiting by th a t side.
A fu rth er irregular variatio n is in tro d u ced when b o th players
Secondly com es a reverse full shot. A (centre) com pletes her
move. T he actors w alk on parallel path s, b u t in o p posite directions.
m ovem ent. She either exits by the left side o r stops there and turns
They stop sim ultaneously a n d face each o th er (Fig. 15.10).
to face the group.
Shot 1 A ctors en ter sh o t fro m op p o site sides and w alk tow ards
the centre fram ed in m edium shot. As th eir figures are
Constant screen position fo r one player ab o u t to overlap, cu t to . . .
In som e cases instead o f exchanging sides o f the picture one player Shot 2 Reverse. B oth players en ter view in close shot, again
m ay be kept to a constant screen area while the other crosses from o p posite sides, an d sto p , facing each other.
(Fig. 15.9). The positions o f th e acto rs in the second sh o t are reversed. B ut
298 299
FIGURE 15.10 The players move In opposed direction# towards a meeting po ln t.T h *
second camera position transposes them on the screen but the cut works smoothly
because the converging movements In both shots are equal.
FIGURE 16.0 Two mirrors record on opposed halves of the screen the golnfl away
motion o l a player.
301
f
FIGURE 16.1 Two variations offered to cover a departing movement. The first covert
movement In a neutral direction and the second, movement across the screen.
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FIGURE 16.2 A n external set of reverse camera sites is employed in this example to
cover the departure of one player.
306
Shot 1 A in foreground turns and exits right.
Shot 2 Reverse. B in foreground. A in the centre background,
m oves aw ay to the right. She does no t exit from the
screen in this shot.
Shot 3 Low close shot. A enters from the left and crosses our
view, leaving by the right (or alternatively stops in the
centre).
Two people face each o th er and are covered by two external
307
reverse cam era sites. T he d om inant person (seen beyond the one
in foreground) m oves aw ay from his com panion. If th a t motion
in the first sh o t is directed tow ards the cam era, the continuation of
the m ovem ent in the second shot will happen within the boundaries
o f the screen (Fig. 16.6).
The solution is sim ilar to the one show n on page 297 Fig. 15.7
except th at now the m oving player does not re-enter the screen.
FIGURE 16*6 The moving player comes towards us in a neutral direction. A s she
approaches the stationary person we cut to a reverse shot behind her, where she
moves away from the camera, passes the stationary player and continues on her
path to the background. Due to the external reverse angle coverage employed, the
positions of the players on the screen are transposed.
308
In the first sh o t the player starts to m ove; in the second she
completes the m otion passing the static player, and irregular case
where they exchange screen areas. But if the departing perform er
moves to the background in the first shot, he moves ou t o f view in
the second. In practice, two m aster shots are edited in parallel,
alternating betw een angles (Fig. 16.7).
Shot 1 M edium shot o f A and B. They enter shot from the
right and stop, facing each other. She has her back to
us, and he dom inates. H e says: ‘W hen shall I see you
again ?’
Shot 2 Reverse close sh o t o f both. She replies: ‘A fter vespers,
in church.’ She begins to tu rn aw ay from us.
Shot 1 M edium shot. She ends h er turning m ovem ent and
walks tow ards us and o u t o f shot, left.
Shot 2 F ro m this reverse position we see her in the left sector
o f th e screen walking aw ay tow ards the background.
Shot 1 Close shot. H e rem ains alone for an instant looking
off screen left. Then he turns and crosses the screen
exiting left.
The m ovem ent o f th e girl was recorded in the same h alf o f the
screen in b o th shots. A farewell scene treated visually as we have
described, acquires a dynam ic quality o f m otion on the screen due
to the use o f th e same sector o f the screen for all shots o f m ove
ment an d because o f the repetitive editing p attern from intercut
master shots. Juxtaposed close and m edium shots add a contrast
in distances.
M ovem ent m ust flow sm oothly into m ovem ent. A departure
motion, th o u g h only a small p art, may be integrated within the
general design o f m ovem ent to a sequence (Fig. (16.8).
Shot 1 B in foreground rings off, tu rn s to the right. C am era
p an s w ith him , fram ing B, left, and A beyond. A is
packing a suitcase. B speaks to her.
Shot 2 M edium sh o t o f A. She raises her head a t the beginning
o f the shot, reacting to B off-screen. She replies, and
then closing the suitcase, takes it and exits view, right.
Shot 3 B in foreground, right. A enters from left and walks to
the d o o r, centre background. She opens it and exits.
Shot 4 Reverse. Close shot o f B bending an d picking up phone
again, he dials a num ber, puts the receiver to his ear,
waits for a m om ent and speaks.
309
FIGURE 16.7 Simple reverse camera eaveraae for a departing movement fragmented
Into several pieces using only two master shots obtained from the camera positions
shown.
FIGURE 16.8 Departure integrated into a more complex pattern of movement that
precedes and continues the central action shown here.
F irst, a close shot o f b oth perform ers; A exits the screen, right.
C ut to reverse shot 2, also a close shot. Two approaches are
possible. In one, A is in the centre o f the screen hiding player B
with her body. A moves from centre to left and exits.
Alternatively, A enters the foreground from the right, with her
back to us, and crosses between B an d the cam era, exiting left. B
turns his head right to left.
W ith external and internal reverse cam era positions, the sub
je c t’s d eparture is not shown b u t only suggested by the turning
head o f the other perform er (Fig. 16.11).
W hen A exits the first shot, cut to the second where B follows
the implied m ovem ent o f A.
A screen exit from one side to the centre is also possible (Fig.
16.12).
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FIGURE 16,12 Two camera sites on a common visual axis are used to record a
person who passes behind the stationary player as she leaves.
FIGURE 18.14 Right angle coverage of a departing player. In the firs t shot the person
starts to move away from the camera. In the second shotas sha completes the move
ment she discloses a frontal view of the stationary player.
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FIGURE 16.15 The difference between this example and that preceding lies In the fact
that in this case the departing player begins her movement towards the camera In
the first shot Instead of away from It.
317
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FIGURE 16.16 A pause at the conclusion of the firs t shot (remaining with the sta
tionary player) serves to shorten the repetitive motion on a lenothy path,
FIGURE 16.18 An example taken from A lfred Hitchcock's film North by Northwest,
where a cutway is used to shorten the path that must be traversed by the moving
player.
321
17
W e have analysed screen m ovem ent where one perform er, the
dom inant one, enters and exits. B ut b o th players m ay move at the
sam e time and, in th a t event, three types o f m ovem ent are available
to them :
1 b o th m ove in the sam e direction
2 they m ove tow ards each other
3 they m ove ap art.
Each one o f these approaches will be exam ined separately and
several exam ples w ithin each v aria n t will be offered.
Case 1
W hen b o th players w alk in the sam e direction, i.e. one behind the
other, a dynam ic presentation can be obtained by editing the paii
o f external reverse shots as described below , a n d in Fig. 17.1.
Shot I F ull shot. B m oves fro m the centre o f the screen to the
right and exits. C ut to . . .
Shot 2 Reverse full shot. A enters shot from the left and moves
aw ay behind B.
In shot 1, A m oves from left to centre and B from centre to right.
In shot 2 b o th execute sim ilar m ovem ents in the sam e areas o f the
screen. B ut in shot 1 perform er B exits the screen, w hereas in shot
2, A enters from the opposite side. B, in the second shot, is already
in the centre o f the screen m oving aw ay into the background.
Case 2
I f three people are m oving in a single line, a som ew hat similar
solution is available (Fig. 17.2).
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FIGURE 17.2 Movement that begins in the centre of the screen for the second ia
employed here to unite the shots visually-
Case 3
A right angle coverage is also possible as show n in Fig. 17.3.
In the first shot four persons are standing, profiled to the camera,
w atching som ething off-screen left and then begin to m ove to the
left. A exits screen, B (centre) moves to left screen edge; C and D
reach the centre. C ut to the second shot, at right angles. A and B
are already in shot, right, an d walk away to the burning plane in
the back g ro u n d followed by others who enter shot from the right.
324
FIGURE 17*3 A right angle camera coverage for the departure of aeveral players,
nnovlno one behind the other.
Case 4
Two players approaching each other suggest a right angle cam era
coverage (Fig. 17.4).
In the first shot b o th players, m oving in a neutral direction, w alk
towards each other. C u t to shot 2, where b o th enter shot from their
own sides and stop n ear the centre.
Case 5
Cameras placed o n a com m on visual axis will also record this
converging m otion well (Fig. 17.5).
The first shot is divided in three vertical com positional segments.
Both perform ers are placed at the extrem es, and are allow ed to
move up to the inner boundaries o f the segments. T hen we cut to a
close shot, advancing on a com m on visual axis, where each player
is seen from his own sides, and com ing to a stop.
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FIGURE 17.4 The conversing movement c l two players covered by a rl*t*t mi fie
earner* arrangement.
Case 6
The players m ight approach one a n o th e r a t right angles, as in
Fig. 17.6.
The editing pro cedure would be sim ilar to those in the preceding
case.
327
FIGURE 17.6 Both moving players converge on paths at right angles and are
covered by * right angle camera arrangem ent
H ere th e right angle cam era deploym ent coincides with the
rig h t angle m ovem ent o f the players themselves. N eutral and
transverse m otions are attenuated in half-areas o f the screen from
sh o t to shot.
Case 7
T his m eeting o f tw o perform ers whose m ovem ents converge on a
central point, can be extended to two groups. In editing, one could
altern ate betw een m ovem ents o r present them in the sam e shot.
F o r exam ple: an In d ian chieftain an d a cavalry com m ander agree
to m eet in neu tral ground to talk over th eir differences. B oth come
with arm ed escorts w ho rem ain u p in the hills as the chiefs descend
FIGURE 17.7 The movements o l characters who converge on a central point tan be
eitended to tw o oroups.
329
to their m eeting point in the valley. H ere is how the sequence is
developed.
Shot 1 Low full shot. T he group o f cavalry m en appear over
the rim o f the hill and stop. They m oved from right to
left. As they stop cut to . . .
Shot 4 Low full shot. Indians appear o n the ridge o f their hill
and stop. (They m oved from left to right).
330
Shot 2 Close shot o f three cavalry m en. The com m anding
officer waves his arm .
Shot 2 Low close shot o f the three cavalry m en. T hey wait.
331
S hot 5 Low close shot o f the three Indians. T he ch ief raises his
arm and then low ers it.
S hot 6 Full shot. B oth cavalry m en (the Indian Scout and the
com m anding officer) descend to the left a n d go out of
shot. T he o th er soldiers w ait a t the to p o f the hill.
Shot 5 Low close shot o f the three Indians. T he chief and his
son m ove right an d descend o u t o f sh ot o n th a t side.
Shot 7 Full shot. Both Indians descend left to right and pass
o u t o f shot right. They ride slowly. The other Indians
spread o u t along the to p o f their hill.
Shot 9 F ull shot. O n the same visual axis as the preceding shot
with the row o f Indians o n top o f the hill. T he Indian
chief and his son ride tow ards us, descending the slope
an d passing o u t o f shot below.
333
Shot 10 M edium shot. T he Indian scout and com m anding
officer enter shot, right, cross the view diagonally
descending to the left and ou t o f shot.
334
Shot 13 Close shot o f the Indian chief. His face dignified b u t
inscrutable. He w aits in silence.
Case 8
F o r the th ird possibility, m entioned at the beginning o f the chapter,
w here two players m ove aw ay from each o th er we have only to use
in reverse the fo rm ulas described for the players w ho walk towards
each o ther. A visual em phasis will suffice to give the idea, asshow n
in Fig. 17.8.
D uellists, back to back, an d seen in close view in the first shot.
T hey receive the o rd e r from off screen and start to m ove away
from each other. As soon as b o th leave the screen, we cut to a
second sh o t where we see them w alking a n d widening the distance
betw een them . Finally they stop.
I
I
r
FIGURE 17.8 Players move away from each other on divergent paths Right angle
camera coverage registers the movement.
Case 9
A group o f players m oving aw ay from each o th er m ay som etim es
serve to disclose a goal hidden by their presence—a m otion sim ilar
effect to where theatre curtains p art to reveal the stage. T he follow
ing case m akes use o f this effect:
la a sum ptuous hall o f a large palace, the nobles are gathered
to dance. Suddenly a lackey enters an d in a pom pous voice loudly
announces: His Highness, Prince C harles!
The music fades and the dancers break up a n d begin to clear a
path to reveal th e lords a t the end o f the hall. T he Prince advances
through the crowd, tow ards the ow ners o f the castle. H ere we are
only interested in show ing th at p arting m ovem ent o f the crow d.
Shot I Long shot. T he people in the first row s o f the crowd
begin to move to the sides o f the screen and exit view
at either side.
i i,
Intermittent motion
Looking back on o u r exam ination o f horizontal m ovem ent in and
out o f shots, we lealize th at we have covered only continuous
movement o f one or two perform ers. But in term itten t m otion, i.e.
where the perform ers m ove in turn, is very com m on in films. It
happens in m ost dialogue scenes where players shift position. This
will be exam ined later w hen we discuss shots edited w ithin the
film fram e and the construction o f sequences.
339
18
Case 1
Let us first exam ine a case o f lack o f m ovem ent in the central
p erfo rm er o f th e scene.
O u r p lay er is seated at a lone table in a night club. Empty
tables aro u n d him em phasize his loneliness as we see him in a
long shot o f the room . N ow we wish to cut to a m edium shot of
him , so th a t the audience can identify the player a n d see the
expression on his face: tired, disenchanted, eyes lowered, fixed on
a n em pty glass.
T he m an does n o t m ove. It is no t necessary. In fact it would be
a d ram atic e rro r to give the perform er any type o f m otion. But
how do we cu t from a static long shot to a static m edium shot yet
avoid a visual ju m p on the screen ? O ne way is to introduce a
d istracting m ovem ent perform ed by a passer-by and cut using
this m ovem ent (Fig. 18.1).
S hot I L ong shot o f A. A fter a m om ent a passer-by enters from
one side and walks across the screen. W hen her figure,
in the centre o f the screen, hides A com pletely, cut to . . ,
S hot 2 T he cam era’s view com pletely blocked by the body of
the passer-by w ho continues m oving to disclose A in
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FIGURE 18.1 A smooth cut Is obtained by hiding the stationary player In the centre
o f the screen and cutting on the movement of the passing player across the screen.
t *
1 I
FIGURE t8.2 The player who produces 9 hiding effect by moving across the frame
need not leave the shot In either of the two shots Into which the movement is divided.
Case 2
T he person who is used on the screen to facilitate a sm ooth cut
m ight already be on the screen, say, also in a static position. He
has only to cross o u r view to effect the above result (Fig. 18.2).
Shot 1 A seen in m edium shot seated a t the table. In fore-
342
FIGURE 18.3 A player moving from centre to side of the screen can unite the shot
with a previous one w ithout movement. The stationary player is seen beyond the
moving person in the second shot,
Case 3
The above situation can be reversed so th at we m ove back from a
close sh o t o f the static perform er (Fig. 18.3).
Shot 1 Close sh o t o f A, She is sitting still, talking on the phone.
C u t to . . .
Shot 2 Full shot. A person in the centre o f the screen m oves to
one side disclosing A in the background.
In the first sh o t there was no m ovem ent a t all. But m otion is
sharply introduced at the beginning o f the second shot. Back
ground m ovem ent can be introduced behind the static player and
continue during the second shot. It w ould no t interfere w ith the
cut because m ovem ent which is closer to the cam era is sharper
and dom inant.
For this key m ovem ent, any natural ch aracter th a t can be part
343
FIGURE 18«4 In the firs t shot the background woman moves out o f view. In the
second shot the moving woman, blocking our view, sits down and reveals the woman
on the phone behind her. The seated woman is seen in profile. The movement of this
woman affords sm ooth continuity and reestablishes the scene.
J
Case 4
Instead o f an incidental person, a n im p o rtan t player can be used.
He m ight be som eone w ho is reintroduced to the audience, while
at the same tim e his m ovem ent helps to sm ooth the cut which
repositions the static player (Fig. 18.4).
In th e first sh o t a girl is o n the phone, standing. A nother wom an
close to her pauses for a m om ent an d then m oves aw ay o u t of
shot, left. A fter a while we cut to the second shot w here o u r view
is blocked by the second w om an, who is sitting dow n near the
camera, As she sits she reveals the first w om an, still speaking.
The shot now fram es the second w om an close by a n d in the fore
ground, profiled w ith the first w om an seen in the background in
full shot, on the o th er side o f th e screen. Thus, bo th purposes
were neatly accom plished: the second character was reintroduced
into th e scene and was visually related to her friend whose new
position o n th e film fram e is clarified for the audience.
Case 5
In the exam ples exam ined, the m ovem ent was between the cam era
and o u r m ain subject, and the em phasis was placed on the static
perform er. But if this player is in m otion, an d m oves behind the
FIGURE 13.5 When the moving pfayer fs hidden behind the stationary subject in the
first shot, the cut is made to the second shot where the moving player emerges from
behind the other.
345
static subject, it is he who becom es im p o rtan t while the other
acquires a subordinate role (Fig. 18.5).
Shot 1 M edium shot. B stands in the centre. A enters from
right m oving left. As she passes behind B, and is hidden
by him , cut to . . .
Shot 2 Close shot o f B on the right. F rom behind him appears
A who moves to the left an d stops in th a t area o f the
film fram e.
T here can be several static persons in the first take, b u t only on eis
in m otion: A. B m ust be on the centre o f the screen in the fiist
take to get an effective cut from shot to shot.
Case 6
A panning shot and a static one can be related using this technique
o f blocking the character o r vehicle in m otion as it passes behind
a static subject (Fig. 18.6).
In the first shot a person stands in the ro ad at left waving his
h ands at an approaching car. The c a r crosses the screen right to
left in long shot. W hen the car begins to pass behind the static
person (both fram ed now in the centre o f the screen) we cut to the
second shot at right angles to the preceding cam era position, and
fram e a m edium shot o f the static player w ith his back to us. From
behind him em erges the car crossing the screen and exiting left.
The static player turns to us to w atch the receding ca r (off screen)
with a disappointed expression on his face. This second shot is a
fixed cam era set-up. (This example belongs to A lfred Hitchcock’s
film North by N orthw est an d happens in the sequence where a
biplane chases C ary G ra n t on a lonely country road.) The other
noticeable variation m ade on this exam ple was the introduction
o f a right angle relationship for b o th cam era sites, instead of sn
advance on a com m on visual axis as happened in all the previous
examples. T he m ovem ent recorded in the first shot lasts longer than
th at in the second where the subject m oves out o f shot quickly due
to its increase in size, thus creating a dynam ic visual emphasis for
the m otion itself.
Case 7
W here two static players are featured separately, one in each shot
(at right angles), they can be linked by the m ovem ent o f a sub
ordinate subject (Fig. 18.7).
In the first shot o f A, a w aiter in the foreground stands for a
m oment with his back to us, then turns an d exits left. C ut. In the
second shot, a t right angles, the w aiter (centre) m oves out o f shot
left, revealing B. Thus we dispose o f the establishing shot where
both m ain players (A and B) would be show n together, giving the
audience their true physical positions o n the set.
347
By resorting instead to the form ula ju st described, the intro
duction o f player B is m ore dram atic an d clear for the audience
due to the m ovem ent o f the subordinate subject, the waiter, whose
relation to the first player (A) h ad already been established fo r the
i
r
1
Case 8
B oth players m ight be in m otion, crossing each o ther. The same
fo rm u la can be applied. (Fig. 18.8.).
In the first shot, a full shot, A walks obliquely from left to centre^,
while B m oves across from right to centre. A s they cross, and B is
hidden by A, we cut. M edium o r close shot o f the players (same
348
FIGURE 18.8 When both performers cross in the centre of the screen, the cut can be
made on this crossing using two camera sites on a common ads.
Case 9
If a subject is m oving in a neutral direction in the centre, o f the
screen, we can rarely cut directly to a closer shot on the same visual
axis. A s a figure recedes it also dim inishes in size. A forw ard cut
would increase its size suddenly, and then it w ould decrease again.
N aturally the effect is visually jarring. It is no t the sam e with a
cross-screen m otion, because there the subject rem ains the same
size. So, for a n advance o n the same axis tow ards a subject m oving
in neutral direction, a distraction m ust be introduced (Fig. 18.9).
FIGURE 18.9 A subject In the foreground moves to hide the departing person In th»
centre of the screen. As soon as this main performer is hidden we may cut loiwsrd
to a closer shot of him, obtaining a smooth cut.
Shot 1 A m an, his back to us, is seen o n the right side o f the
screen looking tow ards a lake. A m o to rb o a t appears
right, turns, and m oves aw ay from us in the centre of
the screen. The m an m oves forw ard, blocks o u r view of.
the boat. C ut to . . .
Shot 2 Close shot o f the b o a t (same axis). T he b oat moves
away.
A simple solution where m ovem ent in a neutral direction is
hidden by a distracting stronger m ovem ent fo r a sm ooth cut.
Using a strong foreground motion
Case 10
A bundance o f m ovem ent is the o th er extrem e th at presents
difficulties fo r a precisely m atched cu t when tw o shots are o n the
same visual axis. This m otion, usually found in crow d scenes, is o f
a conflicting nature. Several m ovem ents with opposed directions
are present in disorganized crowds. O ne o r tw o central perform ers
m oving o r standing against such a busy background, could be
difficult to edit w ithout some very noticeable visual jum ps.
The principle o f using a distracting m ovem ent on which the cut
is to be m ade, is also applied to solve this m ultiple m otion problem .
Case 11
A right angle cam era change can use the sam e technique o f
em ploying two different persons to m om entarily m ask the player
to be em phasized by a cut with a busy background (Fig. 18.10).
A stands alone in the centre o f a crow d. F o r the cut a person
enters th e foreground and obscures him. A second person in the
foreground (and approxim ately sam e scale) m oves in the same
direction and we see A no t only closer bu t in side view.
Case 12
Two crow d shots can be filmed on the sam e visual axis w ith this
type o f solution. F irst we have a m edium shot o f several couples
girating o n the dance floor. To m ove back to a position where the
dance hall is seen in full, if tw o characters cross the foreground
the m om entary d istraction is so strong th a t m ism atches in the
background will go unnoticed.
Case 13
M ovem ent o f a player who hides o u r centre o f interest previous
to a shot change on the screen, can also be used for tim e transition.
David Lean in his film Doctor Zhivago em ployed the device in a
351
FIGURE 18.10 The subordinate players moving In a right angle relative to each other
provide a smooth cut from shot to shot on a main stationary subject who stands be
yond the others.
FIGURE 13.11 The players' positrons are transposed, the moving person Is rendered
static and vice versa to obtain a transition in time using a cut n r the centre of the
screen which hides the stationary subject.
Redirecting attention
Case 14
W hen cutting back from a close shot to a long shot o f a person
moving in a neutral direction, the problem o f size is very acute in
the second shot, because the distance involved minimizes and
353
weakens movement. So a dom inant action should be introduced at
the beginning o f the second shot. O ne ap p ro ach m ight be as shown
in Fig. 18.12.
A comes forw ard and exits left. In the second shot a secondary
figure m oves from centre to exit left, revealing the small figure of
A approaching from the background. A lternatively, the sub
o rdinate character enters view from the side by which A left
(Fig. 18.13).
T he m ovem ent o f this subordinate subject redirects the au
dience’s attention tow ards the central perform er. H er entrance
close to the cam era is a strong one and the direction o f her motion
will be followed by the audience.
As A again becomes the centre c f o u r atten tio n , the passer-by
loses herself in the scene by stopping in front o f a window or
going into a store o r disappearing through a side street.
354
FIGURE 18.13 The entrance of a subordinate pJayef at the beginning of the second
shot redirects our attention towards the diminutive main character in the background.
Case 15
A sim ilar solution is applied when dealing with a crow d placed
behind and to the sides o f the m oving m ain subjects (Fig. 18.14).
In the first shot A a n d B w alk to us from a m oving crow d beyond
and occasionally in front o f them . too. A a n d B approach head-on
and exit left. W e cut (same visual axis) to w here an onlooker, C,
enters, right, crosses diagonally and stops at the left, together w ith
other m em bers o f the crow d. F ro m the central background com e
A and B, (.2, crossing close to the cam era, helped to disguise all the
m ism atches in the background crow d. W hen A and B pass C and
resch'th e foreground, they m ight stop or perhaps the cam era m ay
begin to track b ack w ith them depending how the scene is to
continue.
Case 16
A variation is w here the scene is totally blocked at the beginning
o f the sccond shot (Fig. 18.15).
355
ifar
FIGURE 13.14 The strong foreground motion of a subordinate subject (C) at the
beginning o f She second shot Is used to minimize the mismatches that a c ro w d scene
creates fro m shot to shot.
■t i n . \
FIGURE 18.15 A player who blocks the camera lens at the beginning of the second
shot Is used to provide a strong motion that hides any mismatches In the motion of the
second player (A ) as he comes forward, seen on the same visual axis as In the
preceding shot.
Case 17
The lens o f the cam era need no t be blocked by a player. Such
natural phenom ena as w ater, sand, dust o r sm oke can serve the
FIGURE 18.16 The vigorous movement of the group of players in the foreground
towards the sides revealing the scene beyond, serves to mask many Incomplete move
ments of the player disclosed. in this case the fall from the horse was suggested in the
first shot and not shown in the second, where it was substituted by the strong move
ment In the foreground. When the main player is revealed he feigns thefl.ial part of tne
fall without actually carrying It out, because it could be dangerous,
358
same purpose. They fall or pass betw een the cam era an d the player
and reveal a closer shot o f the em phasized player when they cease
or thin out. A flash o f light flaring in the cam era lens can be used
to o btain a sim ilar effect. The next shot w ould also begin with a
flash o f light and then regain n orm al exposure, revealing a closer
shot o f a ch aracter, o r a new angle o n him o r a different player.
The shots w ould be cut on the flash. F ran k lin Schaffner used a
shadow crossing th e screen to o b tain the sam e effect in his film
Pap i lion.
Case 18
Sometim es a player’s m ovem ents m ust be faked to avoid a
dangerous stunt. This rules ou t the possibility o f cutting on the
action o f the m ain player. A distraction m u st be introduced at the
beginning o f the second shot to hide the om itted full action.
This d istractio n is a m otion th at begins in the centre o f the screen
and p arts to th e sides like curtains. In Fig. 18.16 the tw o ex
tremes o f a dan g ero u s m otion, falling off a horse, are faked.
In the first sh o t th e central player sim ulates the beginning o f a
fall from the horse. In fact he only bends dow n. In the second shot
the crow d in the foreground, with th eir backs to the cam era, p a rt
to reveal the player slum ping to the g round w ith exhaustion. T he
crowd m om entarily obscured the supposed fall. This can be done
with vehicles o r o th er objects relevant to the scene.
19
A lthough straig h t line action is by far the m ost usual, circular and
vertical m o tio n , passing out o f an d entering view are the further
varian ts th at m ake screen action m ore vigorous and interesting.
A gain a nu m b er o f cases are given here.
Case 1
W ith circular m ovem ent, the perform er’s action m ust be visually
clear to av oid conflicting sense o f direction (Fig. 19.1).
S hot I H igh shot. A enters the background from the left,
ru n n in g in an arc tow ard the right a n d then left, close
to th e cam era. Exit lower left side.
S hot 2 Reverse. A enters a t the low er right corner a n d runs in
an arc to the left, tu rn s right an d exits.
S hot 3 A enters left and stops in the centre.
T h e circular m ovem ent is tangential to the tw o first cam era
positions, placed outside the periphery o f the circle. T he third
cam era po sitio n is located inside the circle. C hange o f screen
direction by reason o f the circular p ath o f A is clearly visible in the
first tw o shots.
If the th ird cam era position is placed outside the circular p ath
travelled by the running player, the m otion depicted in Shot 1
w ould be repeated.
T he use o f the tw o first shots can be applied to record a person
tu rn in g ro u n d a street corner. Even if high cam era angles, eye
level, o r low angles are used to record this m otion, recording it by
using halves o f the screen rem ains unchanged to convey the
circular path.
360
FIGURE 19.1 A player's circular movement i$ covered using half screen sections of
motion. The tw o firs t camera sites are tanoentlal to the circular path of the player,
while the third is inside the circle itself.
Since the ap p ro ach described for the first two shots involves a
pair o f back to back reverse cam era positions, the device can be
used to link two different locations by a m otion th at becomes con
tinuous o n the screen. It suffices to have the sam e ac to r present on
both locations, carrying o u t the m ovem ent.
Case 2
Coverage from inside the circular p ath is also possible. The cam era
positions m ay be back to back (Fig. 19.2).
In the first shot A exits right, and in the second enters left. He
stops there facing B who waits for him. In the first shot A looks
361
FIGURE 19.2 Both camera locations are within the circular floure formed by the path
traversed by the player In motion,
o ff screen left while going ou t by the right, thus stressing the cir
cular n ature o f his path.
Case 3
If one cam era position is outside the circular p ath and the other
inside, the respective position o f the players on the screen will be
reversed from shot to shot (Fig. 19.3).
B holding A by her hand pulls her to him. This forces her to
accom plish a circular m ovem ent pivoting on B’s right arm. She
exits screen left, in the first shot an d re-enters right in the reverse
shot. T he m ovem ent o f A is recorded on opposite sides of the
screen, bu t always m oving in the sam e direction.
362
4
FIGURE 19.3 The players are transposed on the screen 1r> this exterior reverse
camera angle on a circular motion.
Case 4
A. circular m ovem ent covered by tangential external reverse
camera positions, featuring tw o perform ers, tran sp o ses th eir
positions. O nly one o f the players m oves, an d b o th have the sam e
centre o f in terest in the m iddle o f the screen. This is im plied in one
of the shots a n d visible in the o th er (Fig. 19.4).
Shot 1 M edium shot. A, in foreground m oves in a half-circular
p a th tow ards the window where B is looking out. A s he
nears his com panion, cut to . . .
Shot 2 C lose sh o t from outside the window. B in foreground
a t right. A enters left, com pleting his m ovem ent, a n d
stops.
A’s m ovem ents in these shots are in opposed directions; b o th
converge tow ards th e centre o f the screen. In this a n d the previous
363
1
llg jij
- *
7)1
i
i
j
3 5
FIGURE 19.4 Tangential external reverse camera silos produce a transposition e l the
screen areas occupied by the players.
exam ples the fragm ents into which the circular m otion was
broken were executed using only half-screen areas in each shot.
Case 5
A perform er m oving aro u n d a large g roup can be covered by two
reverse cam era sites, one inside and the o th er outside the circle.
Fig. 19.5 shows the floor plan o f the scene. Players B, C and D
are all seated and therefore static. A executes the circular motion
aro u n d them .
In the first sh ot we see B in the foreground. Behind him A enters
fro m the rig h t and crosses to the left. As soon as she is ou t of
sh o t cut to th e reverse second shot.
B has his b ack to us a n d players D and C are seen. A enters in
fo reground left and crosses rapidly to the right. F o r a few m om ents
we see only B, D a n d C then A re-enters in the background, right,
an d stops am o ng the group. She has a tray w ith drinks on it that
she begins to d istribute to the o ther players. Leaving a n d then re-
364
FIGURE 19.5 A n internal and externa! camera location used to cover a circular
movement. T his moving player exits atone side and re-enters shot from the same side
(instead o f the opposite) in the second shot.
Case 6
A sim ilar im pression is given in this case except th at the m ovem ent
takes place in the background in the first shot an d in the fore
ground in the second (Fig. 19.6).
365
FIGURE .19.6 A circular movement registered In the background of the firs t shot and
In the foreground on the second.
Both cam era sites provide an external angle coverage around the
static players in the scene. In the first A m oves and exits right. In
reverse shot 2, where A enters from right (foreground) a n d moves
to the left. A pause at the end o f shot 1 is necessary to account for
the path travelled by player A o u t o f shot before re-entering.
366
FIGURE 19.7 A righ t angle camera positioning to cover ths circular movement of a
player behind a stationary companion. The firs t shot is a pannino camera movement.
Case 7
A right angle cam era placem ent w here a m oving and a static
player are present can be used to em phasize the static player in the
second sh o t (Fig. 19.7).
The change in angle m aintains the travel o f the player across th e
screen—the direction which m axim ises screen activity.
Shot 1 M edium shot. A, left, and B, right. T hey talk. A fter
a m o m en t A w alks behind B an d turns tow ards the
cam era. T he cam era, having followed A , is now fram ing
367
b o th perform ers in the centre o f the screen. W hen A is
directly behind B, cut to . . .
Shot 2 Close shot o f B. B ehind h er A m oves o u t from the
centre o f the screen to the right. B rem ains alone in the
shot.
T he m ain p a rt o f the circular m o tio n is covered in the first shot,
while the concluding p o rtio n is fleetingly show n at the beginning
o f the second.
Case 8
I f the subject exits by the left, leaving an em pty screen (and the
shot continues) he ca n n o t re-enter into the screen from the other
side.
T he audience w ould be conscious th a t a trick had been used on
them . B ut if a second subject rem ains in the shot after the first has
left and m oves his head as if follow ing the m ovem ent o f the other
player behind the cam era, th a t player can then re-enter the shot
from th e opposite side.
H ead m ovem ents o f this kind can indicate to the audience that a
circu lar change in direction is taking place behind his viewing
p osition (Fig. 19.8).
By placing a m irro r behind the static player the one leaving in
the foreground w ould be seen in the m irro r m oving in the back
gro u n d , so th at his reflected im age is followed by the film audience,
while the player with his back to the m irro r w atches him going.
W hen the m oving player later re-enters physically into the screen
from th e o th er side, the audience is in n o confusion as to his
w hereabouts. Such a shot offers only one problem : how to conceal
th e cam era from the m irro r. In this instance the static player
rem aining in shot blocks the reflection o f the cam era in the m irror
with his body.
A fu rth er v ariant, is to introduce a forw ard zoom , as the moving
p layer goes out o f the screen, so th at the com position is tightened
o n the screen by fram ing a closer view o f the static player and the
reflected im age o f the m oving perform er on the left. Then the
m oving player crosses behind the static one to the right o f the
m irro r. L ater as his im age tu rn s and begins to w alk forw ard, as
seen in the m irror, the cam era lens zoom s back giving him space
to re-enter th e screen from the o ther side, and stop in foreground,
left.
368
FIGURE 16.8 A player who passes out of shot on one side of the screen and re ente rs
by the other in the same shot, calls (or a stationary player who Indicates the palh of
(he absent player by turning his head or following him w ith his eyes. This Justifies his
reappearance from the other side to the audience.
369
FIGURE 19.9 A vertical movement covered by two shots with a common visual axlt.
We cut forward to the second shot.
Vertical movement
Vertical m ovem ent in and ou t o f shot can be up o r down, The
triangular cam era placem ent principle applies here.
Case 9
An advance on the sam e visual axis is simple to execute. A raises
her body, the upper p a rt passing ou t o f shot and in the (closer)
second shot rises into the fram e. It is a strong entrance that
clearly punctuates the vertical m otion perform ed (Fig. 19.9).
T he effect can be obtained w ithout the rising player moving out
o f the first shot (as when she is seen in long shot) using entrance
m otion o n the second shot only. If m ore people are present in the
370
FIGURE 19.10 A right angle camera coverage o f vertical movement.
first shot, they can be excluded as we cut in to the closer shot, o r the
order o f shots can be reversed for different situations.
Case 10
A right angle coverage m akes use o f the sam e rules outlined for
preceding exam ple, as show n in Fig. 19.10.
She rises inside th e shot as seen from a side view and concludes
her m otion by entering the second shot from below, but with a
frontal cam era position.
In this and the preceding case the second cam era position occu
pies a higher level th an the site th a t precedes it. This is in o rd e r to
accompany the upw ard m ovem ent o f the rising player.
371
FIGURE 19.11 Reverse angle coverage o1 a vertical movement where the rising pJayer
is used as pivot in the scene.
Case 11
A reverse cam era coverage, using externa! angles, obeys the same
rules as in the two form er cases. In the case depicted in Fig. 19.11
the rising player is used as a pivot in the scene.
Case 12
Som etim es a horizontal m ovem ent perform ed in a neutral direc
tion becom es a vertical m otion on the screen in the second shot
because for this shot the cam era is placed high over the players
pointing dow n tow ards them (Fig. 19.12).
The description o f such a scene w ould ru n as follows:
Shot I Low shot. In foreground two people enter from the
right, tu rn and walk aw ay into the background.
372
FIGURE 19,12 A high camera angle gives rfae to a movement of the player* upwards
through the field of view.
Shot 2 H igh shot. They enter from below and w alk into the
background (either o u t o f shot o r w ith cam era follow
ing).
If, in the second shot the cam era follows the players from above
in a vertical upw ard tilt, they will rem ain in the same screen
373
sector, until the cam era stops the upw ard m ovem ent, and then the
players will ascend the screen as they continue m oving to the
background.
FIGURE 19,13 The vertical movement In thla case occur* flrat In a mirror and then
with the real player present in the a h o t
Case 13
A n im aginative film m aker will alw ays look fo r new approaches to
the know n an d com m on event. A curious way o f editing a down
w ards m otion can be obtained by using a m irro r (Fig. 19.13).
S hot I Close shot o f B, foreground, left. A , right, reflected
in a m irror (located behind B) begins to sit down.
S hot 2 M edium shot. E, left. A, right, sits dow n. Both per
form ers are now seen in profile.
T he reflected an d the real vertical actio n to o k place in the same
picture sector.
Case 14
In the act o f sitting dow n the body norm ally m oves through an
arc. A n interesting effect arises w ith a right angle cam era position.
374
In the first shot (Fig. 19,14) A begins to sit. C ut. Side shot o f A
blocking the screen and sitting dow n in an arc to one side revealing
B beyond.
FIGURE 19.14 Right angle camera placement. A t the baginnine o1 the second shot
the player seated in the foreground blocks the screen to disclose his companion In the
background.
Case 15
Hum an lim bs often describe an arch as we m ove ab o u t. A w om an
lowering an object above her head dow n to waist level m ight
be presented in two shots. The second shows details o f the object
lowered.
375
FIGURE 19.15 A vertical movement w ith screen repetition using the upper area of the
screen fo r both »hoU.
In the first sh o t (Fig. 19.15) the player brings the object down
to th e central h o rizontal line o f the picture area. W e cut to a close
sh o t on th e sam e visual axis. The object enters from above and is
low ered in to the scene.
Som etim es a reverse angle is used fo r the second shot, contrast
ing the arc p ath s travelled while keeping the m otion constantly in a
vertical d irectio n (Fig. 19.16).
D ynamic stops
Case 16
A n a c to r’s m ovem ent m ay be intended to end abruptly, particularly
if he is ru n n in g and suddenly stops o r if he interrupts his walking
376
FIGURE 19.18 Opposed senses of direction for a vertical movement (to the right In
the first shot, to the left In the second). The upper area of the screen Is used lor both
shots.
Case 17
The same technique can be applied if one or bo th perform ers rolls
alm ost out o f shot an d com es to rest in the centre o f the picture
area in the second shot. This second shot is behind b u t on the same
visual axis as the first cam era site as if m ade to com pensate for the
inadequate coverage o f the first.
If, for instance, we have two m en in a fight, struggling on the
ground, we can show them rolling forw ard alm ost ou t o f view
and in the second shot in the centre o f the screen, near the camera
com ing to a halt. The m an on to p raises his knife and stabs his
opponent.
The action gains dram atically if presented with the second shot
em phasized in this way.
378
Case 18
The form ula also w orks if the action is covered from above in the
first shot and from a level cam era position in the second (Fig. 19.18)
FIGURE 10.18 A shot from above and a level view o f the player can be combined to
obtain a dynamic stop.
379
20
384
r
21
Scanning panoramically
Case 1
A continuous horizontal pan reveals a collection o f static subjects,
such as people, m achines, objects o r distant views. These scanning
pans cover wide sectors, up to a half circle a t a m edium -paced
scanning rate. (Full circle pans are m ore difficult to perform and
look less n atural). T o o fast o r to o slow a p an defeats the purpose
by dwelling to o long o n the subject for the visual reporting
involved, o r hurrying across it w ithout allow ing the tim e necessary
to grasp the details. These shots are often preceded o r followed by
another w here one o r several people are show n looking aro u n d and
are, in fact, th e subjective view o f the onlooker. S hort pans are
sometimes used to move across from one centre o f interest to
another. W ith only tw o centres o f interest, the panning m otion
serves only to link two subjects visually.
Case 2
In the previous case the reaction o f the player as he begins to look
around is seen in the shot th a t precedes the pan. But it is possible
to integrate b o th m otivation an d reaction in the sam e shot. In
385
I
FIGURE 21.1 The turning player motivates a camera pan at the end of which it
disclosed the subject w hich caused the person's reaction.
Fig. 21,1, the shot begins w ith the cam era fram ing playei A
looking left. She hears a sound off-cam era and, as she turns her
head to the right to look, the cam era begins to pan to th a t side with
her an d , leaving her, continues until it reaches player B who
attracted A ’s attention.
T hus action an d reaction are contained in a single shot. This
procedure can also b e applied to a perform er who begins to move
to a new zone o f the set. T he shot begins w ith the player static in
the first zone, then, as he starts to m ove to one side, the camera
begins to pan with him. But instead o f staying with him, it pans
faster, reaching the second zone before him . So the audience has
a view o f the second zone with its ow n centre o f interest (which
m ay be static o r in m otion, an d w ith its ow n pictorial composition)
before the ac to r re-enters.
Chase sequences
Case 3
Chase scenes frequently m ake use o f repetitive pans th a t follow
pursuer and pursued either individually o r together. Several
com binations are em ployed. O ne involves m aking a p a ir o f panned
shots from the same place, before m oving to an o th er site where,
386
again, a pair o f panning shots are m ade from the same cam era
position. H ere is an exam ple:
Shot 1 Full shot. Two cavalry m en run tow ards us. W e pan
with them through a h a lf circle from right to left, and
see them.
Shot 2 Full shot. Sam e place. F o u r Indians ap p ro ach at full
gallop. W e p an with them in a h a lf circle right to left.
T hey follow into the distance.
The same technique is applied at the next cam era position where
the action is in a different terrain. Pursued an d pursuer are shown
in different shots.
Case 4
A nother technique uses parallel editing o f pursuer and pursued
moving in individual panning shots th a t p an continuously. Each
player is fram ed centrally in half-circle pans.
In the previous case the acto rs’ p ath was tangential to the
camera m ovem ent (Fig. 21,2).
Now the players are m ade to ru n in a circular p ath and equi
distant from the cam era. If a long focus lens is used a t close range
the shallow depth o f field will keep only the players in focus, while
foreground and b ackground appear blurred, (Fig. 21.3),
This helps to disguise the fact th at the p ath traversed by the
players is not a straight one. I f obstacles are placed betw een the
camera and the players in m otion, the effect obtained in these
panning shots will be very dynam ic, as the players are constantly
seen th rough a succession o f interm ittent clear spaces. But if these
obstacles are a series o f vertical bars, such as a fence, a disturbing
stroboscopic effect will be obtained. Irregular shapes are therefore
preferred.
Case 5
Pursuer and pursued will be seen alternately in the centre o f the
screen, as shot follows shot. If, instead o f two persons, five o r six
run in the same direction, each photographed individually with
long lenses, and with progressively shorter pans, tension is b uilt
up as each player is substituted by an o th er in a seemingly con
tinuous panning shot.
387
FIGURE 21,2 The moving subject runs along a path tangential to the panning move
ment of the camera.
Case 6
This sam e technique can be applied to a running person.
Seen in close shot (using a long focus lens) the player moves
behind obstacles in a circular p a th around the cam era. If, each
tim e the cam era is blocked in f u l l by a foreground obstruction
the cu t is m ade to the next shot th a t also starts on a fully blocked
fram e, a p ath im possible to cover with a travelling cam era can be
o btained, and all these shots cut into one a n o th er will seem to be
one co ntinuous take, o f rem arkable length and precision in
fram ing.
T he v ariation in distance from cam cra to subject in each cut
should n o t be too great. If to o large a disparity com es after each
fleeting black screen (during the blocking o f the cam era lens in the
panning m o tio n ) the shots w ould not seem continuous, but a
receding and approaching p a tte rn w ould be achieved instead,
w hich is also an interesting visual variant.
383
If the background an d lighting o f each panning shot, as well as
costumes are changed, the passage of tim e is suggested.
Case 7
Akira K urosaw a, th a t extraordinary Japanese m aster o f film
language, has used the preceding effects extensively in his films.
But he im proved th e crude technique o f alternating panning shots
to cover a chase sequence, by cutting from a panning shot o f the
pursuer to a static tak e o f the pursued, thus generating a visual
contrast particularly well suited to the violence o f the scene.
As we shall see in th e exam ple th a t follows he was no t content
with the sim ple ju x tap osition described, but im proved on it with
a subtle variation introduced in the second p a rt o f the sequence.
Thus his visual treatm ent o f the scene was enriched.
His film The Hidden Fortress contains a fam ous sequence where
Toshiro M ifune, on horseback, pursues two soldiers arm ed with
spears who fled on their horses. T he action takes place in a narrow
road th rou g h a dense forest.
We quote a section o f the sequence to illustrate the editing
technique used by K urosaw a.
Shot 1 T he first soldier in the centre o f the scrcen rides away
from us. A second rider enters, left, and moves away.
T he cam era is in a fixed position and m ovem ent is from
left to centre.
389
Shot 2 M ifune rides from left to right. T he panning shot
keeps him in the centre o f the screen, the background
blurred, foreground em pty. M ifune raises his sword.
T he panning m ovem ent covers only a right angle.
S hot 3 T he tw o soldiers enter by the left and ride tow ards the
centre o f the screen. They are looking b ack over their
shoulders. Static cam era.
p * S |
.....b
Shot 13 M ifune, centre, full shot, runs to the right. O n the left
we see the other lone horse galloping behind. Pan
alm ost 90° right. Low shot.
393
Shot 14 Low shot. P an left to right. T he shot begins with a
m edium shot o f the first soldier leaving right. Mifune
enters left. T he first rider turns back on his saddle and
prepares his spear to repel the attack. T he cam era stops
panning and sees how b o th ride aw ay along the road.
S hot 15 Low shot. P anning left to right fram ing only the legs of
the tw o horses. T he swift pan covers a h alf circle.
S hot 16 Both riders in the centre o f the screen seen in full shot.
M ifune, behind, strikes som e sw ord blows that the
first soldier blocks with his spear. T he pan covers a
right angle.
Shot 17 Low shot. H a lf circle pan follow ing the legs o f the tw o
ru n ning horses m oving left to right. T he shot has 24
film fram es.
Shot 18 B oth riders in the centre o f the screen m ove tow ards us,
ride close to the cam era a n d pass into the background
(h a lf circle pan). T he m en exchange blows.
Shot 19 Low shot. A h a lf circle pan, left to right, follow ing the
legs o f the horses as they ru n p ast the cam era. T he sh o t
consists o f 29 film fram es.
395
Shot 20 M edium shot o f bo th riders (fram ed from the knees of
the horses upw ards). T he anim als ru n side by side. The
m en exchange blows. A panning m ovem ent catches
them close to the cam era as they ap p ro ach and is cut
as soon as they have their backs to us.
Shot 24 Full shot. B oth riders in the centre o f the screen. Pan
from left to right through right angle. W hen both riders
reach a close shot, M ifune lunges a t the back o f the first
soldier. A t the conclusion o f the pan the soldier begins
to fall forw ard o u t o f shot, right.
Shot 25 Low shot. Static cam era. B oth horses enter close to the
cam era and the w ounded soldier falls in foreground.
M ifune and the horses m ove into the background. Then
he tu rn s to the left and disappears am ong the bushes.
397
T he technique used by K urosaw a in this sequence is simple and
rich. Shots 1, 3, 5 and 7 show the pursued soldiers moving away.
Their actions take place on the left side o f the screen only, and are
filmed from fixed cam era sites. T he pursuer, T oshiro Mifune, is
shown in shots 2, 4 an d 6 moving forw ard in right angle pans, left
to centre. H aving established a violent rhythm for the chase, the
director disposes o f the first pursued m an in four shots.
Shots 8 to 11 docum ent how M ifune reaches his first opponent
an d kills him. S hot 8 establishes the distance betw een these two
men, shot 9 shows M ifune gaining ground, and shots 10 and 11
p o rtray the death o f the soldier.
The establishing shot 8 is a h alf circle p an; shot 9 only a right
angle p an o f M ifune, left to centre. Shots 10 to II move from
centre to right and there is a cut on the dow nw ard stroke of
M ifune’s sword. In shot 12 (static cam era) the rem aining soldier
is re-established. H e m oves on the left side o f the screen. Shot 13
shows M ifune riding ahead o f the lone horse o f the soldier he has
killed. In shot 14 M ifune reaches his second opponent. Shots 13
and 14 arc right angle pan shots, b u t the first is from left to centre
and the second from centre to right.
Now K urosaw a changes his visual tactics. He intercuts shots
o f the tw o m en on horseback exchanging blow s with close shots
o f the legs o f the horses galloping side by side. Shots 15, 17, 19, 21
and 23 show swift panning shots o f the legs running on the road.
Each o f these shots lasts only one second on the screen. Shots 16,
18, 20 and 22 show the m en fighting. W ith the exception o f the
first (a right angle pan shot) all are half-circle pans. One long, wide
pan (shot 18) and two faster, close pans (shots 20 and 22).
The director needs only tw o shots to end the sequence. Shot 24
shows how M ifune w ounds his op p o n en t in a right angle pan from
left to centre. The w ounded soldier begins to fall.
398
The last (static low) shot o f the sequence shows bo th horses
tntering, close to the cam era, an d the soldier falling in foreground.
Mifune an d the riderless horse continue dow n the ro ad an d away.
The co n stru ctio n o f the sequence is a m odel o f econom y. All
irrelevant details are om itted. F o r exam ple, shot 12 no t only re
establishes the excluded soldier, b u t m asks M ifune’s advance
along th e ro ad w ho, in the next shot, is show n far ahead o f the
riderless horse. In sh o t 14 M ifune has reached his other o p
ponent. O ut o f twenty-five shots, six use a static cam era while the
remaining nineteen are all panning shots.
Intermittent panning
Case 8
Interm ittent activity by various groups can be covered by a
continuous p an (Fig. 21.5).
FIGURE 21.5 A continuous pan covers overlapping actions of several groups who
move around the camera in the same general direction.
Case 9
I f a p an n in g shot m ust cover several points o f interest in its path,
it is wise to provide pauses in the m ovem ent, which allow the
audience a b etter view o f them (Fig. 21.6).
FIGURE 21.6 The subjects are stationary, the camera pans Interm ittently from player
So player as they interrelate w ith one another.
FIGURE 21.7 Movements for a 3*0 degree pan in Michelangelo A ntonioni's film
Cronacn d l tm Am ort. The continuous scene runs fo r 132 metres of film (about 5 mln)
•n d takes place on ■ bridge.
401
T he scene to o k place in the centre o f a bridge and was acted out
by the tw o m ain characters. The m ultiple pauses used paced the
shot so com pletely th at you have to pay extra attention to notice
th at a full circle panning m ovem ent is involved.
Such a shot m ust have strong plotted action in fro n t o f it to be
successful.
Case 11
Fast circular panning is som etimes used to cover a dance routine,
as if taken from the view point o f one o f the dancers. The dance
p artn er m ay rem ain in the foreground but behind, the scene spins
swiftly round. The usual way to film this scene is to tie the cam era
m an and the ac to r w ith a short rope round their waists. This will
ensure som e accuracy in fram ing as both persons girate.
U nless a strong dram atic reason m otivates its use, this type of
shot should be used sparingly. It is ju st a form o f cam era acrobatics
and one th at has been overdone.
402
Case 12
An acto r walking slowly in a circular p a th followed by a panning
camera will cover th e to tal surrounding background while keeping
the player co nstantly fram ed in the foreground a n d on the same
side o f th e screen. I f there is a crow d in the background, the idea
that the player is com pletely surrounded will be very graphically
conveyed. (Fig. 21.8). H arry A ndrew s in the prison rio t scene in
Sidney L u m et’s The H ill, an d B urt L ancaster a n d his group
surrounded by the M exicans in R o b ert A ldrich’s Vera C ruz arc
two films w here the technique described was used quite effectively.
FIGURE 21.9 A circular camera movement w hich keeps a player constantly in the
foreground throughout the shot.
Fast panning
Case 13
A very fast circular pan is called swish pan. It connects tw o points
of interest an d provide a sh o rt blurred im age o f the scene en route.
403
It is used to link tw o adjoining scenes spatially. A t th e end o f the
first sh o t a swish p a n is initiated. T he second sh o t begins with a
swish p a n a n d then stops, fram ing a new scene. I f bo th blurred
p arts o f th e tw o shots are joined a fast linking device is obtained.
N ow adays, som e film m akers use swish pans o f p u re blurred
m ovem ent sandw iched betw een tw o static shots to accomplish
th e sam e effect. C hanges in tim e o r locale are indicated by th e use
o f such pan s.
D avid L e a n in his film D octor Zhivago uses a swish p a n to relate
tw o scenes th a t tak e place o n the sam e set. K om arovsky a n d Lara
are dancing. T h e m usic ends an d the couple com e to a sto p on the
dance floor. T here is a swish p a n to the rig h t an d we see K om
arovsky helping L ara to a seat a t the table on the edge o f the dance
floor. T he swish p a n serves to om it their w alk across the room
w hich w ould a d d n o th in g to the scene and m ight even te n d to
slow it dow n. T hus the swish p an bridges tw o p a rts o f the set
d isposing o f dead time.
Case 14
A swish p an can be used to relate tw o different vehicles visually,
conveying the idea th a t some tim e has elapsed a n d the player is
now travelling a t a different place an d time. R ichard B rooks, in
his film In C old Blood, uses this effect. A bus is seen approaching,
The cam era begins to p an w ith the vehicle to the right. W hen the
bus passes close by the cam era as it pans, a blu rred view o f the
body o f the bus is obtained. A cut is m ade o n this blur. The next
shot starts w ith the blurred m otion o f a train passing the camera,
T he in stru m ent p an s in the sam e direction as the preceding shot
a n d stops, fram ing the train going into the distance (Fig. 21.9).
Case 15
A swish p an is som etim es used in the m iddle o f a shot in a chase
sequence. The shot starts fram ing player A running from left to
right. The cam era p an s alm ost a h a lf circle with him. Suddenly the
cam era swish pans b ack to the left in a swift blurred m o tio n , to
fram e player B, the pursuer, com ing into cam era range. T he cam era
now pans w ith this new player, to the right again, following him
until he leaves the shot.
404
FIGURE 21.9 The blurred pan la uaed In In Cold Blood, to unite tw o vehicle* moving
In the tam e direction across the screen.
Case 16
Sometimes a p anning shot starts by fram ing the m ain subject on
one side o f the screen an d ends w ith th a t subject o n the o ther side.
That is to say, in th e p anning the cam era m oves faster than the
subject it covers. T his is som etim es required to keep well balanced
pictorial com positions at the extrem es where the cam era is fixed.
(Fig. 21.10.). This recourse is also em ployed to give the perform er
screen space in fro n t o f them th ro u g h which to m ove o u t o f the
screen w hen th e cam era stops panning.
In two directions
Case 17
The cam era m ay p an in opposite directions in the sam e shot,
provided th a t there is a pause in between. H ere is a simple ex
ample. B and A are standing together. A walks to the right and
stops d u rin g which m ovem ent the cam era pans to the right
fram ing him alone. A fter a m om ent A returns to B. The cam era
now pans to the left again fram ing both perform ers.
405
FIGURE 21.10 The camera pans faster than the subject being covsred so th a t at tha
end of the shot she Is on the opposite side o f the screen.
Vertical tilts
A vertical p an is know n as a tilt. T ilt m ovem ents a re not used as
frequently as horizontal pans. A cam era tilt, up o r dow n, is easier
to execute since, in general, it is used only to cover vertical move
m ents o f a perform er o r object.
Case 18
A continuous vertical p a n m ay connect different points o f interest
placed one above the other. The cam era is usually tilted slowly to
allow the audience tim e to take in the changing view proper!/.
406
Here is an exam ple: I t is night. F irew orks explode in a d ark sky.
As they finish the cam era begins to tilt dow n, it passes a group
of musicians, placed on the flat ro o f o f a house, w ho begin to
play a gay m elody. T he cam era continues dow nw ards to fram e an
open patio w here people in evening dress have assem bled aro u n d
long tables fo r a b an quet w hich is being b ro u g h t in by waiters.
The cam era m oves dow n fu rth er to fram e a n elab o rate cake o n a
table in th e foreground. T here is an inscription o n it: ‘T o T is h \
Case 19
Case 20
Tilt shots m ove either u p o r dow n in right angle arcs relative to the
horizon. I f a tilt starting a t the horizon m oves through a h alf circle
the whole scene will be upside dow n a t the end. Some chase
sequences m ay som etim es profit by the use o f this property of
a tilt shot. F o r exam ple: a ta n k pursues a m an. They ru n tow ards
us. T he cam era is high up, fram ing them from above, an d con
tinues the tilting m ovem ent after they pass below us. N ow the
scene is upside dow n an d m an and tan k seem to defy gravity by
clinging to the face o f the earth as they run tow ards the inverted
horizon. A well know n R ussian film, Ballad o f a Soldier, used such
a shot. (Fig. 21.12),
Side tilts
Case 21
Sometimes the upside dow n fram ing at the end o f a tilt is used to
com m ent on the disrupted m ental balance o f the central character
in the scene. B ut a sideways cam era tilt is favoured by o th er film
makers. T he cam era leans partially to one side as the m ental
breakdown takes place, an d is kept tilted in the following shots
until the ch aracter’s condition is norm al again. Tilted reverse
shots have a n opposed direction from shot to shot (Fig. 21.13).
A right-angle sideways tilt is used only fo r very strong dram atic
reasons since it brings the horizon into a vertical position.
Tilts first to one side and then to the other, are applied to a
camera held inside a set o f a ship’s cabin o r o f a subm arine, to
simulate an explosion by rocking the cam era rather than the set
sideways. The actors m ove, to assist the illusion.
Case 22
A static and a m oving shot can be joined together, covering
horizontal o r vertical m otion, by m aking the second take a hori-
409
VERTICAL
AXIS
FIGURE 21.12 A shot used In the Russian film Baltad of a Sofdter, where the canera
is tilled down through an arc o f 130 degrees thus giving an inverted view of events in
the final part of the shot.
410
FIGURE 21.13 Tilted com positions on the screen are used to denote an abnormality
In the situation or in the characters portrayed—and w ith opposed senses o f direction
provide a visual contrast from shot to shot.
Case 23
With two perfo rm ers in the shot, one m oving a n d the o ther
stationary, th e sam e co m b in atio n can be applied (Fig. 21.15).
411
FIGURE 21.14 Tw o sim ilar formulas for jo in in g a stationary and a panning shot to
cover an actor's movement. In the firs t case the player exits parallel to the camera in
shot 1, while in the second case the player In shot 1 comes diagonally toward* the
camera.
Case 24
A n advance on the sam e visual axis to record the m ovem ent o f A
crossing behind stationary B, showing how B stops on th e othei
side, can be easily achieved using a static full shot follow ed by a
panning close shot (Fig. 21.16).
412
Flo. 21-15 A n o th e r varia n t fo r Joining a s ta tic and a p an n ing sh o t. Here th e cam era
site s are a t rig h t angles to each o th e r.
414
Editing two consecutive panning shots
j Case 25
In our survey o f the uses o f panning m ovem ents we find th at a
further possibility is to have the m oving player go ou t o f one shot
and enter a second (Fig. 21.17).
F rom the first position, the cam era fram es the m oving player in
close shot. A t the end o f the p an she exits. She enters the next from
the opposite side. This new take is a full shot, and we continue
panning in the sam e direction as in the previous take following
the m oving player.
FIGURE 21.1B F o re g ro u n d o b sta cle s a t th e c o n c lu s io n o f th e fir s t s h o t and b eg in nin g
o f th e second are used to Join tw o co n s e c u tiv e p anning s h ots.
416
Case 26
Two consecutive panning shots where the player never leaves the
screen can be edited together if a foreground obstruction is used
to achieve the cut (Fig. 21.18).
Case 27
In the first shot the actor m oves off round a corner and into a
street, the cam era p anning w ith him left to right. Cut. The player,
still on the right, approaches walking left and we p an with him
right to left.
In order to achieve a successful cut, the player’s position and
size m ust be identical on the screen at the m om ent o f the cut. As
shown in Fig. 21.19, the perform er is seen on the right side a t the
same distance from the right edge, and with approxim ately the
same vertical height in bo th takes. M inor m ism atches will be
accepted by the audience. P anning speeds are im p o rtan t. The
camera is slowing dow n o n its horizontal p an a t the end o f the
first shot and begins to increase its speed in the opposite direction
on the next shot.
417
FIGURE 21.19 T w o co nse cu tive pan s h o ts fro m o p p o s e d d ire c tio n s b u t w hich cover
th e sam e s u b je c t can be jo in e d if th e c u t Is m ade w ith th e player loca te d in the same
screen se cto r.
Case 28
P ositioning the player in the centre o f the screen allow s two pan
ning shots o f him to be edited consecutively. T he shots have a
com m on visual axis (Fig. 21.20).
The first shot here is a close shot an d the second a full shot but
th e order can, o f course, be reversed. If the player is located on one
side o f the screen in b o th shots a reverse angle coverage can be
ob tained, with bo th shots panning in the sam e direction (Fig,
21 .21 ).
W ith this form ula the second shot can b e in a totally different
place. T hus a transition in tim e is obtained using a continuous
m ovem ent by the sam e player.
FIGURE 21,20 The consecutive shots of the same subject where the camera posl-
tions are on a common visual axis at the moment of the cut.
Case 29
Interrupted m ovem ent in one direction can be covered with a
panning shot on the first phase o f the m ovem ent an d a static
reverse shot for the second part (Fig. 21.22).
Here is a description o f the scene.
Shot 1 Low shot. A car approaches. It then tu rn s to the left
an d the cam era pans w ith it. T he car stops several yards
aw ay in a full shot, now seen fro m behind. As soon as
th e car stops, cut to . . .
419
FIGURE 2T.2T T w o co n se cu tive external reverse p a n n in g s h o ts o f the sam e player
w ho moves in th e sam e d ire c tio n in b o th sh ots.
Case 30
V ertical tilt shots can be joined to static shots using the formulas
described.
T hose p anning shots suggested here can be reversed with the
static shot used first and the p an second extending even fu rth er the
possibilities for covering action.
420
1
---------- ——
----- r -——5 ? 45b 1
—
11—
U\
.2
FIGURE 21.22 T h e fir s t s h o t Is 0 pan w hile th e second Is s ta tic .
Acrobatic pans
The two examples th at follow depict panning shots th a t are
visually stunning.
F o r this purpose the cam era has to pass through som e so rt o f
aerial loop.
Case 31
A horizontal pan is m ade with the subject com ing tow ards the
camera an d passing in fr o n t o f the cam era operator, who follows
it with his cam era.
But w hat happens if th e subject in m otion passes behind the
camera o p erato r during a horizontal p a n ?
In order to keep him fram ed on the screen the cam era op erato r
will be forced to bend his body backw ards. This m otion dem ands
that the cam era should be placed upside dow n during a sector o f
421
'"1 \ M r\J
\\l
r
ij 1
/
f
\
FIGURE 21.23
Case 32
W hen the cam era is pointed straight dow n to record a n across the
screen m otion, a startling effect is obtained by rotating the
422
camera 180 degrees on its vertical axis. In the film The Strawberry
Statement such an occurrence to o k place. A slim row ing b o at seen
from above entered the screen from the right. As it reached the
centre o f the screen, the cam era was turned a h a lf circle on its
vertical axis, so th a t the b o a t reversed direction and w ent o u t o f
the screen by th e right, the sam e side from which it had entered
(Fig. 21.24).
423
22
PRIEST
OFFICER
STRETCHER BEARS
SOLDIERS
TRAVELLING
--
Case 1
If the perform er w alks tow ards us an d the cam era tracks back with
him for the latter p a rt o f the w alk, we can cut to a fixed cam era
position on th e sam e visual axis b u t a t full sh o t distance (Fig. 22.3),
where th e player is centrally placed.
FIGURE 22.3 Motion on a common visual axis Is used to Join a tracking and a static
camera ahot of the same moving subject.
427
Case 2
W ith quick m ovem ent in the first shot, such as where the acto r runs
tow ards a b ack-tracking cam era he can increase speed a t the end
o f th e shot an d m ove forw ard o u t o f shot. In the second shot the
player (centre) runs forw ard tw o o r three steps and halts (Fig.
22.4).
FIGURE 22.4 It Is easier to |oin s fast tracking shot to a static camera position If the
moving subject Is allowed to go o u t of the screen In the tracking shot.
Case 3
I f we trac k back with a player w ho then changes direction it is
b etter to show the change in the second static shot (Fig. 22.5).
T he first shot corresponds to those in the previous examples.
T he player walks in close shot a n d we trac k b ack with him. W e
428
FIGURE 22.5 A change of direction In the subject's movement is best shown in the
second, static camera position.
Case 4
A sh o t tracking parallel to the player can m ake use o f other
solutions. In the first, close, shot, we track with the player pro
filed o r in three-quarters view. W e cut to a static full shot. The
player enters from th e side opposite to his direction o f m ovem ent
an d stops in the centre (Fig. 22.6).
429
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[^ O cc
(/ \
r
f-4
FIGURE 22.6 A parallel camera arrangement for the static camera site is used
In the formula depicted here.
Case 5
A panning shot can be used as the second shot, thus slowing down
w ith the perform er as he stops walking o r running (Fig. 22.7).
In the first shot he m oves w ith the tracking cam era. W e cut to a
full shot.
T he player, centre, m oves in the sam e d irec tio n ; the cam era pans
w ith him till he stops.
As pointed ou t in previous cases, the size o f the figure in b o lt
shots an d the position o n the sam e screen area, are critical for the
430
,J T
FIGURE 22.7 If the subject movement Is too rapid, the second shot w ith this right
angle arrangement, can be a pan.
Case 6
A static right angle cam era site can be used as the second shot to
cover a ru n n in g person. In the first shot the player is p o rtray ed
centrally in a m edium shot. T he cam era m oves w ith him along the
same line. N e a r th e end o f the shot the cam era p an s slightly to one
side leaving a h a lf screen em pty in fro n t o f the player. In the next,
fixed, sh o t th e player in the sam e screen po sitio n runs aw ay from
us to th e centre o f th e p icture area (Fig. 22.8).
431
T
FIGURE 22.8 In this right angle arrangement, the moving player remains on the sane
side of the screen in both shots. The static shot frames him from behind going away
in a neutral direction.
Case 7
A reverse angle cam era position can be used to show a group of
players halting in a place (Fig. 22.9).
In th e first shot the cam era tracks with the g roup seen in full
shot.
C u t to a reverse m edium shot. S tatic cam era. The players enter
sh o t m oving in the opposite direction, and stop.
T he fixed cam era position is placed on the o ther side o f the line
o f action, thus obtaining a very dynam ic visual conclusion to
w alking o r ru nning m ovem ents.
432
«.
FIGURE 22.9 A n external reverse camera set-up using a tracking and a static shot to
cover a group in m otion who c o n e to a halt In the second shot.
Case 8
For m ost tracking shots the cam era is m ounted on a dolly running
on some form o f suitable tracks assem bled for the particular shot.
The cam era m ay travel continuously o r interm ittently o r reverse
its direction o f m ovem ent a t any point. Fig. 22.10 is a floor plan
view o f a scene using a tracking cam era.
Tw o soldiers, A. and B, are walking through a battlefield. The
camera travels sideways with them . W hen they reach position I,
433
FIGURE 22.10 Interm ittent camera tracking, where the direction of the march Is
reversed once and then resumed.
Case 9
The cam era m ight track the w hole length o f the long run, stop and
then retu rn to the first position. In Fig. 22.11 the actors move
interm ittently.
FIGURE 22.1t Interm ittent movement ot both camera and players is used in this
example*
The shot begins from a static cam era position fram ing A in the
centre o f a group. W hen A starts to w alk through the parting
crowd, th e cam era tracks right. He reaches B, stops, an d B walks
to the right and stops beside C. The cam era stops fram ing B and C
among the group. C then com es forw ard an d stops in the fore
ground. The cam era is still static. C w alks to the left th ro u g h the
crowd. T he cam era starts to track back (left). C stops in fro n t o f
D and gives him a key. D moves to the left and inserts it in a
machine. The cam era stops fram ing D in the foreground operating
the m achine. O ther players are seen beyond.
435
Using both sides o f the track
Case 10
T he cam era m ay reverse its direction o f travel o n the screen
though m oving in only one direction, by m erely panning through
a h a lf circle to the o th er side o f the track. T he m ovem ent is
co n tin u o u s an d the audience can accept the contrasting directions
w ith o u t difficulty (Fig. 22.12).
\Y
r~ i
* 1H ------------------ ►
>
FIGURE 22.12 Both sides of the track are used in the same shot by panning in the
middle of the trackino shot.
Case 11
A shot m ight track dow n the entire length and use both sides
(Fig. 22.13).
A approaches B a n d bo th ru n a sh o rt way to point 1 where they
stop. They sta rt to ru n to the left again an d the cam era tracks with
them to th a t side passing in fro n t o f a fence briefly seen in the
foreground o f the previous shot. The cam era stops at point 2 and
pan s from 2 to 3 follow ing the actors.
The cam era faces the o th er side o f the tracks and starts to move
again, tracking with bo th players from 3 to 4. C am era a n d players
halt for a m om ent, a n d then ru n back to point 5 where they fall.
T he cam era follow s to p o in t 5 to conclude the shot.
436
FIGURE 22.13 A nother example In which both side* of the track are used for a con
tinuous travelling shot which keeps reversing its sense of direction perlodfcally to
accompany tha action.
A h alf circle pan a t one end o f the track turns the cam era from
one side o f the tracks to the other. W hile the m otion o f the
camera from points 1 to 4 was continuous, the m ovem ent o f the
dolly was not. The fence was included to add visual variety to the
shot at intervals.
Winding paths
Case 12
An actor who appears in a tracking shot does not have to be
confined to a straight line; he could approach or m ove aw ay from
437
the cam era by following a sinuous p ath b u t with the camera
m oving in a straight line. W ith this kind o f action, static objects
between the cam era and the ac to r are essential to give the illusion
o f dep th and planal contrast. I f he is supposed to give the illusion
o f struggling to find a p ath through a difficult m edium (a crowd or
a forest, for exam ple), it is m uch m ore convincing if he weaves in
an d ou t an d perhaps is occasionally engulfed. H e adds to the
realism o f the situation by pushing people o r bushes aside, as if
they offer som e resistance.
The cam era m ay track parallel o r diagonally to the crowd or
forest. C am era m ovem ent is as in Fig. 22.14.
FIGURE 22.14 The sinuous path of a player is covered from a straight camera track
Case 13
In a further variant, the cam era tracks back in a straight line, while
the subject m oves on in fro n t following a w inding path. The
cam era pans from side to side to keep him in view.This form ula can
be used to show a character pushing through a thin crowd waiting
for some event (Fig. 22.15).
Case 14
T he same straight cam era path with the cam era panning from side
to side can be applied to a static group placed in semi-circle. The
FIGURE 22.15 When the player advances In a winding path this can be covered by a
straight camera movement retreating in fro nt o f the player.
camera starts with a long shot an d tracks in, pan n in g from side to
side as it goes and finally com es to rest fram ing the central player
(Fig. 22.16). Such a m ovem ent requires strong dram atic m otiva
tion. This sam e ap p ro ach can be applied to a zoom shot.
Case 15
Interm ittent cam era tracking follow ing a person w ho m oves from
zone to zone in effect tu rn s the w inding p ath into a series o f
triangles (Fig. 22.17).
From position 1 we fram e A in close shot. W hen he m oves to
zone 1, the cam era tracks w ith him to position 2. H e is seen now
439
FIGURE 22.16 The camera advances on a straight line forward, panning from one
side to another until it stops, framing the central character in the sem icircular group.
Case 16
T he w inding paths o f tw o actors m ay cross in fro n t o f a con
tinuously m oving cam era (Fig. 22.18).
This allows som e co n tra st in the num ber o f figures appearing on
th e screen. Player A in foreground slows dow n and is excluded by
th e tracking cam era w hich now concentrates on B as he comes
forw ard. W hen B is nearby, A re-enters the background from the
side where she passed ou t o f view an d crosses behind B to place
herself on the right side o f the screen. C om position B-A is main-
440
V
,
m i
z. -uiH
FIGURE 22.17 Interm ittent camera movement covers fntermittent player's movement
which assumes an irregular shape or arrangement, form ing triangfes.
441
FJGURE 22.18 T h esinuouspatternsof m otionarecom binerfm this shot, sothat each
of the two players appears alternately on the screen.
FIGURE 22.19 A panning movement in the middle oi a tracking shot changes ths
framing of the subject from a front to a rear view.
442
Panning while (racking
Case 17
A half circle can, o f coarse, be executed in the m iddle o f a tracking
shot as well as at the end. Tw o variations are possible. If the shot
starts with the cam era fram ing the fro n t o f the player, after the pan
the cam era will be fram ing her from behind (Fig. 22.19).
The reverse effect will be obtained if the cam era starts the shot
framing the players from behind. They will face the cam era at the
conclusion o f the shot with their positions reversed (Fig. 22.20).
In these two exam ples the cam era tracks along a straig h t p a th and
the distance between the actors and the cam era rem ains constant.
FIGURE 22.20 If the camera starts tracking w ith the rear view of the players, a pan
in the middle changes that relationship to a frontal coverage. Thn camera m ust move
faster than the characters during the pan to be able to frame them from the front, in
the previous case the camera slowed down during the pan.
443
Case 18
T he cam era m ay track in a straight p ath th at then m oves round
th rough a right angle tu rn if, say, the acto r abruptly turns a corner,
If the player w alks in front o f the cam era as it tracks back, the
sh o t is simple to execute (Fig. 22.21).
FIGURE 22*21 A player’s rig h t angJe path of movement is repeated for the camera
movement that precedes him.
Case 19
A pan in the m iddle o f a tracking shot can be used when covering
two static players as in Fig. 22.23.
The cam era begins fram ing a close shot o f A and B. T hen it
tracks forw ard to B. W hen the cam era reaches her it begins to pan
to the side, the direction opposite to th at in which it is travelling.
The panning m ovem ent uses player B as a pivot. The cam era
continues tracking b u t now recedes from A an d B until it stops,
framing th em in m edium shot.
445
FIGURE 22.23 A player is us«d as a pivot for the panning shot as the camera tracks.
Both subjects are stationary.
V ^
FIGURE 22,24 Player and camera, both in motion, converge toward each other in a
neutral direction.
Case 20
Player and cam era travel tow ards each o ther and stop face to face.
Iffo reg ro u n d players are involved, they are excluded at the end o f
the sh o t (Fig. 22.24).
As can be readily appreciated, the solution outlined has good
potential for stressing a p erform er o r a situation. T he opposed
movements o f cam era and players are equally em phatic if a
departing player m oves away as the cam era recedes. By m oving
away from the scene as the m ain player goes aw ay, a break in the
mood o f the play is underlined by visual m eans on the screen.
Several m ovem ents o f this type in succession, either all converging
or diverging featu rin g different players will stress the situation th at
follows after th o se m ovem ents are com pleted. It is enough to
involve tw o o r th ree players fo r visual stress.
Cas
I f the cam era and the actress have converging oblique paths, the
take will sta rt also in a full shot an d conclude in a close shot
(Fig. 22.25).
FIGURE 22.25 A n oblique path for tho camera and player are used in this example.
Case 22
A n o th er set up has the cam era and subject cross on parallel paths,
the cam era p anning to follow the subject as she passes. She appears
to ap p ro ach and then m ove aw ay from the cam era (Fig. 22.26).
448
FIGURE22.26 Camera and pfayer move In opposite dfrections. When they cross, the
camera pans with the player as it continues to move away from her.
Both cam era and subject move at sim ilar speeds in opposite
directions. She m ay stop first, m om entarily before the cam era
does.
Case 23
A further variation is obtained if a central static player is in
cluded in the shot. The player in m otion, and the cam era, con-
verge tow ards the static player b u t the m oving player stops before
the cam era does. The cam era halts only after obtaining a reverse
view o f its initial position (Fig. 22.27).
449
FIGURE 22.27 One of the players and the camera move in opposite directions. The
stationary character is used as a visual pivot in the scene.
Case 24
If the cam era m oves in the opposite direction to that o f an on
com ing group an d does not pan to follow it, it is wise to have the
cam era angled forw ard in a three-quarter position. (Fig. 22.28),
This cam era position allow s us to w atch the players comfort
ably, as they ap p ro ach from the background and m ove out of
shot. If the cam era is placed parallel to the players, it gives a
profile view and they will ap p e ar to cross the screen m ore quickly.
But the speed is too great for com fortable viewing and the fast
repetitive m otion quickly becom es annoying.
FIGURE 22,28 A large group moves in the opposite direction to the camera, which
observes them trom a three-quarter view.
Case 25
Case 26
If player A w alks tow ards B, the last cam era position is a side shot
of both (Fig. 22.30).
The difference is th at at the end o f A 's m ovem ent, she rem ains
facing B in profile, while in case 25, both players adopted an L
relationship in their bodies’ ‘ra p p o rt'. A stood beyond B, in a
frontal view, while B was profiled to the audience.
451
FIGURE 22.29 A track is used to move the camera from one static zone to an othe r<1
right angles to the firs t.
Case 27
A n inversion o f the position o f the players on the screen is obtained
if the m oving ac to r walks betw een the static player and the moving
cam era (Fig. 22.31),
M ore involved track an d pan m ovem ents can be obtained by
reversing the trac k and p an in the second p a rt o f the shot. A girl
talks to h er m an, then she w alks to the left. T he cam era travels
with her left an d pans to th at side to pick up her image and [hat of
her co m p an ion on a m irror. She stops, facing the m irror, and the
cam era stops tracking and panning— fram ing her on the right, her
reflection in the centre and the reflection o f the m an on the left.
452
FIGURE 22.30 The procedure here Is sim ilar to that used in the previous example
except that at the end the players face each other.
Case 28
A panning m ovem ent can be used a t the opening o f a shot,
followed by a track as a continuation o f the p a n —capping the shot,
in effect, w ith an o th er p an w hen the dolly has stopped moving
(Fig. 22.32).
It is a simple form ula for introducing the players (in the first pan),
travelling w ith them as they speak, a n d seeing them head for their
destination (in the second pan). In this way the tracking is used
only for the m ost im p o rtan t p a rt o f the shot. In the p an at the end
o f shot 1, the destination o f players A, B an d C m ay be seen in the
background (actors D an d E).
Shot 2 w ould cover the ap p ro ach o f the m ain players, by means
o f a q u arter circle pan, an d fram e the whole group when they meet.
]f the cam era m oves faster, the actors can be revealed one by
one and swiftly left behind. But if the cam era m aintains a co n stan t
speed, th e actors m ay com e in to range one by one, slow dow n to
keep pace with the cam era, then increase their speed an d advance
out o f sh o t while the person behind takes his place. T he cycle is
repeated w ith as m any people in the line as desired.
455
A n o th er v ariant is to have one person o u t o f line m oving with
the cam era faster th a n the others so th a t he gradually passes each
o th er player.
H e can w alk either between the cam era and the row o f people,
o r beyond th e line. In the first case he is in foreground, in the
second, the background.
A fu rth er refinem ent is to have the line o f people m ove in the
opposite d irection to the m ain ac to r an d the cam era so that he
rem ains in the centre o f view either in the foreground o r back
gro u n d , while the line o f people cross o n the o th er side. T his gives
a very dynam ic shot.
But to b e effective in this, an d the previous cases, the camera
should be angled three-quarters tow ards the line, never parallel to
it (Fig. 22.33).
FIGURE 22.33 A three-quarter view to cover a moving group from a tracklno camera
shows the action in a much clearer way than would a parallel moving camera,
Tracking speed
Tracking speed for a cam era is alm ost always dictated by the speed
o f the subject being covered. I f the cam era m oves tow ards or
aw ay from a static subject o r group, the speed with which it does
it will, in effect, com m ent upon the scene.
A typical change from a full shot to a close shot o f a player can
r
i
* be used to stress any facial expression o r body m ovem ent o f the
player on the term inal sector o f the tracking m otion.
A swift d ep artu re m ovem ent can be used to revea! new infor
mation in foreground th at has caused a reaction in the player seen
in close shot.
Slow tracking provides a n intim ate m ood, creeping in quietly
to the player.
Slow and steady tracking in m ovem ents tow ards a speaking or
silent player, m akes the audience identify with him m ore fully.
His problem s becom e ours, o u r sym pathy for him (lows ou t more
j freely.
Slow, backw ard tracking can stress a feeling o f sadness or
loneliness. It isolates the stationary player from the audience.
When repetitive tracking m ovem ents are used, either m oving
sideways across the landscape o f different locations, o r accom pany
ing different subjects covered separately in each shot, the speed of
tracking should m atch. Likewise, when repetitive forw ard m ove
ments are used tow ards different subjects (or repetitive receding
movements) th e speed should be the same. W hen you intercut
receding tracking shots between forw ard tracking takes, to com
ment on static subjects o r objects, the sam e requirem ent applies.
Different speeds from shot to sh o t will m arr the effect.
*4
FIGURE 22.35 The camera waits in a stationary position as the player approaches.
When she is close enouoh, the camera begins to track backwards w fth her.
FIGURE 22.38 The second camera position is the subjective point o f view o f the
moving player. Here a neutral direction Is used.
459
I f we are tracking sideways with a player, he will rem ain in the
sam e screen sector w ith the background revealed at one side of
the screen and hidden on the other. This is reversed in a travelling
reverse shot (Fig. 22.37) th at represents this point o f view.
FIGURE 22.37 The second camera position is again a subjective viewpoint, but here
a horizontal camera movement is used for both shots.
Static shots intercut within a tracking master shot
Case A
If the cam era tracks behind a subject, going forw ard after him, A frontal tracking shot will allow intercutting o f static cut-aways.
in the reverse shot the cam era tracks back with the player who is The m ovem ent o f cam era an d the player is kept co n stan t in the
com ing tow ards it (Fig. 22.38). master tracking shot. R elated shots, th at com m ent on o r stress
H ere is such a ca se : the story point, are intercut.
S hot 1 O n the lower patio. C am era follows the acto r from Here is a sam ple sequence:
b eh in d ; he then clim bs the stairs. As the cam era reaches Shot 1 M edium shot o f A. C am era, low, moves back with the
the first step we cut to . . . player as he walks tow ards us. He has a set o f head
Shot 2 C am era above on the edge o f the stairs, facing the phones clam ped over his head and a small m icrophone
actor. It pulls back w ith him as he com es to the top in front o f his face. He holds a b o ard with a check list,
an d travels back with the perform er dow n the corridor. an d m oves in the m iddle o f a crow ded underground
A m ore simple m ovem ent, where the acto r walks on a plain control room .
ground, can be covered using the sam e form ula. A : ‘All right. L et’s h ear y o u r final rep o rts.’
460 461
j
Shot 2 Close shot o f B. He is sitting profiled left in front o f a
large control panel. He presses some switches.
B: 'C o m p u ter ready, sir.’
Shot 1 M edium shot o f A. C am era tracks back w ith him.
A : ‘O .K ., B urke?’
Shot 3 Close shot o f C. H e is standing in front o f a bank of
instrum ent panels, profiled right.
C : T racking station is locked on the signal.
Shot 1 M edium shot o f A. C am era tracks back with him. He
checks his list with a pencil.
A : ‘Ignition systems read y ?’
Shot 4 Close shot o f D. He has his back to us, and is seated in
fro n t o f two m onitoring TV screens, where a rocket on a
launch pad is seen.
D : ‘Yes, sir. G reen lights all a ro u n d .’
S hot 1 M edium shot o f A. He walks tow ards us and stops.
C am era stops too, keeping the m edium shot distance.
A : ‘All right. C ontrol. Two m inutes to g o .’
22.38A
Circular tracking
C ircular cam era m ovem ent is tricky and m ust be used with re
strain t an d only w hen strong d ram atic reasons dem and it. A
continuous tracking circular shot lends to eclipse the story point
by calling atten tio n to the cam era acrobatics.
C ircular tracking around two people is often used to convey an
em otional experience so overw helm ing that it becomes a key point
in th eir relationship—for exam ple, a couple kissing after an
unexpected revelation has restored their faith in each other
(Fig. 22,39).
464
Some variation is obtained if the cam era m oves with one o f the
players in a circle aro u n d a stationary central perform er. The
moving player rem ains facing the cam era, the other is seen from a
constantly changing view point (Fig. 22.40).
Sometimes only a half circle is enough to convey a specific
mood in a shot.
For example, a leader is addressing the peasants. T he cam era
moves in a h a lf circle behind them keeping the leader fram ed in the
centre o f the background (Fig. 22.41).
A feeling o f dependence on a central figure o r force is stressed
because atten tio n , even during the m ovem ent, conveys on the
leader as a pivot. A half-circle cam era m ovem ent can involve
panning for the shot a t the extrem es. Thus the internal p art o f the
465
FIGURE 22.40 Player A walks around his stationary partner and is followed by the
camera.
FIGURE 22.42B Diagram that shows the movements of the camera, using a half circle
path, during the mime played for the king and his court in the film version of Shake
speare's Hamlet directed by Laurence Olivier.
As the description clearly shows, the half-circle cam era path was
used twice in the sam e take, and at the end o f each h a lf circle pans
reveal fro n tal views o f the central characters (queen-king) scru
tinised by the o th er two groups (H am let an d H oratio). T he action
in the centre o f the stage continued uninterrupted during the whole
shot, b u t this activity was glimpsed at intervals and only at peak
m om ents o f action th a t were significant fo r the reactions o f the
o th er three central groups.
468
23
With the aid o f a cam era crane the cam era with its crew can be
raised vertically o r in an arc. F o r the m ost part, the crane is not
used to provide cam era m ovem ents b u t simply for stationary
shots from angles th at would otherw ise be difficult o r im possible
a id certainly tim e consum ing to obtain.
Following action
A crane is used to execute simple an d usually gentle m ovem ents.
Its m ost obvious application is to follow actors who move up or
down from one level to another. Such is the case w ith a player
ascending a staircase. T he cam era o n a crane keeps him in m edium
shot fo r example, th ro ughout. C rane m ovem ents allow visual
'punctuation’ shots o r to m ove from a tight group in the foreground
to a large g ro u p in the background. Or, again, to com m ent
emotionally on the m o o d o f a scene by using slow vertical m ove
ments. Som etim es a n unexpected aerial view o f a scene, perhaps
tracking, gives the audience a detached view point suggesting an
impartial fram e o f m ind.
t
I
FIGURE 23.1 A vertical prop In the forearound stresses the sensation of h«ioli1 M
a cranu shot.
FIGURE 23.2 A stationary group is covered by four moving camera set ups, [wo of
which are crane shots.
471
S h o t 2 Side tracking shot. T he cam era is a t a three-quarter
angle to the m en an d a t shoulder height. I t tracks
across the lines o f men.
S hot 3 F ro m behind the group, the cam era descends. As it
com es dow n it picks o u t the side o f a building in the left
foreg ro und.
S hot 4 Side shot tracking to the left, the cam era very low,
parallel to the m en. Some m en arc seen kneeling and
cleaning o th er soldiers’ shoes. W hen the cam era stops
tracking it fram es (in the foreground) tw o hands
shining a p a ir o f shoes o f a m a n standing at attention.
S h o t 5 View from below w ith the cam era tilted up, close to the
m ast where the flag hangs lim ply in the still air.
S hot 6 C lose up o f a sw eating face. H e looks right.
S hot 7 Close up o f an o th er sweating face. Profiled right.
Shot 8 Close up o f a th ird sweating face. Profiled left. Two
flies on the soldier’s cheek. T he cam era pulls back and
swings u p to the left to fram e the lines o f m en from
behind, facing the d o o r o f the fo rt, w here the com
m anding officer enters in a Jeep.
T he crane shots, effective as they were, served to highlight the
m o o d pervading the scene—hum an beings under stress, m ental
and physical.
T h e only m ovem ents in the sequence were executed by the
cam era and n o t the actors. I f they h ad been pho to g rap h ed from
static cam cra positions, a series o f ju m p cuts w ould have resulted.
Static row s o f players an d static cam era set-ups hardly go
together. T he antithesis is visually stronger.
A com bined dow n-pan up-crane m ovem ent is often used to cover
slow -m oving bucolic scenes o r to stress very fast action. Fig. 23.3
depicts the first possibility.
The cam era in a high position fram es a couple w alking towards
us. The cam era descends slowly, tilting u p gradually to keep the
players fram ed centrally. W hen b o th perform ers are nearby, the
cam era pans with them an d , at the same time, swings on the crane
arm . The actors are now seen from behind, and, as they walk
472
FIGURE 23.3 The crane movement in this example is used to stress a p o in t in the
scene, coming from the general to the p a rticu la r.
away, the cam era rises, gradually tilting dow n to keep them in shot,
with a pause if required while the cam era is level with them .
This gives the players time to m ake a story point before m oving on.
If the cam era rem ained level on the crane platform , it would begin
and conclude th e shot by only showing the distant view and the
actors would be revealed halfway through the vertical m ovem ent.
Faster subjects, such as a car com ing tow ards the cam era, can be
covered with a m ore rap id crane m ovem ent. In such a case the arm
o f the crane practically swings in an arc, com ing dow n and going
up while m oving in the direction o f the vehicle.
The key to this form ula is to m ove from the general to the
particular an d back to a majestic view o f the proceedings. In this
473
way, halfw ay through the shot a selected event is stressed and its
protagonists are then moved into the m ass m otion once more.
FIGURE 23.4 Disorganized patterns of action are made coherent for the camera by
introducing a crane movement.
474
Shot 1 L ong shot. C am era static, high on a p latform , tilted
dow n. W e see the colourful crow d m oving in the
m ark et place.
Shot 2 A fruit stand in close shot. T he cam era rises to reveal
the crow d from a reverse angle.
By cutting from a static Jong sh o t to a m oving close shot, the
problem o f cuttin g on action is solved, because the m ovem ent
shown in fro n t o f the cam era a t the beginning o f the second
shot is quite strong due to its closeness. F u rth erm o re, the rising
camera m ovem ent ailow s a sm ooth cut betw een shots. The
upward cam era m ovem ent can be com bined w ith a track. I f the
first sh o t is a track also (m oving in a n opposite direction) the
camera m ovem ent alone will give visual cohesion to the dis
organized m otions th a t it covers.
Zooming
The principal difference betw een tracking the cam era tow ards the
subject an d o p eratin g a zoom lens from wide angle to telephoto
settings is th at with tracking shots the perspective o f the scene
changes (foreground features grow in size m ore rapidly th a n those
in the b ack g ro u n d ) w hereas in an equivalent zoom shot, all p arts
o f the scene are m agnified equally.
W hen the zoom is o n the telephoto lens setting, it acquires the
characteristics o f this le n s : the planes o f depth in the picture are,
in effect, ‘flattened’ a n d the b ackground appears to be pulled in
toward the subjects in foreground.
Like the cam era crane, the zoom has basic applications where
its capacity for m ovem ent is n o t used at all. T he crane has a p lat
form th at can be quickly set to any height. T he zoom , com bining
a wide variety o f focal lengths, provides a quick m eans o f selecting
a suitable one for the p articu lar scene.
Some zoom lenses have a greater range o f focal length than
others. T here are three basic ways in which a zoom is em ployed:
1 The lens zoom s to w ards o r aw ay fro m a static subject.
2 The zoom covers a m oving subject.
3 The cam era m oves while zoom ing.
The first two possibilities involve a static cam era. T he zoom effect
is the only m ovem ent visible. B ut the th ird possibility adds cam era
m ovem ent which m ight be a p an o r track o r the tw o com bined
with a zoom .
475
Zooming speeds
Slow zoom s usually have a constant rate o f visual advance or
recession. A fast zoom is used fo r shock effect. But a zoom can
sta rt slowly and gradually increase in speed. A sudden halt will be
obtained when it stops. A fast start and a slow conclusion will be
m ore pleasing to the eye b u t the sta rt will be quite sharp and
disturbing.
A slow -fast-slow com bination seems to be the idea! w hen using
a zoom th a t goes from one extrem e to the o th er o f the range
available. It is n o t essential to use the full range o f focal lengths
afforded by th e zoom lens. Z oom ing in sh o rt sections is generally
m ore effective. Z oom ing tow ards a static subject draw s attention
to the zoom itself. A fast zoom provides visual pu n ctu atio n th at
p in points the chosen subject, sharply excluding all surrounding
m atter. T hus it can stress a player’s reaction, such as a shout or
scream , o r an object partially hidden by his clothes, o r the barrel
o f a gun blazing tow ards the cam era, or a silent witness in the
back g ro u n d w hom the zoom pulls forw ard to stress.
A slow zoom , quietly creeping forw ard tow ards tear-filled eyes
can lend a n intim ate m o o d to a scene by suggesting participation.
T h e zoom is b etter m otivated an d thus better integrated with
the sh o t if the player in a zoom sh o t m oves with the optical change.
A zoom shot m ight be called fo r where a body is seen in m otion
(Fig. 23.5).
FIGURE 23.5 The movement o f the player motivates the zooming o f the camera Jens,
This may either magnify or dim inish the Image size.
476
W hen the shot begins, A is seen profiled left. He is obviously
looking for som ething. As he turns his head tow ards us, we zoom
back to reveal the object in the foreground.
A zoom shot can be suggested by a body m ovem ent:
A m an walks tow ards the cam era. The zoom lens on its tele
position fram es him in close shot. T he zoom gradually pulls back
with the advancing m an, keeping him in a close shot. This back
ward optical m ovem ent sim ulates a physical travelling bu t the
results are different.
A nother possibility is opposed directions o f m otion—the
camera zoom s in tow ards a player who walks straight tow ards us.
The zoom stops w ith the actor.
477
In the exam ple in Fig. 23.6, the distance covered by the moving
actor was very short, and the zoom used only a p a rt o f the focal
range available.
A head tu rn in close shot can m otivate an exploratory panning
to which a zoom ing m otion is added.
In the situation in Fig. 23.7, player A is hidden behind a column
in a dimly lit oriental garden, fram ed in close shot. He is looking
left. Suddenly he reacts to a noise heard off screen and turns his
FIGURE 23.7 A turning or walking player motivates a panning and zooming camera
movement in which it leaves the firs t player to come to rest on the second.
478
head to the right. T he cam era begins to pan w ith the m ovem ent o f
his head an d continues panning to the right across the garden. As it
pans it slowly zoom s in, to stop fram ing a m edium shot o f player
B hidden behind a statue, w ith a w eapon in his hand.
The slow exploratory pan com bined w ith a zoom m otion gave
the illusion o f sm ooth travelling th ro u g h the garden betw een both
points o f interest, while the cam era ro tate d on its horizontal axis.
A half-circle p an com bined with a zoom forw ard o r backw ard
will provide a sweeping arc exploratory m ovem ent th at scans ?.
landscape, a building or the interior o f a house. The m ovem ent o f a
lone player who walks from one zone to an o th er can be covered
with this pan-zoom technique.
In the previous chapter an instance was given in w hich a com
bined p an and zoom follow a m eandering p a th (Fig. 22.16), as the
camera p an s alternately betw een tw o subjects. M ichelangelo
A ntonioni, in his film Blow Up, used this effect as the subjective
point o f view o f th e m ain player exam ining tw o photographs. T he
camera fram ed one o f the pictures for a m om ent, then panned to
one side to a second, zoom ed in and held a static view o f this
photograph. T h en it panned back to the previous picture and
zoomed in to o , stopping on a m uch closer view. W hen the cam era
once m ore panned to the second picture, the zoom was resum ed
and a n extrem e close up o f the second p h o to g rap h capped the
shot. M ario C am us, in a film m ade in A rgentina, Digan La Que
Digan, starrin g the Spanish crooner R aphael, used the sam e effect
to stage one o f the songs ( Cierro m is Ojos) zoom ing alternately
from the player to his reflections in five m irrors placed behind.
^ ZOOM |_
TRAV
----------------- ¥
.
FIGURE £3.9 Zoom ing w hile panning and tracking. Zooming forward as Ihe camera
tracks back. Optical distortion Is obtained. S ubject and camera travel in the same
direction, and the ?oom is effected diagonally.
481
A com bined track and zoom can provide a startling visual effect
if their m ovem ents are suitably opposed. If the cam era travels
backw ards and the zoom m oves forw ard, especially in a corridor,
there is a peculiar disto rtio n o f distances and object sizes.
A lfred H itchcock used the effect in his film Vertigo to convey
precisely that sensation when Jam es Stew art looks dow n the stair
case in the church bell tower. A nother type o f distortion, but not
as blunt, is also obtained when a cam era, angled three-quarters
to a group, moves backw ard in fro n t o f the ensemble, at full speed,
and then zoom s in obliquely tow ards the players. In Doctor
Zhivago, David Lean uses the effect in several cavalry charge
scenes where the cam era rides w ith the g roup o f soldiers over a
frozen river, Fig. 23,9 shows each o f the effects discussed.
482
24
ACTION SCENES
Standard fo rm u las
T he following rules, briefly enunciated, have proved successful in
action scenes over the years.
4S4
D ialogue im pedes action. A udiences m ust be shown, no t told
w hat is going on. B rief and terse com m ands uttered by the
com batants are the exception.
D ialogue can be used as a pause in the action to give audiences
a rest. C ontinuous action soon saturates em otion, and this m ust
be renewed by pauses where verbal explanations can be used to
clarify story points.
The pause in the action can be a physical one. It gives the
com batants tim e to regain their breath before the final show
dow n. A fter a tense fight the com batants separate to regain
strength and m easure the o p p o n en t’s condition. Suddenly they
lunge and a brief exchange o f blows concludes the fight.
C om bat sequences can be built siowly and resolved quickly.
W hen a m echanism is defied, the obstacles m ust be first
established. T hen the identity o f those who are going to try to
conquer it is given. Some o f the artifacts to be used m ust be
presented visually b ut no explanation (or only partial ones) o f
how they will be em ployed are provided. Then the plan to over
com e th e m echanism is seen in action. Several interruptions take
place where the situation nears com plete disaster, but they are
averted by the participants. Finally success o r failure crowns
the efforts o f the defying party.
C redibility m ust n o t be strained except for hum orous p u r
poses.
T he outcom e o f a chase m ust not be predictable to the audience.
T he diversity o f obstacles faced by bo th pursuers and hunted
m ust keep the outcom e uncertain.
T he double chase is a further variant. The h u n ter pursues his
victim, and both are pursued by a third party interested in either
o f them . If the first two ignore the presence o f the third the
conclusion o f the chase depends on the behaviour o f this last
one.
If tw o groups o f pursuers chase the protagonist o f the story,
the peril doubles. In tricate buildings offer the best possibilities
for this variation. O pen ground nullifies it.
Some fight sequences use a gim m ick to cap the action. A
special w eapon concealed in a n outlandish place has been
repeatedly resorted to in spy films.
A ction sequences should not extend beyond their resolution
point for too long. A hum orous scene can be used to release
tension.
485
The subjective point o f view
Physical conflicts can be presented from m ultiple impersonal
points o f view o r from localized focal points. F o r an impersonal
p oint o f view the cam era exam ines each o f the players and each
o f the situations w ithout singling out an outstanding character
whose point o f view is im posed on the audience. All the facts are
presented from the outside. T he audience is k ept as a spectator
and n o t asked to participate em otionally.
O n the other hand, action can be presented through the view
points o f the central players o f a film. A series o f reaction shots
taken from the em phasized p layer’s position on the set accom
plishes the trick. T he technique tends to present in a frontal close
shot the images o f the central character, and in long shots the
views o f the action he is w atching. H is involvem ent in the action
can be passive o r active.
The attitu d e o f the player is taken to be passive when he merely
witnesses the event from afar, an d reacts to it w ithout going away.
Such is the case o f the role played by Jam es Stew art in Alfred
H itchcock’s film Rear Window. The action across the inner court
yard o f the ap a rtm en t building is alw ays seen by the audiencc
from this player’s p o in t o f view.
T he situation where the player engages in the action itself, is, in
effect, active. In these scenes, as the action is being established, the
parallel editing o f the shots adheres to the lim itation o f em
phasizing in frontal close shots and close ups the figure o f the
central player, while showing d istan t views o f his opponent.
W hen bo th engage in physical com bat they are fram ed in full
shots th at cover both (im personal points o f view) going back to
the form er subjective point o f view as soon as they separate. Thus
visual em phasis is throw n b ack on the m ain player. This player is
seldom seen in the foreground o f the reaction shots, since these
represent his subjective point o f view and therefore exclude him.
The central character is never seen from his o p p o n en t’s point of
view.
T he subjective ap p ro ach by firmly adhering to the point of
view o f the central character forces the audience to see the action
as this player sees it. Since we are treated to a series o f action and
reaction shots, we are not aw are th at we are being forced to ob
serve the events from a chosen and fixed point o f view. This tech
nique is no t only efficient in action scenes bu t is in its ow n right a
486
good ap p ro ach to heighten the em otion o f a dram atic scene where
dialogue is p redom inant. The m ain player speaks to an o th er while
concentrating on a different task th a t the subjective cam era
approach em phasizes visually. The director can also com m unicate
feelings th at are not im plied in the dialogue being spoken. Thus
the scene is enriched by cinem atic m eans.
An im p o rtan t detail for this technique is to preserve em otion if
the m ain player moves. In o u r previous discussion o f the sub
jective p oint o f view we had assum ed th at the m ain player through
whose eyes we saw the action was standing o r seated. If he m ust
move to an o th er p a rt o f the set, do not cut back to give him space
to move. This would destroy the m ood o f the scene. Use the sam e
static shot in which the player is fram ed to p an or travel with him
as he m oves to an o th er p a rt o f the set. Em otion is thus preserved.
Do not be tem pted to cut back to a full shot because there is room
to do so. If you do, y our view is no longer subjective, but objective
and the ap p ro ach changes.
The subjective p oint o f view is quite ad ap tab le and can be ap
plied to small groups th a t have different locations on the terrain
or movie set. H ere is an exam ple taken fro m D avid Lean’s film
The Bridge on the River Kwai. In the last reel o f the film, a group o f
imprisoned British soldiers cross the bridge leaving the detention
camp for a new destination. They are w atched from three different
locations by the group planning to blow up the bridge. Figure 24.1
gives the positions o f the players a n d the cam eras.
JOYCE
FIGURE 24.1 The subjective point o f view can be applied to sm all groups with
different locations on the set. A n example from The Bridge on the River Kwai.
491
Shot 7 L ong shot o f the cavalrym en, they increase speed as
they ru n tow ards us.
Shot 6 Close sh o t o f Pasha. T he people behind him panic and
begin to disperse.
Shot 7 Long shot. T he line o f cavalrym en is approaching at
speed.
Shot 6 Close shot o f P asha. People run and he is shoved aside.
Shot 4 Close shot o f Zhivago. He is still astounded.
S h o t5 F ro m his high point o f view we see a full shot o f the
crow d scattering to all sides as the cavalrym en charge
them .
Shot 4 Close sh o t o f Zhivago.
S hot 5 T he im pending clash seen from above.
T hree key characters are used in the sequence to develop it and
gain o u r em otional com plicity. T he cavalry officer is first used to
show us, th ro ugh his eyes, the crow d entering the street before the
m assacre. N ext, Zhivago is presented occupying a reverse position.
T hro u g h his eyes a w ider perspective is acquired. T hen Pasha,
within the crow d (he is the only identifiable person there) allows
us to see th rough his eyes the b ru tal beginning o f the cavalry
charge. As hysteria grow s am ong the crowd, Zhivago’s point of
view gives us again a larger perspective o f it.
JL
H e again tu rn s to us an d looks off right once more
(16 seconds 18 fram es).
S hot 147 F ro m th e same p o in t o f view as shot 140. The after-
m ath o f the explosion as seen from above, from
W a rd e n ’s position (3 seconds 14 fram es).
Observe th a t the blow ing up o f the train was filmed fro m three
p o in ts o f view. E ach o f these shots was used only twice in the whole
sequence to cover th e ca tastro p h e from beginning to conclusion.
T he d estru ctio n o f the bridge itself takes 28 seconds o n the screen
to com plete (the length o f the six fragm ents em ployed) yet the
sequence from sh o t 136 to shot 147 runs fo r 60 seconds and 6
fram es o f film. T he length o f the event was stretched by including
the reaction shots o f W arden and his group o f T hai girls, an d the
lone m edic C lip to n up o n the opposite side o f the river. By present
ing the event in this way a richer version o f it was obtained.
Follow fo cu s technique
As a cam era tracks, pans or tilts, o r as actors m ove up to o r away
from the cam era, o r pass by a t different ranges, points o f interest
ia the view as seen by the cam era shift position. This m akes it
necessary to ad ju st focus to keep the subject sharply defined. This
can be done in tw o w ays: m anually o r autom atically. W ith the
first m ethod, a focus puller stands by the cam era and adjust the
Focus ring as required. But the ring can, alternatively, be controlled
remotely by either a m echanical o r rem ote control device.
There are fo u r basic situations requiring follow-focus control.
1. T he cam era m oves ab o u t the set a n d films either stationary
o r m oving subjects. T he cam era m ay track tow ards o r aw ay from
the subject o r it can m ove alongside, fram ing the m oving subject
from a fixed distance. 2. T he cam era rem ains stationary while the
subject m oves up to , o r aw ay from it during the shot. 3. The cam
era rem ains statio n ary b u t is panned o r tilted, o r both, during the
shot, switching fro m one subject to an o th er at different distances.
4. The stationary cam era films tw o o r m ore static subjects in the
scene, shifting focus from one to the other. Visible guides are
established on the floor o f the set to help the focus puller to set
to the correct distance o n the lens a t predeterm ined positions—the
beginning and end points o f the tracking as well as particular
interm ediate distances. These m arks are either chalked lines or
scrips o f tap e on the ground. W hen there is some difficulty in
keeping one o r m ore players a t a fixed distance while the cam era
tracks backw ard, a w ooden T-shaped assem bly can be attached to
the front o f the cam era dolly. It is only necessary for the actors to
keep in line with this device to m aintain the correct distance and
stay in sharp focus.
In som e shots the focus m ay deliberately be switched to the
background and perhaps returned to the foreground again. M any
dram atic effects can be o btained by selective focus used in this way.
501
t
25
M odern film m akers have rescued the long m aster shot from the
oblivion th at followed the abandonm ent o f the old theatrical
front-only cam era set up and endow ed it with techniques develop
ed for editing in the cam era, o r in o th er words, w ithin the film frame!
This approach needs no visual cuts to achieve its effects but relies
o n cam era an d subject m ovem ent. E xperim entation with this
technique has been extensive and has even led to the extreme of
m aking a full length feature film using only ten shots edited in the
cam era— A lfred H itchcock’s film Rope.
Pre-planning is required
Shots suitable fo r editing in this way cannot be m ade haphazardly
o r w ith the inspiration o f the m om ent. They require careful pre
planning, with a studied integration o f player and cam era move
m ent, like a choreography th at m ust be precisely executed by the
acto rs and the cam era crew. W hen well executed, results are very
pleasing. T he scene flows sm oothly, the audience is no t aw are of
the technique and the actors have a better chance to drop into
their characters, since the scene is played continuously as in the
theatre.
M istakes when m aking this type o f shot can be quite expensive,
especially fo r lim ited budget productions. T he am ount o f film
expended in retakes is quite considerable. Thus, thorough re
hearsals are vital before attem pting a shot. But if a m istake is made,
a good director should be able to find a way o f partially using the
shot by resorting to a cut-aw ay at th a t p o in t and returning to the
m aster shot again afterw ards.
W ith a well trained cast an d cam era crew, the speed in shooting
surpasses by far the cum bersom e efforts needed to cover the same
scene using the fragm entation technique o f piecing it together in
502
several shots. Television serials, which have a lim ited num ber o f
pro d u ctio n days, have greatly profited from this technique. But
an integration o f b o th techniques, ordinary physical editing and
editing within the fram e, is the m ost sensible w ay o f benefiting
from the best o f b o th. In them selves, the tw o system s have
lim itations. A film m ak er who know s screen language thoroughly,
however, will su rm o u n t them by blending these techniques for his
expressive purposes.
T here are seven basic techniques governing shots edited w ithin
the film fram e:
1 A pause betw een m ovem ents;
2 A change o f zone;
3 A pproaching o r receding from the cam era;
4 Change o f body p o sitions;
5 S ubstitition by sectors;
6 Switching o f screen sec to rs;
7 N um erical con trast.
Several o f these techniques are usually com bined in any such shot,
rath er th an being used alone.
Case 1
W ith a statio n ary cam era, the zones are arran g ed in d epth to
w ards the b ack ground (Fig. 25.1), i.e. a foreground zone, a middle
zone an d a b ackground one.
FIGURE 25.1 T hree action zones can be arranged in d e p t h In front ot a statio n ary
cam era.
Case 2
I f a p anning cam era is used, the relationship betw een the zones o f
actio n can vary, as show n in Fig. 25.2.
F o r pans o f less th a n h a lf a circle the Fig, 25.2 exam ples should
provide ad equate variety. In th e first case, the three zones are
deployed in an arc aro u n d the cam era, so th at m ovem ent from one
to th e o th er will keep the fram ing distance equal for the three zones.
T h e second, third a n d fo u rth exam ples suggest tw o zones equi
distan t from the cam era a n d the third either closer o r further away.
F IG U R E 25.2 W hen the c a m e ra p a n s th e relatio n sh ip b e tw e e n z o n e s of a ctio n can
vary.
The fifth an d sixth exam ples show the zones a t different distances
from the cam era.
If a com pletely circular cam era m ovem ent is involved, panning
505
from zone to zone will cover as m any o r as few zones as wished to
com plete the circle (Fig. 25.3).
Case 3
If the cam era tracks from zone to zone, these areas m ight be
along a straight path. O r an irregular arrangem ent can be chosen.
I f a horizontal path is used, three approaches are possible. (Fig.
25.4).
In the first case the cam era tracks backw ards or forw ards over
the three zones. In this exam ple all the zones are show n either at the
beginning or conclusion o f the take, depending w hether the camera
is advancing into o r receding from the scene.
In the second and third exam ples the zones are placed parallel
to the cam era path and equidistant from the cam era. A triangular
arrangem ent o f the zones in relation to the cam era path provides
further variants for internal visual coverage (Fig. 25.5).
506
F !< S U R E 2 S ,4 A m o v in g c a m e r a c a n travel o v e r th e a c tio n z o n e s th e m s e lv e s , o r p a ra l
lel t o t h e m In a h o r i i o n t a l o r o b l i q u e l i n e .
Case 4
Stationary cam era positions offer a wide variety o f approaches for
m ovem ent in depth. Several visual com binations are available.
Here are som e sim ple ones, with tw o players.
B oth players (A and B) in foreground. B m oves to the back
ground. A rem ains in foreground (Fig. 25.7).
B oth acto rs in foreground. B moves to the background and,
m om ents later, returns to the foreground (Fig. 25.8).
Both players in foreground. B m oves to the background. Then
A joins him (Fig. 25.9).
Both actors in foreground. B m oves to the background, rem ains
fo r a m om ent and then returns to foreground. Now A moves
to the background, while B rem ains in the foreground. Later,
A returns to the foreground (Fig. 25.10).
509
FIG U R E 25 .6 A A sin g le p layer m oves In d ep th , g o in g to the background and
co m in g b a c k to w a rd s th e c a m e ra . S h e trav els a " U ” p ath .
F I G U R E 25.7 M o v e m e n t In d e p t h : B o t h p l a y e r s a r e in t h e f o r e g r o u n d , B m o v e s t o t h e
background.
510
F IG U R E 25.9 B o th acto rs in f o r e g r o u n d , O ne m oves to the b ackoround, th e o ther
t h e n F ollow s.
F IG U R E 25.10 B o th a c to rs a r e in t h e f o r e g r o u n d . E a c h in t u r n m o v e s Into t h e b a c k
ground and retu rn .
Case 5
A p anning cam era will easily unite tw o action zones placed on a
line th a t runs a t a tan g en t to its location. T he player closest to the
camera m oves to the background, followed by the panning
camera. T he m ovem ent can be reversed in the sam e shot, having the
actor retu rn to the foreground in w hich case the cam era pans in
the opposite direction (Fig, 25.11).
Case 6
A cam era tracking forw ard o r backw ards w ith a m oving player,
will increase the n um ber o f possible visual com binations. H ere are
some exam ples:
511
FIGURE 25.11 A panning camera unites two action zones on a line running tangenlially
to its location.
T he stationary player is placed betw een the cam era and the
o th er perform er in the background. T he background actor
com es forw ard to the static player in the m id-distance, while the
cam era tracks in tow ards him (Fig. 25.12).
T he m oving player is placed betw een the cam era and the
stationary person in the background. T he foreground player
and the cam era m ove together tow ards the background,
ap p ro ach in g the static player (Fig. 25.13).
The cam era need not be m oved during the whole shot, bu t only
for a section o f it to provide em phasis where desired (Fig. 25.14).
The shot begins with bo th players fram ed in m edium shot,
talking to each other. B then com es forw ard an d the composi
tion o f the screen becom es A — B 2, when player B turns and goes
back to A, the cam era travels with him and stops fram ing a
close shot o f b o th (A — B3). B then walks to the background and
the pictorial com position changes on the screen to A —B4.
A lateral cam era m ovem ent tracking to either side will exclude
th e static player (Fig. 25.15).
512
FIGURE 25.12 A stationary actor stands between the camera and the other person,
in thebackgrci/nd. The background actor moves up to the other as the camera moves
in on them.
FIGURE 25.13 The moving person is placed between (he camera and the stationary
backeround figure* The camera follow s the foreground figure as he approaches the
other actor.
b2
L3
FIGURE 25.14
1 a b4
513
FIGURE 25.15 A lateral camera track follow ing the moving player w ill exclude the
stationary subject, in th is example* the car.
The shot begins with both players (A and B). B rises an d the
cam era tilts up fram ing her alone. A now rises and enters the
screen from below. B oth players are now standing. B then kneels
dow n, going o u t o f shot. A rem ains in shot.
Substitution by sectors
This technique implies use o f a fixed cam era location. T he trick
is in substituting an acto r placed in a particular sector o f the
screen by an o ther, w ithout m oving the others also seen in the
shot.
516
FIGURE 25.18 V e rtic il movement of the players with n u m b e r contrast.
Case 7
A an d B are seen in the foreground, profiled to each other. B turns
and exits right. C then enters from th a t side and occupies the
sector o f the screen vacated by B. A rem ains in the same sector o f
the screen (Fig. 25.19).
517
FJGURE 25,19 A slmpfe substitution by sectors, One player goes o u t o f shot and If
replaced by another.
Case 8
A substitution in dep th is the next variant, a n d sim ple to ac
com plish (Fig. 25.20).
A t the beginning o f the shot, A an d B are seen in the foreground
facing the cam era. W hen A exits shot left, he discloses C in the
background. C either rem ains in the background o r com es forward
to a close shot beside B.
518
FIGURE 25-20 Here the substitution by sectors is achieved In depth,
Case 9
A. com position in which the screen is divided into three sectors is
ideal to p o rtray situations where a leader gives com m ands to
subordinates.
The leader is fram ed centrally an d the players a t his either side
exit and enter, replacing each o th er (Fig. 25.21).
519
FIGURE 25.21 The actors on one side of the screen are substituted by others, while
one remains still throughout the shot.
the cen tre
Case 10
A ltern ate changes o f sector, using only tw o screen areas, is a more
elab o rate solution (Fig. 25.22).
FIGURE 25.22 In this example all the players are substituted up to the last two.
A a n d B are on the screen at the beginning o f the shot. B leaves
and is substituted by C. T hen A leaves and is substituted by D.
Now, D leaves and is, in turn, substituted by E. E rem ains while
C is replaced by F.
Case 11
There are times w hen th e substitution by sectors is accom plished
using only tw o players. O ne rem ains in shot while the o th er enters
and exits. This is repeated and then inverted. A n o th er variant is to
have one player enter, right, stop in the centre o f the picture and
then exit right. The second player enters left, stops in the centre
and then leaves left. T he first player then re-enters right and the
whole form ula is repeated. T o obtain variation, the three depth
planes in to which a scene can be broken are used in com bination
with one an o th er. An exam ple will illustrate the technique. Fig.
25.23 shows the set in w hich the scene will take place.
T he whole action is shown in a single shot, with a static cam era
and the techniques used are explained below.
FIGURE 25.23 Three planes of depth In the scene are used in combination.
A t the beginning o f the shot the set appears as follows: in the
foreground is a desk with papers and other paraphernalia. Above,
in the foreground is a light, turned off at present; in the back
ground is a raised catw alk with a vertical stair on the left, descend
ing behind a block construction placed in the m iddle ground. In
the background on the right is a closed door.
T he action in the scene is as follows. The cam era is in a fixed
position.
1 T he light in the foreground is switched on.
2 Player A then enters from the right (foreground) and gets busy
sorting some papers on the table.
3 U nknow n to him , B enters the catw alk from the left in the
background and crouches to look dow n.
4 A exits shot right.
5 In the background B rises, goes to the stairs and descends,
disappearing behind the block construction.
6 A re-enters from the right w ith a small leather bag. He picks
u p some papers and puts them into the bag, and then exits right
o f picture.
7 N othing m oves for an instant, then the light in the foreground
goes off, obviously switched off by A o u t o f shot.
8 B appears from behind the block in the m iddle ground and
calm ly walks tow ards us, keeping to the left side o f the screen.
W hen he reaches a close shot position, his figure is silhouetted
against the background which is lit. He takes a pocket torch frorn
his coat, scans the papers on the table with a slender beam o f light.
9 Suddenly, in the right sector o f the screen in the background,
a door opens an d tw o arm ed guards appear.
10 B, in the left foreground, quickly switches off the torch and
kneels dow n, m oving out o f shot by the low er side.
11 On the right, in the background, the two arm ed guards shine
a strong lam p up to the catw alk at the left an d tu rn flashing the
light into the cam era lens and, switching it off, m ove to the right,
walking o u t o f shot in the background.
12 B rises and re-appears in the foreground, left. H e picks some
papers from the table and exits shot left.
N otice how the scene was played in depth using foreground and
background action.
N ote also th at A m oved only in the right sector o f the screen and
B on the left, at all times.
522
In this scene twelve different hits o f action to o k place by m eans
o f four elem ents:
1 The light; this was switched on at the beginning o f the take and
turned off m idw ay th ro ugh it.
2 Player A : he entered an d exited from the screen twice, each
time m oving in the foreground righthand sector.
3 Player B: he entered the background, descended fro m a height,
hid behind an obstacle, reappeared (still on the left side o f the
screen) advanced to the foreground, exited the screen by the lower
side, re-entered an d finally exited left.
4 The g uards: they m oved only in the background righthand
sector.
In the first h alf o f the shot the foreground actions o f A were
contrasted w ith the b ackground m ovem ent o f B. But when the
latter came to the foreground, the sam e technique was em ployed in
his relationship w ith the guards in the background. B oth areas
o f the screen, left and right, were used in depth in an alternating
way.
Switching the light on and off in foreground added a pictorial
variation th at reinforced the m ood o f the scene.
The player piaced upstage faces the audience* the o th er has his i
back to it. S ubstitute a cam era for the audience an d you have the
sam e situation o n the screen. T he d o m in an t aspect can be modified
by opening o r closing the body position (Fig. 25.25).
T his w orks well on the screen, w ith a fixed cam era position, but
one o f the players could m ove o u t o f shot so th at the rem aining j
one becom es the d o m in an t party. I f the cam era follows the actor
w ho leaves, th en he is em phasized. W hen the do m in an t player
crosses an o th er person o n the stage, he is m ore likely to pass in
fro n t o f the o ther than behind him unless he is sitting dow n. The
reason is easy to see. W hen the d o m in an t player passes behind the
o th er person, the eyes o f the audience, which have follow ed him
to this p oint, tend to rem ain with the stationary player.
W ith a close shot, however, the d om inant player can cross
behind the o th er person, who has a closed body position, w ithout
this happening (Fig. 25.26). f
524
FIGURE 25.25 The 'upstage' actor faces the camera, the other has his back Jo it, the
dominant aspect is modffled by opening and closing the body positions.
As A m oves to her new position, the cam era pans to the right with
her fram ing B -A 2. She then returns to her form er position in the
foreground and the cam era m oves back to the left with her and the
first pictorial com position is repeated. A tracking cam era may be
used to obtain the sam e effect. In such a case there is also a change
o f zone (Fig. 25.31).
FIGURE 25.31 A tracking camera causes th e players to switch positions on Ihe
screen as they move with the camera.
The acto rs exchange screen sectors d u rin g the track, w ith static
screen co m p ositions a t both ends o f the track. T he follow ing
examples are applied to three people exchanging sectors during an
interm ittent p an and tracking m ovem ent.
Case 12
Three players exchanging screen sectors follow the same principle.
But it is easier an d m ore dynam ic if they also change zones. T he
cam era m ay p an as in Fig. 25.32.
T his sh o t involves an 180 degree pan. T he shot begins by
showing players A, B an d C talking in m edium shot, A then
moves to th e left. The cam era pans w ith her. She stops a t her new
position. B enters from the right a n d stops in his new position,
C enters from the right, behind them , an d crosses to the left an d
moves o u t o f shot by th at side. The cam era rem ains fram ing the
others. N ow A m oves to the left to the o ther side o f B, T he cam era
pans again w ith her to the new com position. B starts to m ove to the
left and as he crosses A, she too begins to m ove in the sam e
direction. T he cam era pans left with them , picking u p C in the
background. W hen the cam era stops we see the three players
m oving aw ay from us as shown. D uring the shot the actors exchange
screen sectors from zone to zone.
^ J LLl
--------- V 1i .
a D C
r a g s
f ;W ?
IPS1
JM^rb2 a2
-Zfu
A
4
f / f
1/7, A- ill)
a3 b2
FIGURE 25.32 A simple case o f editing In the camera using three action zones.
532
-i ,
Case 13
A tracking sh o t with three people can be planned w ith a large
num ber o f variants.
In the following sim ple exam ple there is a change o f screen
sector and action zones (Fig. 25.33).
W hen the shot begins, A an d B are seen talking to each other.
They start to w alk and th e cam era moves with them . A moves
first, crossing behind B so th at during the track the com positions
is B -A .
W hen they stop, C enters right. They talk. T he com position
is B2- A 2-C . B exits shot, right. T he cam era having stopped with
the players, p an s right to fram e A 2-C alone. Both players start to
walk and the cam era tracks w ith them once m ore in an A -C
com position. W hen they stop, com position o n the screen becomes
C 2- A 3.
A lthough there were only three stationary cam era positions
(the two extrem es and a pause in th e m iddle o f the track) there were
five pictorial variations.
C hanging screen sectors is a useful device for shots edited in the
camera. It is n o t em ployed alone, bu t integrated with o th er tech
niques, so th a t the result is richer, and m ore expressive and serves
the scene better.
Numerical contrast
The co n fro n tatio n o f one person by a group, o r a small group by a
large one, has dram atic significance in itself. Such num erical
contrast em phasizes by isolation. These results can be applied to
m aster shots w hich are designed to be edited within the film
frame.
T here are three basic ways o f achieving num erical contrast for
such shots.
One o f the perform ers exits shot leaving his com panion alone
in it. Later, he re-enters—a 2 -1 -2 contrast (Fig. 25.34).
W hen a perform er moves, the cam era pans o r tracks w ith him.
I f he moves to a zone where he rem ains alone before returning
to his com panion, the p atterns o f co n trast are simple—2 -1 -2
o r 3-1 -3 .
I f he m oves to a zone where o th er players are present, the
num ber com binations possible increase (Fig. 25.35).
533
FIGURE 25.33 Editing in the camera using three stationary camera positions and
five pictorial com positions to put the scene across.
534
I— i
FIGURE 25.35 T h e cam era fo llo w s th e d e p a rtin g p e rfo rm e r w ho se m ovem ent alters
1li^ n um b e r c o n tra s t,
535
I f the cam era tracks into o r back from a group, the num ber
o f piayers covered can be decreased o r increased, according to
dram atic needs (Fig. 25.36).
FIGURE 25.36 The camera (racks towards or away fro m the group, which may be
covered as a whole or In part.
Fig. 25.37 shows num erical co n tra st in com bination w ith other
techniques.
A an d B are seen in m edium shot. B exits a n d the camera
rem ains, fram ing A alone. A fterw ards she m oves fro m zone 1 to
zone 2. The cam era pans w ith her. She stops in zone 3 facing B.
T h en B m oves to zone 3. T he cam era pans w ith him . H e rem ains
fo r some seconds an d is then jo in ed by A.
N otice the different techniques em ployed in this sim ple shot:
1 N u m b er co n trast was used in a repetitive p a tte rn : 2 -1 -2 -1 -2 .
2 The three zones o f actio n were in a h a lf circle aro u n d the
cam era, b u t at different distances, so th a t as the cam era panned,
the players were seen in a tighter com position progressing from
m edium shot to close shot a n d to close up.
3 T he players in each zone altered their body positions. First they
interchanged ‘u p stage’ a n d ‘dow nstage’, then m oved into the same
plane.
536
FIGURE 25.37 Several form ulas fo r edltlno In camera are used in this example.
Player A Is always on the left of the screen, while B remains on the right.
4 T here were only two cam era pans. The first followed A, the
second B.
This exam ple shows the im portance o f using the seven techniques
in com bination, to o b tain a sm ooth construction o f m aster shots.
By com bining player and cam era m ovem ents this technique
dispenses with the need for physical cuts. But editorial emphasis
o r changes in the scene are achieved with com plete naturalness.
541
26
General principles
W ith changes o f zone the group can m ove from zone to zone,
expand to several zones o r co n tract from several to only one zone.
T here is no lim it to the num ber o f areas th at can be em ployed but
three to five is generally enough since each area can be used
several times if the developm ent o f the story so requires.
M ovem ent m ust be (or seem) m otivated by som ething. T he most
natural reasons for m ovem ent are found in the dialogue o f the
542
screen play itself. The m ost effective m ovem ent is th at which results
from em otion. I f there is no em otional reason for m oving, a
practical one m ust be found. The exam ples here involve only tw o
people. Larger groups obey the sam e rules, with the difference only
that the increased num ber allows fu rth er com binations on the
screen.
544
for cam era placem ent. The concept that m ust be retained is that
the group o f players can be m oved from one area o f the set to
another w hatever the distance. In this way different backgrounds
for the static m aster shots are obtained.
If a large group is involved, the central characters alone can be
moved to the next area.
Two, three, four or five areas o n the set can be chosen as zones
where sections o f the sequence will be staged. M any types o f visual
variation are available in each. N o t only different editing patterns,
bu t attitudes, body positions, distances, etc., are consciously
planned to achieve the illusion o f spontaneity.
FIGURE 2fi.2 Group expansion by the use o f selective editing, using two different
zones on the set (the girl and fha central group) during the second half of the
sequence.
545
r
546
1
549
The editing pattern in the second p a rt o f the sequence m akes use
o f tw o internal reverse cam era sites, one for each zone, to relate
the players visually before closing the sequence with a re-establish
ing shot. T he editing order for this exam ple runs as follows:
1-2 -3 -2 -3 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -5 -6 ~ 5 -6 -7
T he expansion o f a group can be com bined with zone changes for
the w hole g roup to add variety to a long sequence. In such an
event the sequence begins with both players in the first zone and
an editing pattern o f external reverse shots is applied to that area.
T hen bo th players m ove to the second zone and exchange screcn
areas in the process.
A right angle external cam era coverage could, perhaps, be
chosen to cover the players in this zone. A fterw ards, one of the
perform ers moves to a third zone an d bo th areas (2 an d 3) are
related by the use o f internal reverse cam era positions. Re
establishing cam era sites are em ployed to record each zone change.
Fig. 26.4 details the m ovem ents and cam era placem ents just
discussed.
FIGURE 26,4 Two previous techniques are blended here. The group moves from
zone to zone, and then expands, whife one of the players moves to 0 third zone
Meanwhile his companion remains in the second.
550
A player moves, the other remains still
In this variatio n a p erfo rm er m oves aw ay from the zone com m on
to the couple to a zone (or zones) in the background. The key
variant is th at he keeps m oving until he returns to his p artn e r who
has replied to his spoken lines, w ithout m oving from his original
position. The form ula is sim ple:
Shot 1 M edium sh o t o f both perform ers. T he cam era then pans
to one side with the m oving player as he w alks away.
S h o t 2 In tern al reverse shot o f the player w ho rem ains in one
place th ro u g h the entire sequence.
S hot 3 M aster panning shot in which the m oving ac to r w anders
on to the set. He m oves by segm ents, m aking successive
stops. This m aster shot is in tercu t w ith tw o sm aller
m aster shot o f the stationary player. These two small
m aster shots have a com m on visual axis and are from
internal reverse positions.
S hot 4 T he sequence concludes show ing how the w andering
a c to r returns to his form er place besides the statio n ary
player.
Fig. 26.5 illustrates the sequence th a t follows, using the technique
ju st described, w ith dialogue.
FfGURE 26.5 Floor plan of 1he sequence shown in the next figure. In this case one
player moves from zone to zone, while the other remains in a fixed position,
551
S hot 1 M edium shot. A and B talk. B turns, w alks to the light.
T he cam era pans w ith him . B stops a n d turns to face
A off-screen.
S hot 3 M edium shot o f A facing the cam era. H e replies.
Shot 2 Close shot o f B facing the cam era. H e tu rn s a n d walks
to the background to position B3 w here he stops in
m edium sh o t facing the cam era. T he cam era pans with
him to the left. H e talks.
Shot 3 M edium shot o f A. H e listens.
S hot 2 M edium shot o f B. He m oves again, w alking to the left
to position B4 in close shot. The cam era pans with him
to th a t side. H e talks.
S hot 4 Close shot o f A facing the cam era. He listens.
Shot 2 C lose shot o f B. H e m oves to the right to position B 5
in close shot. T he cam era pans with him to the right. He
talks.
S hot 4 Close shot o f A. H e replies.
Shot 1 M edium shot o f B. H e w alks to the left and joins A.
The cam era pans w ith him to show b o th actors in
m edium shot. T hey talk. T he sequence ends.
553
FIGURF 36.? Diagram for a more comple* sequence in which one player moves
while the other remains In a fixed position during the whole sequence.
Case 1
Players A a n d B are seen on internal reverse shots. The m aster
shots are edited in parallel. T hen A exits his m aster shot. She then
enters m aster shot 2 (which now fram es b o th players, Fig. 26.8).
The co n tractio n o f the group was achieved sim ply by m oving
a player from his zone to his partners. M aster shot 2 can now
continue with b o th players, o r a p air o f external reverse shots can
be introduced to cover the couple by parallel editing. By reversing
the form ula expansion o f the g roup can be obtained.
Case 2
A pan m ovem ent can be used to reunite the players in a single
zone. M aster shots 1 an d 2, covering each player separately in
internal reverse shots are edited in parallel. W hen A m oves in
m aster sh o t 1, the cam era pans w ith h er show ing how she ap
proaches B a n d stays w ith him . (Fig. 26.9).
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FIGURE 26.9 This Is sim ilar to the preceding case, the only difference being In the
panning shot used for the change o l zone. T h is pan accompanies the moving player
to the other zone, where her companion waits.
556
T he result is sim ilar to the case examined previously (Case 1)
an d the sequel o f shots equal those em ployed in that example.
Case 3
Two players, occupying different zones are often brought together
by a short track, b o th players having been show n individually in
internal reverse shots. T he sequence is as follows:
S hot 1 Close sh o t o f A.
Shot 2 Close shot o f B.
Shot 1 Close shot o f A.
Shot 2 Close sh o t o f B.
S hot 1 A advances to the cam era. The cam era tracks back
passing beside B a n d stops when it fram es him from
behind on one side o f the screen. A stops in fro n t o f B.
S hot 3 Reverse external shot o f B -A .
S hot 1 E xternal reverse shot o f B -A .
S hot 3 B an d A seen together.
S hot 1 B and A in a tw o shot.
The solution is sim ilar to th a t in the previous tw o cases, where the
editing p attern was changed from internal to external coverage as
the two actors were b ro u g ht to a com m on zone stage (Fig. 26.10).
T h e illustration offers a second alternative for the last p a rt of
the sequence. In the scene ju st described she stops in fro n t o f him,
the girl o n th e left a n d the m an on the right o f the screen, as seen
from th e last position o f the cam era in shot 1. T he alternative is to
have her m ove to the o th er side o f him , so th a t from the last
cam era position o f shot 1, he is seen placed on the left o f the
screen, with his back to us, and she faces us in the right sector of
the film fram e. T he site fo r shot 3 w ould now be on the other side
o f the line o f m o tio n , providing us w ith a perfectly licit external
reverse angle. T he line o f interest flowing between the players at the
beginning o f the scene is shifted to a new direction at the conclusion
o f the tracking cam era m otion th at reunites both players on a
com m on area.
Case 4
W hen tw o players move from one zone to an o th er one ac to r might
m ove first rath er th an th e tw o together (Fig. 26.11).
S hot 1 A a n d B talking. A exits left, leaving B.
S hot 2 A enters from the right an d turns to face B o ff screen.
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/
FIGURE 26.10 A tracking shot accompanies the moving player when he moves from
one zone to another where the other person is waiting.
Case 5
T w o successive pans from the sam e cam era site, can be used to
show tw o players m oving from zone to zone one after the other
(Fig. 26.13).
Shot I B an d A in m edium shot. A s B m oves to the left, the
cam era pans with her to th at side till she joins C.
S hot 2 A , still in the first position a n d seen in m edium shot,
w alks to the left. T he cam era pans with him to that
side w here he jo in s C and B.
T h e three players are now in the second zone and can be covered
by the trian g u lar principle to em phasize the group as a whole or
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FIGURE 26.13 Two players move from one area to another coveted by a panning
camera. Both pans are made from the same camera position, firs t with one player
and then w ith the other as they move to the new 2one where a third player awaits them.
its m em bers individually. The second pan (shot 2) can move be
yond B and C, accom panying A to the third zone (Fig. 26.14).
If the p an shots o f the perform ers are long shots, static objccts
o r p ro p s in the foreground would add depth to the panning
m ovem ent. The second m ay also be from a position closer to the
subjects and on the same visual axis as the previous cam era site.
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FIGURE 26.14 Two panning Shots have a common visual axis, and cover the two
moving players individually as they change from zone to zone.
Case 6
The second player’s change o f zone can be delayed by introducing
an interplay o f m aster shots in parallel (Fig. 26.15).
The sequence w ould be edited in the following way:
Shot 1 Close shot o f players A an d B.
Shot 2 Reverse close shot o f both.
Shot 1 , s
S hot 2 (A s a b ovc)
Shot 1 A fter a m om ent B m oves to the right. The cam era pans
w ith her to fram e the girl alone in close shot.
Shot 3 Close shot o f A.
Shot 1 Close shot o f B.
Shot 3 Close shot o f A. He walks tow ards us. C am era tracks
back with him until it fram es B from behind o n one side
o f the screen. A stops, facing her.
This delayed approach to zone change looks less artificial and can
FIGURE 26.15 A pan and track combined in this example achieve the change o f zone
for both players as they move one after the other, w ith a pause between.
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27
COMBINED TECHNIQUES
S h o t by shot editing
W ith this type o f ap p ro ach the scene is taken in as m any shots, long
o r sh o rt, as is felt necessary. The long shots m ay be static or
'ed ited in the cam era’ shots.
D ialogue scenes present some difficulty in planning because
there is only one way to edit the sequence— there is ju s t one shot
fo r each phrase o r g roup o f lines spoken by the players.
Scenes o f pure action w here the perform ers m ove w ithout
depending on dialogue are easier to handle w ith the- shot by shot
editing technique. The arsenal o f film rules involving cutting on
action, the triangle principle fo r cam era deploym ent aro u n d the
player, actio n and reaction, etc. apply in full with this ap p ro ach to
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film cutting. The F rench film director, Serge B ourginon, is a
m aster in the use o f this technique and one o f the very few who
has consistently applied shot by shot editing to whole films. His
films Sundays and Cybele, The Rew ard a n d 15 Days in September
offer striking examples o f the results th at can be obtained. H e has
used each sh o t only once (with the exception o f one o r two
occasions p er film, in which he was forced to cut a sh o t in half
an d intercut an insert o r cut-away). This approach to film m aking
requires a solid knowledge o f film technique, since a n accum ulation
o f errors while sh o oting the film will offer less opportunity for
correction on the m oviola when the sequences are assem bled.
P artial use o f this technique fo r different sections o f a fiction full
length film is em ployed by alm ost all film m akers, particularly in
sequences th at depict pure action. But docum entary film m akers
consistently reso rt to this technique.
Case 1
T here is a sh o rt fragm ent o f a sequence which gives an idea o f
w hat the technique looks like when applied to a scene with
dialogue.
Shot 308 M edium shot o f a couple sitting in tall grass near a
tree trunk. The cam era tracks in slowly tow ards them
and gradually stops.
H e : ‘It is so nice, here far from the village. It makes
m e feel alive, full o f jo y .’
The young m an lies back to rest on the ground. C ut
on the action.
Shot 309 Side shot o f the couple. T he young m an in the fore
ground com pletes his reclining m ovem ent and puts
his hands under his head. T he girl, beyond, turns to
him an d laughs.
She: ‘Y ou are acting like a boy, Billy.’
He smiles back a n d then rises. The cam era pans
slightly to the right w ith him , fram ing both, sitting
side by side in the grass, profiled right.
H t', ‘Som etim es -we ou g h t to . I t \s good Tot Yhe
system .’
He begins to tu rn his head tow ards the girl. C ut on
the action.
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Shot 310 B oth are seen from behind. H e fu rth er turning
tow ards her. H e raises his rig h t hand a n d gently takes
her chin.
H e: ‘T hose beautiful, innocent wide eyes . . .’
H e pulls her face closer to his to kiss her lips. C ut on
the action.
Shot 311 Reverse close up o f both. T he young m an has his
head in the shadow o f the tree. H is features are o u t
lined against the well lit surface o f the girl’s face. She
bends her head forw ard to m eet him . They kiss. The
cam era tracks to the right behind their heads panning
to the left to fram e the o th er side o f their faces, as the
windsw ept branches o f the tree cast a m oving shadow
over th eir faces. They end kissing an d she pulls back
her head to look at him , a sm ile o n her face. They
stare at each other. Suddenly a horse neighs nearby,
breaking the spell. B oth tu rn to look off screen.
Shot 312 Reverse. T he couple in foreground, their backs to us,
fram ed in m edium shot. Beyond, in the background, a
m an o n horseback is w atching silently.
Shot 313 Close shot o f the rider. Sam e visual axis as the
preceding shot. H e smiles broadly.
R ider: ‘A m I interrupting som ething?’
Each shot in the exam ple given covers a fragm ent o f the scene.
N o cam era site is used twice. N one o f the shots is spliced in paral
lel w ith any o f the others. T h e exam ple in itself is small a n d rather
simple.
Case 2
Shots edited w ithin the film fram e can be used in accordance with
the sam e principles. A series o f m edium length takes (one o r two
minutes each) can be cut in, one behind the other, covering a
whole o r p a rt o f a sequence. The exam ple th a t follows adheres to
such an approach. Fig. 27.1 is a floor plan o f the sequence.
Shot 426 T he cam era tracks from right to left with player A
(a w om an) who joins perform er B (a m an), joining B
and A in close shot in the second zone. A fter a mo
m ent o f conversation player A w alks to the right and
the cam era tracks with her. W hen she reaches th
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FIGURE 27.1 Floor plan of a sequence covered w ith shot by shot editing. Each shot
Is used only once, but some use the principle of editing in camera w hich gives the
*&quance pictorial variety.
Case 3
It is easier to edit single shots o f parallel action, than the one
related by a co n tinuous m otion, such as in the preceding examples.
W ith parallel editing the tim ing o f the sequence can be adjusted at
will by trim m ing dow n the shots o r using longer versions o f them.
W ith con tin u o us shot-by-shot editing the film m aker, once his
m aterial is sh o t an d p rinted, has less control in introducing any
m odifications. By using inserts o r cut-aw ays, filmed as protection,
he can delete p arts o f the m aster shots. B ut it is a repair jo b full o f
difficulties.
O n the o th er hand, shot-by-shot editing th a t alternates two or
m ore lines o f n arratio n in parallel is easier to assem ble, change or
delete. H ere is an exam ple o f an action th a t adheres to the latter
possibility. The fragm ent offered is the conclusion o f a fight scene.
Shot 456 L ong shot. A girl standing in the ro a d close to a cliff.
She w atches the villain (foreground) flip the hero to the
ground. B oth fall. The villain gets u p an d runs to the
left ou t o f shot. T he hero rises a n d runs to the left
after the villain. The cam era pans to the left with the
hero excluding the girl from the shot. A gain we see
the villain running to the edge o f the cliff. The hero
catches up w ith him , a n d tackles him .
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Shot 457 Close shot o f the girl looking off-screen, left.
Shot 458 Long shot. The hero an d the villain fighting. The hero
falls u n d er a blow from the villain. T he villain reaches
for a rock.
S hot 459 M edium shot. T he girl comes forw ard and picks up
the gun from the road. T he cam era pans dow n and up
with her m ovem ent.
S hot 460 Long shot. A car, driven by the h ero ’s friend speeds
tow ards us along the road.
Shot 461 Long shot. T he villain, holding the rock high over
his head, m oves tow ards the hero.
Shot 462 Close up. T he girl fires the gun tow ards the camera,
p ointing it ofT screen left.
S hot 463 Full shot. The hero on the ground recovering slowly.
T he villain with the rock high over his head is hit by
th e shot a n d falls back o u t o f shot.
S hot 464 Long shot from above the cliff. T he body o f the villain
plunges into the sea with an audible splash.
Shot 465 The hero rises into the screen fram ed from below in a
m edium shot. H e looks dow n.
Shot 466 Full shot. T he h ero ’s friend steps o u t o f the car and
runs along the ro a d to the right. The cam era pans
w ith him to th a t side.
Shot 467 Close shot o f the hero exiting shot, right.
Shot 468 Close sh ot o f the girl. She lowers the gun o u t o f the
screen, and then com es forw ard tow ards the camera,
passing o u t o f shot, left.
Shot 469 Full shot. The hero walks to the right tow ards the road
T he cam era pans with him.
Shot 470 M edium shot. The friend com es forw ard on the road
a n d stops. T he girl enters right, the hero, left. Both
have their backs to us. Suddenly all tu rn tow ards the
cam era a n d look up to the upper right corner as they
hear a n explosion ofT screen.
Shot 471 Long shot. T he lone bus on top o f the hill blows up
in a fierce explosion.
Each shot in this sequence portrays a different p a rt o f the event.
T here are three m ain lines o f action alternating on the screen.
Since each action is visually independent o f the others, it is
possible to adjust the d u ratio n o f shots to the length desired. This
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1
Case 4
On m any occasions, single shots are used to present one fact at a
time to the audience. Each shot has the value o f a phrase o r of a
short statem ent. These shots are som etim es linked with dissolves
th at serve to indicate the passage o f time. W e offer a n example
taken from D elm er D aves’ film Cowboy.
Dissolve
Long Shot o f the country. T he sun rises slowly over the horizon,
Dissolve
Close Shot o f a coffee p o t over a cam p fire. A hand enters the
screen and takes off the lid. The w ater is seen-boiling inside.
Dissolve
Full shot. The cow boys wake up to the sound o f a frying pan being
beaten off screen. O ne o f the m en rises close to the w agon and
walks to the left. The cam era pans with him, showing the others
in the group an d stops in the foreground on the sleepy face o f
Jack Lem m on.
Dissolve
Close shot o f an iron grid over the coals o f the cam p fire. It is full
o f juicy steaks slowly cooking. A hand with a fork enters and picks
up one o f the steaks. T he cam era pans u p and we see a cowboy
d istributing the steaks to his m ates.
Dissolve
Close shot o f the cam p fire. Som ebody pours the contents o f the
coffee pot over the hot em bers, dousing the fire.
Dissolve
The wagon train passes in front o f the cam cra from left to right in
full shot.
Long shot, On the left in the background we see the cow boy’s
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caravan com ing to us. A group o f pacific Indians on horseback
enter shot from the right.
T hey ride into the background.
Cow boys and In d ians cross each other in fro n t o f the cam era.
The cam era pans to the right with Jack L em m on (the tenderfoot o f
the story) who looks at the Indians.
Dissolve
T he caravan follows a lazy Z p ath from left to right in front o f the
cam era. G len n F o rd and his M exican forem an ride a t the head o f
the colum n. Jack L em m on com es along behind, h a lf asleep o n the
saddle.
Dissolve
A t sunset. G lenn F o rd at the head o f the carav an stops his horse
a n d raises his arm to signal the others to stop.
Dissolve
A ro u n d the cam pfire at night a new sequence begins, covering the
events o f a day in the m arch o f the caravan. E ach shot is the
equivalent o f a w ritten phrase.
N o spoken w ords are necessary fo r the sequence, which relies on
its im ages to p u t its ideas across.
Case 5
These techniques m ay be applied in a repetitive way. Because there
are only two possible variations the presen tatio n m ay be repetitive
571
in nature, conform ing to an altern atin g pattern. Nevertheless it
affords a very wide m argin for v ariation since each individual
technique has, in itself, a w hole arsenal o f com binations th at will
disguise the n atu re o f the general pattern. A practical exam ple
gives an idea o f w hat this com bination o f technique looks like
(Fig. 27.2).
FIGURE 27.2 T his floor plan view shows the several camera arrangements used to
cover a dialogued sequence. Shot l l s a long master shot covering the whole sequence.
Other shots are Intercut either as Inserts or edited lr» parallel w ith the main master
shot. Thus, several editing techniques are merged to cover the sequence.
Case 6
T w o m aster shots edited w ithin the fram e can be intercut in
parallel. T he ap p ro ach is quite simple. T he last p a rt o f the first
m aster is intercut w ith the fir s t part o f the second m aster. T he
exam ple th a t follows features such an occurrence. Fig. 27.3 gives
a floor p lan view o f m otions o f the players in the scene.
Shot 1 Close sh ot o f a couple. She is standing in foreground
w ith her back to us. H e is seen beyond on the right,
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facing the w om an. She then walks to the right. The
cam era tracks w ith her. She stops in the second zone
a n d tu rn s to face her co m panion w ho is now off screen.
The cam era stops, fram ing her in close shot. A fterw ards
she retu rn s to the first zone on the left. T he cam era
tracks w ith her again an d then stops, facing the m an,
as the girl crosses in fro n t o f him an d exits shot, left. The
cam era holds o n a close shot o f the m an looking off
screen left.
Shot 2 M edium close shot o f the girl. She tu rn s in the centre of
the screen and faces us looking off-screen right. The
cam era holds o n her as she speaks.
Shot 1 Close shot o f the m an. He walks to the left to the third
zone. T he cam era tracks w ith him and stops as he
joins her, fram ing a close shot o f girl an d m an. They
talk, then he exits right, leaving the girl alone o n the
screen. W e stay w ith her fo r a m om ent.
S hot 3 Close m edium shot o f the m an walking to a railing in
the background. T he cam era track s behind him an d
stops when he reaches the railing an d sits down.
Shot 4 Close shot o f the girl. She talks.
576
Shot 3 M edium shot o f the m an sitting at the foot o f the
railing. H e replies.
S hot 4 Close sh o t o f the girl. She speaks.
S hot 3 M edium sh ot o f the m an, seated. He speaks.
Shot 4 Close sh o t o f the girl. She speaks and then walks to the
right to the fourth zone where the m an is. The camera
pan s and tracks with her to th at side, fram ing both
together at the end o f the tracking m ovem ent. She is in
the foreground, left, w ith her back to the cam era. He is
seated o n the right, facing her. They speak.
Shot 5 C lose sh o t o f her. This is an internal reverse shot
featuring the girl.
Shot 4 M edium sh ot o f b oth. The cam era angle favours him.
S h o t 5 Close sh o t o f her.
S hot 4 M edium shot o f both. H e replies. The girl then walks
to th e right, going o u t o f shot. W e stay with him for
a n instant.
Shot 6 Full long shot. F ro m up high th ro u g h an arch in
foreground, we see the girl in the centre o f the screen
m oving aw ay into the background. A t the beginning of
the sh o t she m oved from behind one o f the colum ns into
the picture.
In the exam ple given the m aster shot th a t illustrates the point is
sh o t 4. S hot 3 is in tercut in parallel with the beginning o f shot 4
in the static cam era sections o f the shots. T hen the cam era moves
in sh o t 4 from th e third to the fourth zone, where it again becomes
stationary. T his last p a rt o f shot 4 is edited in parallel with an
internal reverse sh o t o f the girl (shot 5). In this example the
m axim um possibilities are obtained from a simple shot like shot 4
by relating the first an d th ird zones initially and by providing
reverse angle coverage on the fourth later.
Sum m ing up
T h e exam ples given to show how the different editing techniques
can be m erged are in them selves simple ones. M ore complex
editing patterns can be achieved depending o n the context o f the
scene to which these techniques are applied. N o m atter how
intricate the solution arrived at, tw o m otivations m ust be constantly
observed-.
T h at the technique applied serves the scene and not vice versa.
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578
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28
FILM PUNCTUATION
Dissolve
A dissolve is a co m b ination o f a fade ou t and a fade in, super
im posed on the same strip o f film. It is believed th at dissolves were
first used by G eorges Melics in 1902 for his film A Trip To The
519
M ood. A rap id dissolve gives a fairly sharp transition from one
scene to an o th er. Slow dissolves ca n relate the m ood o f tw o scenes
to one an o th er. I f the overlapping p o rtio n is extended the dissolve
is prolonged, p erh ap s to stress an intense nostalgic o r poetic
m ood.
T he co m b in ation o f a fade o u t a n d fade in is used to obtain
ap p aritio n s o n th e screen. T he em pty set is first photographed,
the cam era sto pped, the player m oved into the shot a n d the
cam era restarted. L ater, in the laboratory, w hen the tw o shots are
dissolved, the player appears to m aterialize from now here an d
becom e solid.
T he statio n ary p arts o f the scene retain even intensity th ro u g h
out. T he cam era ca n n o t be m oved.
W ipe
A wipe is a lab o rato ry effect in which a new scene is introduced
o n the screen as the first one is pushed o r wiped to a side. T here
are tw o types o f wipe. In the first the new scene enters from one
side or above and pushes the other o u t o f the screen. In the second,
a th in line travels across erasing the old scene a n d revealing the
new.
T he second type o f wipe, the travelling line, is the m ost often
used for tim e transitions on the screen. The travelling line can
m ove horizontally, vertically o r diagonally, either from right to
left o r vice versa.
M ore com plicated p attern s, such as the spiralling wipe, o r
m ultiple squares, have been designed a n d used to achieve time
tran sitio n s b u t their startling effects have been reserved for film
trailers.
Iris
T he iris effect has undergone some transform ations over the years.
A t first it appeared as a dim inishing circle th at centred attention on
an isolated subject o r detail. A bandoned a sa tim e tra n sitio n m e th o d
th rough being overw orked, it was relegated to a closing effect for
anim ated cartoons. It has been revived and updated from tim e to
time. F o r exam ple, in an A m erican television series, B atm an, a
stylized figure o f a bat grow s from the ccntre o f the screen tow ards
the cam era till it covers the im age com pletely and then recedes
again to a d o t, revealing a new image.
580
Use o f dark areas
F o r an o th er form o f tim e transition, the cam era can p an o r track
behind a d ark area o r shape th at fills the screen and then cut to a
sim ilar opening device in the next scene. If the cam era m oves in the
sam e direction in b o th shots, the transition will be sm oother than
w ith opposed directions. A lternatively, the actor him self can move
tow ards an d away from the cam era. W ith only one personthe effect
is som ew hat artificial, b u t becom es m ore subtle w ith tw o per
form ers, w ho ap p ro ach the cam era draw ing closer together as they
reach the foreground, and separate as they m ove aw ay in the next
sh o t in a new place and a different time.
Titles
T he use o f titles to separate sequences is a rem nant o f the silent
film epoch. B ut today titles can identify places, the exact time of
the day, o r the year in which the action is supposed to take place
an d m ight a p p e ar over a typical picture o f the place o r over a
plain background.
Some docum entary films use sub-titles to designate new
sequences.
Props
Tim e p ro p s arc still used to denote the passage o f time. The idea is
to depict the ravage o f tim e o n an article th at requires small spanses
o f time to show m arked changes in its appearance. T he com plete
pro p is first show n an d then dissolves to the final stage in which
the p ro p has been destroyed, consum ed or w orn out. Such props,
though now m ost are cliches, include lighted candles, cigarettes,
fireplaces, campfires, clocks, calendars an d dated newspaper
headlines.
L ight change
Changes from m orning to evening light can suggest a tim e transi
tion. The cam era fram es a m otionless set, and the studio lights
are altered to denote the change. The audience sees the light
change, shifting shadow s as a gradual effect, then the cam era or
players move into the scene to begin the new sequence.
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Question and answer
This m ethod relies o n an idea to effect the tim e transition. F or
exampie, a character in the story asks, ‘D o you think th at Pam ela
is really b eau tifu l?’ ‘Yes, she is,’ replies an o th er player in a
different place at a different tim e an d to an o th er person standing
beside him . T he questioner an d the person answ ering are n o t
related by the direction o f their looks. Only the ra p p o rt between
the w ords spoken effects the transition.
Substitution o f an object
Som ebody holds a glass o f cham pagne. H e is irritated by the event
that has taken place and reacts by throw ing the glass aw ay o u t o f
shot. The next shot, introduced by a sudden cut, shows a pane o f
glass being broken by a stone. Behind this broken pane a face
appears, looking dow n. T he students o f a university are stoning
the w indows o f the faculty’s quarters. The link between such
sequences is provided by a sim ilar sound o r effect.
Word repetition
A character closes a sequence by speaking a w ord in close shot.
The next opens with a new player repeating th at w ord in a dif
ferent place, at a different time. He m ight repeat the word w ith the
same em phasis, or perhaps change it into a question. The new
scene develops from there.
substituted by an o th er. A cam era m ovem ent by itself can serve for
transitions from scene to scene relying o n a m om entary distraction
supplied by a close shot o r close up fram ing at the beginning o f the
second shot before the cam era m o tio n reveals the true relationship
o f things in the new shot. H ere is a n exam ple from The Sleeping
Car Murders directed by C osta G avras (Fig. 28.1).
C♦2
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3
FIGURE 28.3 The second shot in this sequence is the ambiguous one. It belongs to
(tie scene that concludes and to the one tha t begins after it. The background Is
i>»utral In th is second shot, to Integrate It sm oothly w ithin both sequences,
A sudden close up
T he close up used as a visual bridge need not relate to the shot th at
follows. It could be a simple cut to an object or person in close up
a n d then seen in the follow ing shot in its p ro p e r context. F or
instance:
A sequence concludes with a scene inside a room . The shot that
follows is a close up o f a lam p post w ith four light bulbs. The third
sh o t is a full shot in which the lam p post is show n as p a rt o f the
general scenery in a p ark , The new characters are located in the
foreground.
T he close up in the first shot was related to the whole ensem ble
in th at which follows.
FIGURE 2fl.4 A close shot of an object Is employed here to obtain a time transition
from scene to scene.
Scene openers
If all scenes began abruptly, undue em phasis w ould usually be
throw n o n them a n d unw ittingly conspire against the nature o f the
scene itself. It is better to begin neutrally and then m ove o n to the
m ain event o r character. T here are two ways—by m oving the actor
o r the cam era.
589
The actor
His body blocks the cam era lens. H e starts to m ove aw ay, dis
closing the scene.
Something in foreground (in sharp focus) is rem oved by a player.
The cam era shifts focus to fram e the player m oving aw ay an d then
stopping to use the object he picked up in the foreground.
Somebody opens a window (cam era outside) or slides aw ay a
closed d o o r (cam era inside) revealing him self and the scene
beyond. Some o f the m ost com m on props used on opening scenes
are: doors, V enetian blinds, w indow shades, curtains an d room
lights (turned on one by one to illum inate the scene gradually).
The camera
T he scene begins with som ething being picked up and carried
away. The cam era pans or tracks to fram e a new place where the
central action begins. This disclosure m otion can be executed by
the m ain player him self o r by a secondary person who exits view
as soon as he discloses the central characters.
The cam era fram es an object in silhouette th at blackens the
screen com pletely, o r alm ost, and tracks to one side to reveal the
new scene behind.
The cam era tracks back from an extrem e close up o f an object
revealing the place where th at object is located. T h at p ro p can be
either som ething w orn by a person such as a piece o f jewellery
o ra w rist-watch o r m ay be located on a piece o f furniture, o r even
on the floor. The prop used m ust in some way be related to the
content o f the scene. The scene begins with the cam era fram ing an
empty section o f the set, and the cam era tracks or pans o r cranes
down to the sector where the players are.
The scene begins with a close shot o f a person. T he cam era
dollies back an d we becom e aw are th at it was shooting through an
opening in a screen th at is now revealed in the foreground between
the cam era and o u r m ain subject. The subject then m oves from
behind the screen an d m oves into a n o th er section o f the set.
A painted picture, an em broidered scene, a still picture in a
newspaper, are used to begin the scene. They fade into a p h o to
graph (in the first two cases) th at suddenly acquires m ovem ent. T he
frozen image is given life. T he procedure is reversed to close a
scene: the im age freezes on the screen, the cam era pulls back so
590
1 1
S hot 3 is only a coda to the whole event. T he m ain shot is the first,
the subjective view point o f the occupants o f the vehicle while
hurtling tow ards the wall. Shot 2 introduced a t a critical m om ent,
re-establishes th e vehicle in m otion an d , w ith its sudden lack o f
cam era action, stresses by co n tra st the view from inside.
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FIGURE 28.6 A subjective point of view is broken to stress its im pact In the narra
tion.
A
1
FIGURE 28.6 Rapid succession of static shots used to punctuate a situation. This
example belongs to A lfre d H itchcock's film The Birds.
ra ft rises into the screen. A subm arine has surfaced under the ra ft
an d lifted it o u t o f the w ater. D ialogue scenes can be treated this
way. In Farenheit 451, F rancois T ruffaut uses it w hen som eone
speaking on the phone receives a warning.
T his effect can be obtained directly in the lab o rato ry by en
larging a single fram e. The S p y in the Green H a t, a film o f the
N ap o leo n Solo spy series, uses this variant in som e o f the shots
em ployed for the credits.
Jo h n F rankenheim er in his film Seconds, reverses the technique.
M r. H am ilto n is w aiting for a vital phone call in his studio. The
596
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cam era angle is changed, a reverse in this case, helps to m ake a
sm ooth cut. The same principle is used in Les Aventuriers. Alain
D elon is testing a biplane passing through some obstacles erected
by Lino V entura on an airfield. The tests com pleted, V entura
rides hom e in a truck, an d is playfully followed by the plane. Here
is a section o f th at sequence:
T he cam era m oves with the truck on the airfield. Lino V entura
is seen on the left looking into a rear view m irro r and beckoning
the biplane which approaches from the background, right, and
th en flies out off shot, right. C u t t o :
598
View from inside the truck, V entura in the foreground, left, his
b ack to us. The plane, right, flies tow ards us a t low altitude as
we advance along the runw ay an d then rises an d flies o u t o f
view top left. C ut to : P anning shot, right to left. The truck
runs to the left, closely follow ed by the plane. T he plane then
veers aw ay to the background.
Observe how, w ith o u t sacrificing sm oothness o f transition from
shot to shot (the cut com es after the plane exits from each shot)
the tu rn ro u n d m ovem ents o f the plane are om itted. This concept is
also applied to a tran sitio n where in the first sequence two persons,
talking, are viewed separately. N e ar the conclusion one m akes a
statem ent b u t instead o f splicing to a reaction shot o f the o th er
(before concluding the sequence) this last shot is deleted, and a
direct cu t is m ade to the next sequence.
Inaction as punctuation
If the screen im age is rendered devoid o f m otion a t the beginning
o r conclusion o f a shot, it affords an easy transition betw een the
preceding o r follow ing shot, and the shot in question i.e. the easy
tran sitio n is betw een the tw o shots separated b y the static view.
T here are tw o ways o f using i t :
1 A t the conclusion o f a shot.
2 A t th e beginning o f a shot.
O ut o f fo cu s images as punctuation
T his effect is m ore often seen on live television th a n in films. The
technique is simple. T he concluding scene in a sequence is de-
focusscd until it becom es an unrecognizable blur. W e then cut to
the new sequence which begins w ith the im age com pletely ou t
o f focus, an d then gradually grows sharp. This new im age is in
ano th er place and at an o th er time.
M ichelangelo A ntinioni has used an o th er variant. A sm o u ld er
ing fire is seen ou t o f focus at the beginning o f a sequence. It is an
intriguing p attern o f colour and undefined shapes. A few seconds
later a pair o f bare fem ale feet enter the foreground in sharp focus.
T he sccne acquires m eaning. Sequences can be concluded using
the same recourse. A person in the foreground, in focus, leaves the
screen and the o u t o f focus background rem ains for a m om ent.
(Incidentally, there is now a tendency to use ou t o f focus im ages as
background for the credit titles o f a film.) O ut o f focus actions are
often used o n purpose to stress a point. F o r exam ple, in Sidney
F u rie’s film The Ipcress File the hero gets ou t o f bed in one image
(in focus) and enters in the next as a vague blurred im age in the
b ack ground, to open the w indow shutters. In the foreground and
in sharp focus, is a n alarm w atch m arking the tim e.
A nother technique is to have one player sharp in the foreground
w ho rem ains still d u rin g the take, while a n o th e r m oves in the
b ackground com pletely o u t o f focus a n d com es forw ard into focus
602
to jo in th e o ther. Jo h n H u sto n in his film M oulin Rouge uses such
a n effect. T oulouse L autrec has quarrelled w ith his girl friend and
she d ep arts, slam m ing the d o o r on her way out. T he next shot
show s a dejcctcd L autrec in the foreground, facing the cam era.
A fter a m om ent the d o o r in the background (com pletely ou t o f
focus) opens and the girl com es in again an d slowly w alks to the
fo reg ro u n d until she is in focus beside the painter.
T he sh arp focus can be in the back g ro u n d . T w o lovers seen in
focus begin to kiss an d m ove slowly forw ard ou t o f focus an d tu rn
in to undefined m oving shapes.
W hen they w an t to suggest th a t a m an is losing consciousness
and is ab o u t to faint, som e film m akers use p o in t o f view shots
th a t gradually defocus. T he reverse effect is em ployed w hen the
c o n tra ry situ atio n is desired: a person com ing to his senses.
T o suggest th a t a person has trouble w ith his eyesight, the point
o f view shot o f w h at the m an sees goes from sharp to blurred an d
to sh arp again. As m entioned elsew here w hen discussing the use
o f split focus in a •'cene, there is a tendency to d ay to have a subject
sh arp in the fo reg round an d , as he tu rn s his head to the b ack
ground to shift focus there so th at the fo reg ro u n d p layer becom es
blurred. M ik e N ichols used this in The Graduate. In th a t scene
Ben im plies to E laine th a t it was w ith h er m o th er th a t he had an
affair. T he rev elatio n com es w hen she is close to the h a lf open d o o r
o f her b ed ro o m . W e see her in the foreground. B eyond, h er m other
appears. Elaine tu rn s to look b ack a n d the cam era shifts focus to
her m o ther. She is w et fro m the rain, as Ben is. T he m o th e r goes
aw ay after a m om ent and E laine tu rn s h er head to us. But she
rem ains o u t o f focus for a m om ent, then slowly the im age becom es
clear a n d sh arp as she realizes w hat has hap p en ed a n d reacts
angrily. H er m ental process o f un d erstan d in g the situ atio n fully
is m ade clear to th e audience by the delayed focus w hich p o rtray s
it visually.
Case 2
A p lay er’s m ovem ent can be com bined with the punctuating
m otio n o f th e cam era to give the scene ad ded visual im pact. F o r
exam ple, som ebody is challenged a n d in the shot th a t follows the
cam era advances tow ards a g roup o f persons. A s we ap p ro ach
one turns aside disclosing behind the challenged person. T he
cam era stops, fram ing this character in close shot.
A delayed cam era m otion can be used too. F o r instance, a
ch a rac te r fram ed in close sh o t stays in the foreground fo r several
seconds and th en w alks to the background into a full shot. H e
stops, begins to tu rn and the cam era tracks swiftly in, fram ing him
again in close shot.
Case 3
U sually, when these cam era p u n ctu atio n s are em ployed, the
sh o t begins w ith th e cam era in a fixed spot and as the scene
develops th e cam era moves b u t th e sh o t concludes w ith the cam era
static once m ore.
A v arian t o f this is ob tained by starting the shot w ith m ovem ent
in it and, as th a t ends, cutting again to a static com position sim ilar
to th at a t the beginning o f the preceding m oving shot. F o r example,
a scene begins with a close shot o f a m an sitting at the head o f a
long table. T he cam era is tracking b ack over the table revealing
the tw o row s o f guests. It stops a t the end an d then we c u t to a
close sh o t o f the m an as seen a t the beginning o f the preceding
shot. M usical films avail them selves o f this solution w here, for
instance, a full sh o t o f the couple o f dancers begins the shot with
the cam era tracking b ack an d boom ing upw ards. T he cam era then
descends vertically (fram ing the whole scene in long shot) to the
605
dancer’s height an d stops. A cut follows to a full shot on the same
visual axis and the whole m ovem ent is repeated once m ore.
Case 4
A n ap p ro aching o r receding m ovem ent can 'r c repeated tw o, three
o r m ore tim es consecutively. W ith a single subject th e effect is
disturbing a n d draw s atten tio n to itself.
In the Italian film Agostino, directed by M auro B olognini, the
central ch aracter, a boy w hose nam e is the title o f the film, wit
nesses a sexual act perform ed off cam era by iwo o th er boys. This
revelation com es as a shock to him. Visually, ihe scene is presented
by a series o f forw ard cam era tracks th a t repeat six o r seven times.
T he cam era m oves from m edium shot to cl* >e up and suddenly
cuts b ack to a m edium shot on the sam e vi ual axis, tracking in
slowly once m ore.
A sim ilar use o f repetitive forw ard cam era m ovem ent was em
ployed by A lain R esnais in L 'A nnee Dernidre a M arienbad bu t the
effect o f im age overexposure was added in the laboratory. T he girl
in the film runs from a room o u t on to a wide terrace an d stops,
opening h er arm s in jo y . T he cam era tracks tow ards her several
tim es consecutively from the sam e direction adding a static pause
before each cam era m ovem ent.
In an o th er exam ple from Laurence O livier’s film version o f
H am let, the K ing and O phelia’s b ro th e r are plotting against
H am let. T he scene opens w ith a m edium shot n f both players. T he
cam era tracks back an d upw ards until they are seen in sm all scale
dow n below. T here is a cut to an o th er poim in the triangular
cam era deploym ent a ro u n d the two players and they are seen in
m edium shot. T he cam era again m oves back and upw ards. A cut
follows to a reverse m edium shot o f bo th player v The cam era holds
it fo r a m om ent an d again begins to track back and up. T he m ood
o f conspiracy is thus em phasized.
Case 5
Repetitive cam era m ovem ent tow ards o r aw ay fro m a single
player can be intercut in parallel with scenes rem em bered by th at
ch aracter a n d representing a subconscious return to the past.
H ere is a fragm ent o f such a sequence:
C am era tracks forw ard to a young m an sitting with his b ack to
606
the railing on a deck of a transatlantic liner. The cam era
advances from a full to a medium shot. There is a cut to:
A woman opening a door and facing the camera. She says
something.
It is a scene previously seen in the film, during an earlier sequence.
The camera tracks from medium to close shot of the seated man.
There is a cut on the track to:
The young man in full shot walking in a park beside the girl.
They are both talking.
The young man, in a room, with his back to the camera in the
foreground, left.
On the right another man advances towards him and stops to
utter some harsh words.
The young man. The camera tracks from medium to close shot
on the ship.
The young girl turns away from us and walks to the background.
We are in a room now. She turns to us again and speaks a few
lines.
The young man on the ship’s deck. The camera tracks from close
shot to a big close up and stops, holding a frontal image of the
young man to register a tear running down the young man’s
cheek.
AH the shots spliced in parallel with the repetitive forward tracking
correspond to images already used in previous sequences and
represent a return to the past.
The cuts come while the camera is still moving except at the
very end. The camera is allowed to slow down and stop tracking.
The method described is also useful to stress one of two simultan
eous actions. For example:
A man seated in the foreground, with his back to us. He is read
ing a book. A girl in the background, facing him, turns away and
moves into the background.
Reverse shot. The man is reading the book. The camera tracks
towards him from a full to a close shot. The scene is cut while
the camera is still moving.
The girl enters shot, stops, turns and looks off screen, then she
turns to the background and exits through a door.
The camera tracks forward from a medium to a close shot of the
man still engrossed in his book.
The repeated tracking shots towards the man emphasizes that He
is unaware of the girl’s wish to speak to him.
607 1
Case 6
Forward tracking movements from two opposite reverse camera
positions can be edited in parallel (Fig. 28.10).
FIGURE 28.11 Overlapped earner* movement* for each player, laler edited in parallel
to pinpoint attention on the players.
The two last shots of the series (one for each player) conclude
the track by coming to a stop in front of the player and holding
on him.
Case 8
A further variant to two camera movements edited in parallel
(where each camera covers a single player) can be achieved by
introducing a reversal of direction at the end of the sequence.
Here is an example:
Shot 1 Camera tracks in swiftly to player A, slowing down as
it approaches, cut to
609
Shot 2 C am era tracks in a t the sam e speed as before tow ards
subject B, slowing dow n.
Shot 3 Close shot o f A. T he cam era pulls back swiftly and
slows dow n to a com plete stop in full shot.
T h is sudden change in direction o f the cam era m ovem ent provides
a fu rth er exam ple o f pu n ctu atio n with m oving cam era shots.
Case 9
T w o shots, in which the cam era m oves in opposed directions,
tow ards one player an d aw ay fro m a n o th e r,c a n be edited in p aral
lel. By this device one o f the players is de-em phasized while the
o th er is visually stressed. In this and all the previous cases, the
subjects rem ain static while the cam era does all the m oving.
Case 10
C am era m ovem ents com bined w ith m ovem ent w ithin the picture
can be used to stress a sudden unexpected accident o r disaster.
H ere is a n exam ple w here the visual pu n ctu atio n precedes the
catastrophe.
C am era tracks in, fast, tow ards a subject who looks surprised.
A second person w alks into shot, right.
C am era track s in, fast, tow ards a th ird person.
C am era track s back quickly from a group.
C am era track s quickly into a person. As the cam era nears him ,
he ducks under.
Several successive explosions sh atter the place.
Observe the co n trastin g direction o f m ovem ent from sh o t to shot.
These m otions are sh o rt and fast, while the pay off, the explosions
them selves, are longer.
The second exam ple concerns the reactions o f several players
to a sudden catastrophe.
A n explosion seen in long shot.
Close up o f a w o m a n ; she tu rn s h er head to the left.
Close up o f a m a n ; he tu rn s his head to the right.
Close up o f a m an ; he is rising into the screen, looking right.
Close u p o f a m an ; he approaches diagonally from rig h t to left.
The afterm ath o f the explosion seen in long shot.
H ere the p u n ctu atin g m ovem ents are perform ed by the players,
n o t by th e cam era. Sudden tu rn s are am o n g the m ost frequently
610
used hum an m ovem ents fo r visual p u n ctu atio n o f a situation.
Several successive close-up head tu rn s can stress the arrival o f a
ch aracter. These m ovem ents precede the arrival o f the m ain
ch aracter. T hey can b e overlapped o r repetitive. Fig. 28.12 shows
the tw o possibilities. t
All the m ovem ents are slow ones. W ith overlapped turns, the
three subjects tu rn a th ird o f a circle— m atched fro m sh o t to shot
fo r sm ooth tran sitio n as the characters change.
T he second possibility confines itself to a repetition o f m ovem ent
in the sam e screen area an d direction. Slow, co n trastin g tracks or
pans th a t cover static subjects can be used to o b tain an intim ate,
tense m ood, o r to enhance the prelim inaries o f a task being p re
p ared by th e p ro tagonists. Several film m akers have refined this
ap p ro ach , n o tab ly am ong them the British film m ak er J. Lee
T h o m p so n , who in Kings o f the Sun, R eturn fr o m the Ashes and
The E ye o f the Devil offers excellent exam ples o f the use o f this
technique.
Vertical punctuation
T here are situ atio n s in which the m ain action m oves in horizontal
p ath s and th erefo re a sudden developm ent will n o t have a clear
visual stress, unless a helping vertical m otion is introduced to
accentuate th a t sudden event. An exam ple taken from David
L ean ’s film The Bridge on the River Kwai clarifies this point. In the
b attle previous to the blow ing up o f the bridge, tw o central
charactcrs in the story arc killed: Joyce an d Shears. H ere are the
fragm ents.
S hot 105 FS o f N icholson and Joyce struggling beside the
cable th a t leads to the d e to n a to r.
Joyce: ‘Y ou d o n ’t u n d e rsta n d !’
T hey craw l tow ards the background. (2 seconds 20
fram es).
S h o t 106 M S o f Y ay an d Shears behind the fallen tree trurik.
Shears rises a n d shouts to the right oft' screen.
Shears: ‘Kill him ! Kill h im !’
H e holds a knife in his right hand. (3 seconds 22
fram es).
S h o t 107 T he sam e as shot 105. Joyce struggles tow ards the
d e to n a to r in the b ac k g ro u n d a n d is prevented from
611
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REPETITIVE
612
reaching it by Nicholson, who clings to Joyce’s legs.
(47 frames).
Shot 108 FS of Shears standing on the right, Yay crouched on
the left. Shears makes a decision and jumps forward
over the tree trunk and falls down to the left. (2
seconds 3 frames).
Shot 109 FS. The bridge in the background. In the left fore
ground Shears falls and starts to run to the right. The
camera pans with him and he wades into the river.
He exits right. In the background, four Japanese
soldiers descend on the opposite bank of the river,
close to the bridge. (4 seconds 7 frames).
Shot 110 MS of Shears swimming across the screen to the
right. The camera pans with him. He is shouting.
Shears: ‘Kill him!*
(3 seconds 23 frames).
Shot 111 MS of Nicholson and Joyce in foreground. They
crawl, struggling towards the right. In the back
ground two groups of Japanese soldiers areadvancing.
They fire. Joyce is hit and falls on his back rolling
towards the camera. (3 seconds 1 frame).
Shot 112 Close shot. A beautiful, young Thai girl descends,
looking to the right. (39 frames).
Shot 113 As in shot 111. Nicholson turns Joyce face up on the
ground and sees blood on the lad’s chest. Nicholson
turns his head to the background to look at the
Japanese soldier. (8 seconds 12 frames).
Observe how the crawling of Nicholson and Joyce and the running
and swimming of Shears are horizontal movements. The death of
Joyce would go unstressed except for that sudden shot (112) in
which a girl supposedly on the ridge that overlooks the river,
descends. This adds nothing to the story, except a strong vertical
movement after the sudden, unexpected event. Her action pin
points attention on Joyce’s death. This recourse is used again
when Shears is hit. Here is the fragment of the scene.
Shot 116 FS. Nicholson standing beside the fallen body of
Joyce. The Japanese soldiers in the background are
looking towards the centre of the river. They open
fire. Nicholson turns to the left to look at the river.
The camera pans to show Shears in LS swimming
towards us. (3 seconds 12 frames).
613
Shot 117 As in shot 110. MS of Shears swimming to the right.
(3 seconds 10 frames).
Shot 118 MS of Nicholson taken from a low angle. He looks
incredulous towards the left. Ho advances towards
the camera and stops in a close shot. (3 seconds 9
frames).
Shot 119 FS of Shears in the river. He stands and wades
towards us. Suddenly he is hit and falls. (4 seconds 4
frames).
Shot 120 Close shot. Another beautiful Tl;ii girl rises into the
screen and looks off screen right. (33 frames).
The vertical motion (upwards in this case) is brought into play
to direct attention on the action that preceded it. The recourse
described is simple, unobtrusive and effective when punctuation
is desired on a predominant horizontal action.
These examples use movement inside the screen but a strong
vertical camera motion can serve the same purpose. In the film just
quoted there are several such examples. When jungle birds are
startled into sudden flight by gun shots, they are shown crossing
the screen in flocks that move horizontally. But midway there is a
vertical camera pan showing the shadows of the birds crossing the
jungle foliage.
Frozen frame
With the frozen frame technique, time ceases to move physically
on the screen. Many films conclude with a sudden freeze of the
image on the screen, thus interrupting the flow of motion. Other
film makers use the effect to terminate a sequence: the image is
stopped and after a moment it fades out. In the middle of a se
quence, sometimes the end of a shot is frozen to centre attention
on a fact or a character. Zoom shots that move forwards have
been frozen at the end with remarkable effect.
A single shot can be momentarily frozen on any frame—one or
more times. Bob Fosse in Sweet Charity momentarily stops the
flow of motion to emphasize the reaction of a character, or uses it
several times during a musical number to break the exuberant
rhythm.
He also uses colour changes on the frozen film frame. The normal
or natural colour is changed by using coloured filters during
printing.
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In conclusion
The many aspects of film language discussed in the preceding
chapters do not, of course, in any sense exhaust the expressive
possibilities of film. But, beside the purely aesthetic aspects they
include an attempt to provide some sort of basic physical structure
to the interpretation of ideas and emotions in the cinema.
As with most art forms, so with the film, the best way to develop
and expand your technique is to study the masters of the medium.
The most obvious way would be to see as many of their films as
possible. But a most profitable way to examine a film is to run
through a copy on a viewer, analyzing the scenes that excite ypu,
and noting how they were put together. It is surely then that the
films or scenes that excite you will reveal their secrets and inspire
your future film making.
615
INDEX
619
Limb motion as link 240-1 to obtain opposed motions of a
Line of interest 27 single player 261
crossing on action scenes 289, 290, to record a player moving behind
292,311 the camera 368
crossing it in static dialogue scene to record a vertical motion 374
152, 154 to show a receding motion 301
Lola M o n tei 146 M ission Im possible 422
Long motions Montgomery, Robert 381
destination beyond static subject Motion, control of
255—6 by projected background 160
fast motion 259-40 change in direction 163
half-way re-establishingshot 253-4 crossing the line of movement
options for the centre camera site 160-9
251 human and camera motion 160
repetitive motion 249 implied motion 160
right angle - common axis 257-8 recomposed motion 160
sector repetition 252-3 the line of motion respe<*ed 161
suggesting a long distance 257-9 triangle principle applied 162
time contraction 258-9 Motion, inegular coverage
time saving 249 on a narrow area 293-5
using a common axis 254-5 use of a pause 289-91
using parallel positions 250-3 use of sector repetition 292
L ord o f the E ast 283 using opposed halves of screen
Lumet, Sidney 403 481, 538 295-99
Motion, types of
Martin, Dean 495-6 across die screen 233-40
Marvin, Lee 155 common visual axis 214-20
Masoch Club 7, 138 right angles 224-33
Master shots, to cover motions rising 198-229
across the screen 278 side to centre - centre to opposite
a second insert caps the action side 223
279-80 sitting and reclining 201-7
in a neutral direction 276-7 the three basic variations 246-8
several motions in parallel 283-4 through a door 241-6
using a pause in the middle 276-7 turning 189-96
using one insert 276-9 walking and running 208-14
using two inserts 279-81 Moulin R ouge 603
Matching the look 175 Moving to a final destination
Matching the movement 175 going beyond a staticsubject 274-5
Matching the position 175 using a common visual axis 268-73
McCarthy, Michael 497 using parallel sites 268-9
Milits, Georges 579 using reverse angles 266-9
Mifune, Toshiro 73, 147, 389-99 using right angles 263-7
Mirror, use of Moving together
on an edited in the camera shot both move in the same direction
452-3 322-4
repetitive motion in the same shot intermittent motion 339
272-3 moving towards each other 325-36
to include the excluded player 74 they move apart 336-9
620
N a k ed Runner, The 42 action in single shots 10-1
Nelson, Ralph 381 a story line itkept constant 11
new?reel 12-3 oomparatlv* behaviour t
New York 6-8 conditioned response I
Nichols, Mike 603 cross-cutting patterns 10
Nicholson 498, 611-4 delayed interaction 8
N orth b y N orthw est 320-1, 346-7 distance contrast 61
Number contrast immediate interaction 8
four players 116, 152-3 interaction close together 8
three players 80, 98, 103, 108 interaction far apart 8
two players 51-2, 58 interest, alternated centres 6
its limitations 10
master shots 149-50
Okamoto, Kihachi 73
Olivier,SirLaurence 60,465,468,606 only audience has all the facts 11
only charactershave allthe facts 11
Operation A m sterdam 497
reconstructed reality 14
Ophuls, Max 146
selection of peak moments 10
several story lines support each
Panning other 11
a pause used to bridge opposite two basic story line components
directions 405 8-9
camera moves ahead of the action, two different situations alternated
then halts 386 7
changing pictorial balance during two related situations alternated
the action 405-6 7-8
circular motion 401-3 use of the techniques avoided 6
conditions for a scanning pan 385 written languages, its origins 10
constant screen sector 387 Pasha 490-2
cutting on a foreground obstruc Paths o f Glory 425,480
tion 388 Peckinpah, Sam 501
discontinuous tilt motion 407-8 Petri, Elio 6
intermittent motion 400 Pivoting players
interrupted movement 419 background position 87-8
motion edited in parallel 387 foreground position 87-9, 133,
motivation and reaction in the 151,153
same shot 385-6 one in a group of three 87
opposite directions 417-20 on the centre of a crowd 131-2
panning and static shots for a on the rim of a crowd 131, 133
chase 389, 398-9 manipulated for time and space
panning and static shots, their 134
editing 411-4 passive attitude 90,131,133
repetitive pans 386-7 same screen area 87-9, 151-3
side tilts409,411 shifting screen area 89, 131, 134
swish pans 404-5 two in a group of four or more
tilts406-7 131,133, 151, 153
unusual camera motion 421-23 Polar shift 152,154
Papitlon 359 Preminger, Otto 538
Parallel film editing Pre-planning fluid shots 502
action in master shots 11 Professionals, The 155
621
Punctuation matching the look 20-22
by camera motion 605-11 matching the movement 20
by inaction 599 matching the position 19
by jump cuts 595-8 Schaflner, Franklin 359
by parallel editing 588 Screen spacc distribution
colour fades 579 by halves 39-40
dark areas 531 in thirds of screen 37-9
dark screen 603-6 minimal versus maximum screen
deceptive visual match 582-6 areas 10-1
dissolve 579-80 occult balance 109
fade in 579 off-centre 45
fade out 579 opposed screen areas 43-4
frozen frame 614-5 repetition of screen area 40, 42-3
identifying points of view 591-5 space gaps between players 69, 71
iris 590 vertical opposition 45
light change 591 Sea Was no M ore, The 595
object substitution 582 Seconds 596
pauses 599-601 Seven Samurai 501
question and answer 582 Shakespeare, William 468
related motions 582 Sharif, Omar 352
stressing out of focus 602-3 Sight an d Sound 5
stressing props 581 Sinatra, Frank 495-6
titles 581 sitting and reclining
to start scenes 591 converging on the centre 207
using a close up 587-8 irregular coverage 201-6
verbal repetition 582 Sleeping Car M urders, The 584
vertical 611-4 Solanas, Fernando 604-
white outs 579 Split screen 68
wipe 580 S p y in the Green H at, The 596
Stewart, James 481, 486, 602
Queen Gertrude 467-8 S traw berry Statem ent, The 423
sub-titles, use of 581
Raphael 479 Sweden 4
Rashomon 147 Sw eet C harity 614
Raucamp, Gerald J. 597 Sundays and Cybele 565
Ray, Satjavit 4
R ear Window 486, 601 Tashlin, Frank 583
Requiem fo r a H eavyweight 381 Tenth Victim, The 6, 138
Resnais, Alain 147, 167, 606 The Time o f the Ovens 604
Return from the A shei 611 The triangle principle
Reward, The 565 axis lines 46, 61, 87
Richard III (to common visual axis 36
Rising on a common axis 198, 200 external reverse angles 32
R ival World, The 604 internal reverse angles 33
Rope, The 502 its advantages 29-30, 36
oblique line of interest 65
San Francisco 600 parallel positions 33-4
Santa Teresa Fortress 284 right angle positions 35
Scene matching static players 29-30
622
the cardinal rule 29 foreground m otion dominates over
the line o f interest 27 background m otion 194
tw o triangular form ations 29-31 opposed fragments o f a continuous
use o f the apex position 37 (notion 195-6
vertical line o f interest 64-6 right angle 189-91
They D ied with their B oots On 493 visual group expansion and co n
T hom pson, J. Lee 611 traction 193
Tim e and space manipulation Tushingham , R ita 155
tw o places to a com m on spot 134,
221, 250, 257, 3 6 1 ,4 0 4 , 418 Unforgiven, The 407
one shot flash back 147 Uruguay 284
time com pression on action 342 U stinov, Peter 146
Tim e lapse photography 12
Varda, A gnes 579
T ohoscope 73
Ventura, Lino 598-9
T om asini, G eorge 497 Vera Cruz 403
Trailers, film 580 Vertical m otion
Travelling m atte process 58, 68, 354 blocking the screen 375
Travelling m otion by horizontal halves o f screen
avoiding obstructive foregrounds 375-7
424 com m on axis 370-1
both sides o f the track used 436 external reverse sites 372
circular m otion 46 5 -6 neutral direction becom es vertical
cut away to static sites 46 1 -4 372-3
intermittent camera m otion 434-5 right angle 371
intermittent subject m otion 42 4 -6 using a mirror reflection 374
opposite directions for camera and Vertigo 451
subject 447-55 Visual pauses
panning added 44 3 -6 picture established 152, 154, 155-6
plana! contrasts used 424 verbally established 155
point o f view stressed 458-61
qualities o f m otion 424 W alsh, R aoul 493
qualities o f tracking speed 45 6 -7 W alston, R ay 583
single files 4 5 5 -6 W ang, G eorge 6 (
sm ooth tracking preferred 424 W atergate Building 526
subject approaches tracking Where Eagles D are 588
camera 457 -5 9 W ild Bunch, The 501
subject stops in second static shot W ithout A pparent M otive 157
430-33 W orld War II 148
use o f pauses 424
winding paths 438-41 Y am ada, K azuo 73
Trintignant, Jean Louis 157 Y ates, Peter 600-1
Trip, The 588 You O nly L ive Twice 595
Trip to the M oon, A 579
Truffaut, Francois 596 Z ones, m oving by
Turning advantages 542
arc m otion 196-7 a subject m oving or static 551-3
com m on axis 189, 191 different editing patterns used
external reverse 189-90 543, 545
623
Zones, moving by (C ont.) opposed subject-zoom directions
group contraction 559 477
grotip expansion panning whilezooming 439,448-9,
its properties 543 479
making zone changes 555-63 player moves during zoom motion
motivating motion 542-3 476-7
on the re-establishing shot 543-5 qualities of zoom motion 475-6
subject moves, second stays 522-4 through foreground objects
visual group expansion $45-8 to simulate a tracking shot 477
zoom shots tracking while zooming
adding tiltmotion 479 used without lens motion 475
frozen zooms 482
624