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 EC8395 - COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Department : COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

Batch/Year : 2019-23 / II YEAR

Created by : Mrs.M.Aswini, Assistant Professor,

Electronics & Communication engineering
R.M.K.ENGINEERING COLLEG
&
Mrs. A.Iyswariya, Assistant Professor,
Electronics & Communication engineering
R.M.K.ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Date: 29.08.2020

4
 1. CONTENTS

Page
S.No INDEX
No.
1 Contents 5
2 Course Objectives 6
3 Pre-Requisites 7
4 Syllabus 8
5 Course outcomes 9
6 CO- PO/PSO Mapping 10
7 Lecture Plan 11
8 Activity based learning 12
9 Lecture Notes 13-52
10 Assignments 53

11 Part A Q & A 54-63

12 Part B Qs 64-65

13 Supportive online Certification courses 66

14 Real Time Applications in Day to Day Life and to Industry 67

15 Contents Beyond the Syllabus 68-71

16 Assessment Schedule 72

17 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 73

18 Mini Project suggestions 74

5
 2.COURSE OBJECTIVES

COURSE OBJECTIVES

To introduce the relevance of this course to the existing technology through

demonstrations, case studies, simulations, contributions of scientist, national or
international policies with a futuristic vision along with socio-economic impact and
issues

To study the various analog and digital modulation techniques

To study the principles behind information theory and coding

To study the various digital communication techniques

6
 3. PRE-REQUISITES

EC8395
COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
SEMESTER III

BE8255
MA8251 BASIC
ENGINEERING ELECTRICAL,ELECTRONICS
SEMESTER II
MATHEMATICS -II AND MEASUREMENT
ENGINEERING

MA8151
ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS
SEMESTER I

7
4. SYLLABUS

EC8395-COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING LTPC

3003

UNIT I ANALOG MODULATION 9

Amplitude Modulation – AM, DSBSC, SSBSC, VSB – PSD, modulators and demodulators – Angle
modulation – PM and FM – PSD, modulators and demodulators – Super heterodyne receivers

UNIT II PULSE MODULATION 9

Low pass sampling theorem – Quantization – PAM – Line coding – PCM, DPCM, DM, and ADPCM
And ADM, Channel Vocoder - Time Division Multiplexing, Frequency Division Multiplexing

UNIT III DIGITAL MODULATION AND TRANSMISSION 9

Phase shift keying – BPSK, DPSK, QPSK – Principles of M-ary signaling M-ary PSK & QAM –
Comparison, ISI – Pulse shaping – Duo binary encoding – Cosine filters – Eye pattern, equalizers

UNIT IV INFORMATION THEORY AND CODING 9

Measure of information – Entropy – Source coding theorem – Shannon–Fano coding, Huffman

Coding, LZ Coding – Channel capacity – Shannon-Hartley law – Shannon's limit – Error control
codes – Cyclic codes, Syndrome calculation – Convolution Coding, Sequential and Viterbi decoding

UNIT V SPREAD SPECTRUM AND MULTIPLE ACCESS 9

PN sequences – properties – m-sequence – DSSS – Processing gain, Jamming – FHSS

Synchronization and tracking – Multiple Access – FDMA, TDMA, CDMA,

TOTAL: 45 PERIODS

8
 5.COURSE OUTCOME

Course Description Level in

Bloom’s
Outcomes Taxonomy

Describe The Concepts Of Analog Modulation K2

C205.1 Systems.

C205.2 Illustrate Pulse Communication techniques K2

C205.3 Apply the concepts of Digital Modulation K3

systems.

C205.4 Solve Source Coding Techniques. K3

Explain the basic principles in the generation K2

C205.5 of spread spectrum signals.

C205.6 Explain the methods of multiple accesses in K2

communication systems.

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 6.COs & POs/PSO Mapping

Subject Course Level PROGRAM OUTCOMES(POs) PS PS PS

code & outcome of CO
O1 O2 O3
Name
K3 K3 K3
K K K K K3, A3 A2 A3 A3 A3 A3 A2
3 4 4 5 K5,
K6
P P P P P P P P P P P P
O O O O O O O O O O O O
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

C205.1 K2 2 - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 2
EC8395

C205.2 K2 2 - - - - - - - - 3 - - - 1 2

Commun C205.3 K3 3 - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 3
ication
Engineer
ing

C205.4 K3 3 - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 3

C205.5 K2 2 - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 2

C205.6 K2 2 - - - - 3 - - - 3 - 3 - 1 2

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 7.LECTURE PLAN

UNIT-III DIGITAL MODULATION AND

TRANSMISSION
Topic No, of Proposed Actual Pertain Taxonomy
S. Periods Date Lecture ing Level Mode of
No Period CO(s) Delivery
Period

Phase shift
1 K3 PPT
keying

BPSK, DPSK,
2 K3 PPT
QPSK

Principles of
M-ary,
3 K3 PPT
signaling,
M-ary PSK
QAM
4 K3 PPT
Comparison
ISI CO3
5 K3 PPT
Pulse
shaping Duo
6 K3 PPT
binary
encoding
Cosine
7 K3 PPT
filters

8 Eye pattern K3 PPT

Equalizers
9 K3 PPT

Signature of Staff In charge Signature of HOD Signature of Principal

11
 8. ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING

UNIT – 3
1. Entry & Exit Tickets Model
Entry & Exit tickets are short prompts it’s provide us with a quick student
diagnostic. These exercises can be collected on 3”x5” cards, small pieces of
paper, or online through a survey or course management system.
Entry tickets focus student attention on the day’s topic or ask students to recall
background knowledge relevant to the day’s lesson: e.g., “Based on the
readings for class today, what is your understanding of digital modulation?”
Exit tickets collect feedback on students’ understanding at the end of a class and
provide the students with an opportunity to reflect on what they have learned.
They can be helpful in prompting the student to begin to synthesize and
integrate the information gained during a class period. For example, a muddiest
point prompt: “What was the muddiest point in today’s class?” or “What
questions do you still have about today’s lecture?”.

2. Debate

Engaging in collaborative discourse and argumentation enhances student’s

conceptual understandings and refines their reasoning abilities.
Stage a debate exploiting an arguable divide in the day’s materials. Give teams
time to prepare, and then put them into argument with a team focused on
representing an opposing viewpoint.
Advantages include practice in using the language of the discipline and crafting
evidence-based reasoning in their arguments topic
Topic: which is suitable for secured communication? Digital or Analog
communications.

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 9.LECTURE NOTES

UNIT III DIGITAL MODULATION AND TRANSMISSION

Phase shift keying BPSK

DPSK

QPSK

Principles of M-ary signalling

M-ary PSK & QAM

Comparison

ISI – Pulse shaping

Duo binary encoding – Cosine filters

Eye pattern

Equalizers
3. INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
1.Digital modulation : Digital Modulation is defined as changing the amplitude of the carrier signal
with respect to the binary information or digital signal.

SOURCE CHANNEL
SOURCE MODULATOR
CODER CODER

CHANNEL

SOURCE CHANNEL
DESTINATION DEMODULATOR
DECODER DECODER

Figure 1. BLOCK DIGRAM OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

SOURCE:
Source gives the original information to the modulator circuit. It is a digital signal in digital modulation
process.

SOURCE CODER:
Source Coder compresses the data into minimum number of bits.the process helps in effective
utilization of bandwidth, it also minimizes the number of redundant bits.

CHANNEL CODER:
The channel Coder, does the coding for error correction. During the transmission of the signal, due to
the noise in the channel, the signal may get altered and hence to avoid this, the channel encoder adds
some redundant bits to the transmitted data. These are the error correcting bits.

MODULATOR:
The signal to be transmitted is modulated here by a carrier. The signal is also converted to analog from
the digital sequence, in order to make it travel through the channel or medium.

CHANNEL:
The channel or a medium, allows the analog signal to transmit from the transmitter end to the receiver
end.
DEMODULATOR:
This is the first step at the receiver end. The received signal is demodulated as well as
converted again from analog to digital. The signal gets reconstructed here.
CHANNEL DECODER:
The channel decoder, after detecting the sequence, does some error corrections. The distortions
which might occur during the transmission, are corrected by adding some redundant bits. This
addition of bits helps in the complete recovery of the original signal.
SOURCE DECODER:
The resultant signal is once again digitized by sampling and quantizing so that the pure digital
output is obtained without the loss of information. The source decoder recreates the source
output.
DESTINATION:
This is the output which is produced after the whole process. Example − The sound signal
received.
Important Terms in Digital Modulation :
BIT RATE (fb) :
Bit rate is the number of bits transmitted during one second between the transmitter and
receiver.
BAUD RATE:
Baud rate is the rate of change of signal on transmission medium after encoding and
modulation have occurred.

Bandwidth efficiency : Bandwidth efficiency is the ratio of the transmission bit rate to the
minimum bandwidth required for a particular modulation

Advantages of Digital communication

• The effect of distortion, noise, and interference is much less in digital signals as they are less
affected.
• Digital circuits are more reliable.
• Digital circuits are easy to design and cheaper than analog circuits.
• The hardware implementation in digital circuits, is more flexible than analog.
• The occurrence of cross-talk is very rare in digital communication.
Disadvantages of Digital communications
• It requires a larger channel bandwidth
• Digital communication needs synchronization in case of synchronous modulation.
 3.2 Phase-shift keying (PSK)

• Phase-shift keying (PSK) is another form of angle-modulated, constant-amplitude digital

modulation.
• PSK is an M-ary digital modulation scheme similar to conventional phase modulation except
with PSK the input is a binary digital signal and there are a limited number of output phases
possible.
• The input binary information is encoded into groups of bits before modulating the carrier.
• The number of bits in a group ranges from 1 to 12 or more.
• The number of output phases is defined by M as described in below Equation and determined
by the number of bits in the group (n).
2N = M
Binary Phase-shift keying (BPSK)
• The simplest form of PSK is binary phase-shift keying (BPSK), where N = 1 and M= 2.
Therefore, with BPSK, two phases (21 = 2) are possible for the carrier.
• One phase represents a logic 1, and the other phase represents a logic 0.
• As the input digital signal changes state (i.e., from a 1 to a 0 or from a 0 to a 1), the phase of
the output carrier shifts between two angles that are separated by 180°.
• Hence, other names for BPSK are phase reversal keying (PRK) and biphase modulation. BPSK
is a form of square-wave modulation of a continuous wave (CW) signal.
BPSK transmitter.
Figure2. shows a simplified block diagram of a BPSK transmitter.

Figure 2. BPSK Transmitter

 Balance Ring Modulator and its working (a) Balanced ring
modulator; (b) logic 1 input; (c) logic O input

Figure 3 (a) Balanced ring modulator

• Figure (3 a) shows the schematic diagram of a balanced ring modulator.

• The balanced modulator has two inputs: a carrier that is in phase with the reference oscillator and the
binary digital data.
• For the balanced modulator to operate properly, the digital input voltage must be much greater than the
peak carrier voltage.
• This ensures that the digital input controls the on/off state of diodes D1 to D4.

Figure 3(b) logic 1 input

• If the binary input is a logic 1 (positive voltage), diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased and on,
while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and off (Figure 3 b).
• With the polarities shown, the carrier voltage is developed across transformer T2 in phase with
the carrier voltage across T1.
• Consequently, the output signal is in phase with the reference oscillator.

Figure 3(c ) Logic 0 input

• If the binary input is a logic 0 (negative voltage), diodes D1 and D2 are reverse biased and off,
while diodes D3 and D4 are forward biased and on (Figure 3 c).
• As a result, the carrier voltage is developed across transformer T2 180° out of phase with the
carrier voltage across T1.
• Consequently, the output signal is 180° out of phase with the reference oscillator.

• Following the working od BPSK modulator, the output BPSK can be illustrated as follows,
• Truth table, phasor diagram, and constellation diagram for a BPSK modulator.
• A constellation diagram, which is sometimes called a signal state-space diagram, is similar to a
phasor diagram except that the entire phasor is not drawn.
• In a constellation diagram, only the relative positions of the peaks of the phasors are shown.
Truth table, phasor diagram, and constellation diagram for a BPSK
modulator.

Truth Table- BPSK

Binary Input Output Phase

0 180°

1 0°

Phasor Diagram-BPSK Constellation Diagram-BPSK

 Output phase and amplitude-versus-time relationship for
BPSK

ts

Figure 4. BPSK WAVEFORMS

• Figure 4. shows the output phase-versus-time relationship for a BPSK waveform. As the figure shows, a
logic 1 input produces an analog output signal with a 0° phase angle, and a logic 0 input produces an
analog output signal with a 180° phase angle.
• As the binary input shifts between a logic 1 and a logic 0 condition and vice versa, the phase of the BPSK
waveform shifts between 0° and 180°, respectively.
• For simplicity, only one cycle of the analog carrier is shown in each signaling element.
• It can also be seen that the time of one BPSK signaling element (ts) is equal to the time of one
information bit (tb), which indicates that the bit rate equals the baud.
Bandwidth considerations of BPSK
• A balanced modulator is a product modulator; the output signal is the product of the two input signals.
In a BPSK modulator, the carrier input signal is multiplied by the binary data.
• If 1 V is assigned to a logic 1 and -1 V is assigned to a logic 0, the input carrier (sinωct) is multiplied by
either a or 1.
• Consequently, the output signal is either +1 sinωct or - 1 sinωct; the first represents a signal that is in
phase with the reference oscillator, the latter a signal that is 180° out of phase with the reference
oscillator. Each time the input logic condition changes, the output phase changes.
• Consequently, for BPSK, the output rate of change (baud) is equal to the input rate of change (bps),
and the widest output bandwidth occurs when the input binary data are an alternating 1/0 sequence.
• The fundamental frequency ( fa) of an alternative 1/0 bit sequence is equal to one-half of the bit rate
( fb/2).
Mathematically, the output of a BPSK modulator is proportionalto
O/P of BPSK modulator = (sin2πfct) . (sin2πfat)
Since binary i/p’s are not fed to directly to BM ,they are level converted as electrical /voltage
signals and denoted as sine wave with frequency fa /cycle.
Upon , expansion
O/P of BPSK modulator/ BPSK output = ½ {cos2π(fc- fa) t - cos2π(fc + fa) t }

fH= upper cutoff frequency of modulated signal .

fL fH
fL = Lower cutoff frequency of modulated signal .
WKT, Bandwidth = f H - fL
so BW of BPSK O/P= (fc + fa) - (fc- fa) = 2 fa ,
writing “fa “ interms of “fb”
where fb  No. of bits/Bit period(tb)
∵ fa = fb/ 2
BW of BPSK = 2 fa = 2 (fb/ 2) = fb Hertz .
BPSK receiver:
Figure 5. shows the block diagram of a BPSK receiver.
The input signal may be sinωct or - sinωct.
The coherent carrier recovery circuit detects and regenerates a carrier signal that is both
frequency and phase coherent with the original transmit carrier.
The balanced modulator is a product detector; the output is the product of the two inputs (the
BPSK signal and the recovered carrier).
The low-pass filter (LPF) separates the recovered binary data from the complex demodulated
signal.
Mathematically, the demodulation process is as follows,
BPSK I/P to Demodulator circuit = + (sinωct) or - (sinωct)
Carrier I/P to Multiplier = (sinωct)
 CASE (i):
O/P of Multiplier
if BPSK i/p is sinωct = sin2ωct
= ( 1 - cos 2∏fct )/2
= [½] - [cos 2∏fct /2]
O/P of of LPF = ½ Volt.
O/P of Level Converter = Logic 1 (demodulated Message bit)
 CASE (ii):
O/P of Multiplier
if BPSK i/p is -sinωct = - (sin2ωct )
= - ( 1 - cos 2∏fct )/2
= -[½] + [cos 2∏fct /2]
O/P of of LPF = -½ Volt
O/P of Level Converter = Logic 0 (demodulated Message bit)
 3.3 DIFFERENTIAL PHASE-SHIFT KEYING (DPSK)
• Differential phase-shift keying (DPSK) is an alternative form of digital modulation where the
binary input information is contained in the difference between two successive signaling
elements rather than the absolute phase.
• With DPSK, it is not necessary to recover a phase-coherent carrier. Instead, a received signaling
element is delayed by one signaling element time slot and then compared with the next
received signaling element.
• The difference in the phase of the two signaling elements determines the logic condition of the
data.
Differential BPSK
DBPSK transmitter
Figure 6. shows a simplified block diagram of a differential binary phase-shift keying (DBPSK)
transmitter.

Figure 6.

An incoming information bit is XNOR ed with the preceding bit prior to entering the BPSK modulator
(balanced modulator). For the first data bit, there is no preceding bit with which to compare it.
Therefore, an initial reference bit is assumed.
Figure 7.shows the relationship between the input data, the XNOR output data, and the phase at the
output of the balancedmodulator.

Figure 7.
 If the initial reference bit is assumed a logic 1, the output from the XNOR circuit is simply the
complement of that shown.
In Figure , the first data bit is XNOR ed with the reference bit. If they are the same, the XNOR output
is a logic 1; if they are different, the XNOR output is a logic0.
The balanced modulator operates the same as a conventional BPSK modulator , a logic 1 produces
sinωct at the output and a logic 0 produces - sinωct at the output.

DBPSK receiver
Figure 8. shows the block diagram and timing sequence for a DBPSK receiver.

Figure 8.

• The received signal is delayed by one bit time, then compared with the next signaling element in the
balanced modulator. If they are the same, a logic 1 ( voltage) is generated.
• If they are different, a logic 0 ( voltage)is generated.
• If the reference phase is incorrectly assumed, only the first demodulated bit is in error.

Figure 8.
Timing sequence of DBPSK
 3.4 Quaternary Phase-Shift Keying
• Quaternary phase shift keying (QPSK), or quadrature PSK as it is sometimes called, is another form of
angle-modulated, constant-amplitude digital modulation.
• QPSK is an M-ary encoding scheme where N 2 and M 4 (hence, the name “quaternary” meaning “4”).
• Therefore, with QPSK, the binary input data are combined into groups of two bits, called dibits. In the
modulator, each dibit code generates one of the four possible output phases(45°, 135°,4 5 ° , &
135°).

QPSK transmitter:
• A block diagram of a QPSK modulator is shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9. QPSK Modulator

• Two bits (a dibit) are clocked into the bit splitter. After both bits have been serially inputted, they are
simultaneously parallel outputted.
• One bit is directed to the I channel and the other to the Q channel.
• TheIbitmodulatesacarrierthatisinphasewiththereference oscillator (hence the name “I” for “in phase”
channel), and the Q bit modulates a carrier that is 90° out of phase or in quadrature with the reference
carrier (hence the name “Q” for “quadrature”channel).
• It can be seen that once a dibit has been split into the I and Q channels, the operation is the same as in
a BPSK modulator.
• Essentially, a QPSK modulator is two BPSK modulators combinedin parallel.
• Again, for a logic 1 “+1 V” and a logic 0 “-1 V” , two phases
arepossibleattheoutputoftheIbalancedmodulator(sinωct and - sinωct),andtwo phases are possible at the
output of the Q balanced modulator (cosωct and - cosωct).
• When the linear summer combines the two quadrature (90° out of phase) signals, there are four
possible resultant phasors given by these expressions:
( - sin ωct - cos ωct ), ( - sinωct +cos ωct ), (+sin ωct -cos ωct) , and (+ sin ωct +cos ωct).
Let us analyse the QPSK modulator circuit for Dibit input Q=0 & I=0

If Binary message bits  I = 0 & Q=0;

O/P of carrier oscillator = Sin2∏fct
O/P of Inphase Balanced Modulator = - Sin2πfct
O/P of Quadrature phase Balanced Modulator = - Cos2 π fct
O/P of Linear Summer (QPSK output for “00”) = - Sin2πfct - Cos2πfct---------- ( 1)
output QPSK signal has no information about phase shift experienced by carrier(Sin2πfct) after
modulation in deg., Rewriting eqn 1 in suitable from .

×ly&÷ ( 1) by (√2) yeilds

√2

= - √2 (Sin2 π fct) - √2 ( Cos2 π fct)

√2 √2
O/P of Linear Summer= √2 { [ (- 1 ) (sin2πfct) ] - [ ( 1 ) (cos2πfct) ] }
√2 √2
=1.414 {[ (sin2πfct) (cos135ₒ) ] - [ (cos2πfct) (sin135ₒ) ]}

( since ,[SinACosB] - [cosAsinB] = Sin (A - B ) ;formula)

O/P of Linear Summer (QPSK output for “00”) = 1.414 { Sin(2 π fct - 135ₒ ) }, so the o/p

phase change is -135ₒ for binary i/p “00” .

Similarly ,for binary inputs 01  ∑ o/p (i.e.) QPSK O/P  (+ Sin2πfct - Cos2πfct )

On Simplification = 1.414 { Sin(2πfct - 45ₒ) },

 for binary inputs “10”  ∑ o/p (i.e.) QPSK O/P  (- Sin2πfct + Cos2πfct )

On Simplification = 1.414 {Sin(2πfct + 135ₒ ) },

 for binary inputs “11”  ∑ o/p (i.e.) QPSK O/P  (+ Sin2 π fct + Cos2πfct )

On Simplification = 1.414 { Sin(2πfct + 45ₒ ) },

Thus I/p and and corresponding O/P phasors can be represented pictorially using Truth table,
Phasor Diagram and Constellation Diagram.

TRUTH TABLE-QPSK
 Phasor Diagram and Constellation Diagram - QPSK
PHASOR DIAGRAM

CONSTELLATION DIAGRAM

• From Phasor and Constellation diagram, it can be seen that with QPSK each of the four possible output
phasors has exactly thesame amplitude.
• Therefore, the binary information must be encoded entirely in the phase of the output signal.
• This constant amplitude characteristic is the most important characteristic of PSK that distinguishes it
• from QAM,
• Also, from Phasor diagram, it can be seen that the angular separation between any two adjacent
phasors in QPSK is90°.
• Therefore, a QPSK signal can undergo almost a 45° or 45° shift in phase during transmission and still
retain the correct encoded information when demodulated at the receiver.
 Output phase-versus-time relationship - QPSK modulator.

Bandwidth considerations of QPSK:

• With QPSK, because the input data are divided into two channels, the bit rate in either the I or the Q
channel is equal to one-half of the input data rate (fb/2).(Essentially, the bit splitter stretches the I and Q
bits to twice their input bit length.)
• Consequently, the highest fundamental frequency present at the data input to the I or the Q balanced
modulator is equal to one-fourth of the input data rate (one-half of fb/2 = fb/4). As a result, the output of
the I and Q balanced modulators requires a minimum double-sided Nyquist bandwidth equal to one-half of
the incoming bit rate (fN = twice fb/4= fb/2).

• From above figure 10. it is observed that one cycle of the fastest binary transition (a 1/0 sequence)
in the I or Q channel takes the same time as four input data bits.
• Consequently, the highest
fundamentalfrequencyattheinputandfastestrateofchangeattheoutputofthebalancedmodulators is
equal to one-fourth of the binary input bitrate.
• The output of the balanced modulators can be expressed mathematicallyas
O/P of I-Channel QPSK modulator = (sin2πfct) . (sin2πfat)
Upon expansion ,O/P of QPSK modulator/QPSK output = ½ {cos2π(fc- fa) t - cos2π(fc + fa) t }
fH= upper cutoff frequency of modulated signal ; fL = Lower cutoff frequency of modulated signal
WKT, Bandwidth = f H - fL , so BW of QPSK O/P= (fc + fa) - (fc- fa) = 2 fa , where fa = 1 fb 2
Here in QPSK the frequency of the signal in I-Channel is half of fb
since message is dibit (QI) in nature,so one bit period has got two bits in it, bit frequency(fb) is
halved.)
∴ fa[QPSK] = (½ ).Half of fb= (𝟏 fb = fb
𝟐
) 𝟐 𝟒
and Bandwidth
(BW QPSK) = 2 f = 2 fb = fb Hertz.
a
𝟒 𝟐
 QPSK receiver
The block diagram of a QPSK receiver is shown in Figure 11.

• To illustrate the demodulation process, let the incoming QPSK signal be (-sinωct + cosωct) .
Mathematically, the demodulation process is as follows,
I-Channel Receiver
I/P to QPSK Detector = - Sin2πfct + Cos2πfct
In-Phase Carrier = Cos2πfct
O/P of I-Channel Mixer = (- Sin2πfct + Cos2πfct ) .(Cos2πfct)
= [+Cos22πfct] - [Cos2πfct . Sin2πfct ]
= (+½) + (+½) Cos4πfct ] - ( ½) sin2 π(fc +fc)t - ( ½) sin2π(fc - fc)t

sin0
filtered out by filtered out by LPF
LPF

O/P of I-Channel LPF = (+½) volts .

O/P of Bit Combiner = Binary 1 (detected Messge (Inphase) bit. )
Q-Channel Receiver
I/P to QPSK Detector = - Sin2πfct + Cos2πfct
Quadrature-Phase Carrier = Sin2πfct
O/P of Q-Channel Mixer = - (Sin22πfct) + (Sin2πfct Cos2πfct)
= -(½) + (½) Cos4πfct ] + ( ½) sin2π(fc +fc)t - ( ½) sin2π(fc - fc)t

sin0

O/P of Q-Channel LPF = (- ½) volts .

O/P of Bit Combiner = Binary “ 0 “ (detected Messge (Quadrature ) bit. )
The Inphase and Quadratur bits are combined by parallel to serial combiner circuit to give 2-bit
message “ Q= 0 ; I=1” (i.e.) 01.

Offset QPSK
Offset QPSK (OQPSK) is a modified form of QPSK where the bit waveforms on the I and Q channels
are offset or shifted in phase from each other by one- half of a bit time.
Below figure 12. shows a simplified block diagram,

Because changes in the I channel occur at the midpoints of the Q channel bits and vice versa, there
is never more than a single bit change in the dibit code and, therefore, there is never more than a
90° shift in the output phase.
In conventional QPSK, a change in the input dibit from 00 to 11 or 01 to 10 causes a
corresponding 180° shift in the output phase.
Therefore, an advantage of OQPSK is the limited phase shift that must be imparted during
modulation.
A disadvantage of OQPSK is that changes in the output phase occur at twice the data rate in either
the I or Q channels.
Consequently, with OQPSK the baud and minimum bandwidth are twice that of conventional QPSK for
a given transmission bit rate.
OQPSK is sometimes called OKQPSK (offset-keyed QPSK).
 3.5 8-PSK

• With 8-PSK, three bits are encoded, forming tribitsand producing eight different output phases.
• With8-PSK,n =3,M=8,andthereareeightpossibleoutputphases.
• Toencodeeight different phases, the incoming bits are encoded in groups of three, called
tribits(23 = 8).

8-PSK transmitter
A block diagram of an 8-PSK modulator is shown in Figure . 13.

• The incoming serial bit stream enters the bit splitter, where it is converted to a parallel,
three-channel output (the I or in-phase channel, the Q or in-quadrature channel, and the C
or control channel). Consequently, the bit rate in each of the three channels is fb /3.
• The bits in the I and C channels enter the I channel 2-to-4-level converter, and the bits in
the Q and C channels enter the Q channel 2-to-4-level converter.
• Essentially, the 2-to-4-level converters are parallel-input digital-to-analog converters
(DACs). With two input bits, four output voltages are possible.
• The algorithm for the DACs is quite simple. The I or Q bit determines the polarity of the
output analog signal (logic 1 V and logic 0 V), whereas the C or ∼ 𝐶 bit determines
themagnitude (logic 1= 1.307 V and logic 0 = 0.541 V).
• Consequently, with two magnitudes and two polarities, four different output conditions
arepossible.
• Figure 13. shows the truth table and corresponding output conditions for the 2-to-4-level
converters.

Fig 13. Q channel 2-to-4 LC

Fig.13 I channel 2-to-4 LC
• The output of a 2-to-4-level converter is an M-ary, pulse-amplitude-modulated (PAM) signal
where M =4.
Analysis:
For a tribit input of Q =0, 1= 0, and C= 0 (000), determining the output phase for the 8-PSK
modulator
o/p of I- Ch 2 -4 level converter = -0.541v
o/p of Q- Ch 2 -4 level converter = -1.307v
o/p of I- ch BM = -0.541sinωct
o/p of Q- ch BM = -1.307cosωct
o/p of Linear Summer[8-PSK O/P] = - 0.541sinωct -1.307cosωct ;
o/p of LS dosen’t reveal any Phase shift seen by 8-PSK Signal.
Upon rewriting the equation in suitable form
Multiply & Divide O/p of LS by (√2/ √ 2) ,
= √2/ √ 2) {- 0.541sinωct - 1.307cosωct }
= √ 2 { [-0.541 / √ 2] sinωct - [1.307 / √ 2] cosωct }
= 1.414 { - 0.382 sinωct - 0.924 cosωct }
= 1.414 { cos112.5ₒ sinωct - sin112.5ₒ cosωct }
= 1.414 {sinωct cos112.5ₒ - cosωct sin112.5ₒ }
o/p of LS =1.414 {sin (ωct -112.5ₒ ) } O/P of 8-PSK Modulator for TRIBIT  000
Similarly for Remaining Message bit combinations the 8-PSK O/P can be estimated using
Modulator circuit, and results can be constructed as Truth table.
Truth Table -8-PSK
TRIBIT 8-PSK 8-PSK O/P PHASOR 8-PSK LINEAR
I/P O/P SUMMER O/P
Q I B PHASE
000 -112.5ₒ 1.414 sin (ωct - 112.5ₒ ) - 0.541sinωct -1.307cosωct

001 -157.5ₒ 1.414sin (ωct - 157.5ₒ ) - 1.307sinωct -0.541cosωct

010 -67.5ₒ 1.414sin (ωct - 67.5ₒ ) - 0.541sinωct +1.307cosωct

011 -22.5ₒ 1.414sin (ωct - 22.5ₒ ) +1.307sinωct -0.541cosωct

100 112.5ₒ 1.414 sin (ωct + 112.5ₒ ) -0.541sinωct +1.307cosωct

101 157.5ₒ 1.414sin (ωct + 157.5ₒ ) -1.307sinωct +0.541cosωct

110 67.5ₒ 1.414sin (ωct + 67.5ₒ ) +0.541sinωct +1.307cosωct

111 22.5ₒ 1.414sin (ωct + 22.5ₒ ) +1.307sinωct + 0.541cosωct

 Figure 14. Phasor Diagram of 8-PSK

• From Figure 14., it can be seen that the angular separation between any two adjacent phasors is
45°, half what it is with QPSK.
• Therefore, an 8-PSK signal can undergo almost a 22.5° phase shift during transmission and still retain its
integrity.
• Also, each phasor is of equal magnitude; the tribit condition (actual information) is again contained only in
the phase of the signal.

Constellation diagram 8-PSK

• It should also be noted that in the Constellation Diagram tribit code between any two adjacent
phases changes by only one bit. This type of code is called the Gray code or, sometimes, the maximum
distance code.
 Bandwidth considerations of 8-PSK
• With 8-PSK, because the data are divided into three channels, the bit rate in the I, Q, or C
channel is equal to one-third of the binary input data rate (fb/3).
• (The bit splitter stretches the I, Q, and C bits to three times their input bit length.)

• Because the I, Q, and C bits are outputted simultaneously and in parallel, the 2-to-4-level
converters also see a change in their inputs (and consequently their outputs) at a rate equal to
fb/3.
O/P of I-Channel 8- PSK modulator = (sin2πfct) . (sin2πfat) ;
Since binary i/p’s are not fed to directly to BM ,they are level converted as electrical /voltage
signals and denoted as sine wave with frequency fa /cycle.
Upon , expansion
O/P of 8-PSK modulator/ 8-PSK output = [ ½ {cos 2π(fc- fa) t - cos 2π(fc + fa) t } ]

fH = upper cutoff frequency of modulated signal .

fL = Lower cutoff frequency of modulated signal .
WKT, Bandwidth = f H - fL
so BW of 8-PSK O/P = (fc + fa) - (fc- fa) = 2 fa , where fa = fb/2
Here in 8-PSK the frequency of the signal in I-Channel is (1/3) of fb; tribit is given to 3
parallel channels .
Therefore fa [8-PSK] = = (1/2 ).(fb/3) = fb/6
and Bandwidth (BW8-PSK) = 2 fa = 2(fb/6 ) = fb/3 hertz .

8-PSK Receiver:
• Figure 15. shows a block diagram of an 8-PSK receiver. The power splitter directs the input 8-
PSK signal to the I and Q product detectors and the carrier recoverycircuit.
• The carrier recovery circuit reproduces the original reference oscillator signal.
• The incoming 8-PSK signal is mixed with the recovered carrier in the I product detector and
with a quadrature carrier in the Q product detector.
• The outputs of the product detectors are 4-level PAM signals that are fed to the 4-to-2-level
analog-to-digital converters (ADCs).
 8-PSK receiver-Block connection

Figure 15. 8-PSK Receiver

The outputs from the I channel 4-to-2-level converter are the I and C bits, whereas the outputs from
the Q channel 4-to-2-level converter are the Q and C bits.

•The parallel-to-serial logic circuit converts the I/C and Q/C bit pairs to serial I, Q, and C output data
streams.
 3.6 QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (QAM)
Quadrature-amplitude modulation (QAM) is a form of digital modulation similar to PSK except the digital
information is contained in both the amplitude and the phase of the transmitted carrier. With QAM,
amplitude and phase-shift keying are combined in such a way that the positions of the signaling elements
on the constellation diagrams are optimized to achieve the greatest distance between elements, thus
reducing the likelihood of one element being misinterpreted as another element. Obviously, this reduces
the likelihood of errors occurring.
8-QAM
8-QAM is an M-ary encoding technique where M 8. Unlike 8-PSK, the output signal from an 8-QAM
modulator is not a constant-amplitude signal.
8-QAM transmitter.
Below Figure 16. shows the block diagram of an 8-QAM transmitter. As you can see, the only difference
between the 8-QAM transmitter and the 8- PSK transmitter is the omission of the inverter between the C
channel and the Q product modulator. As with 8-PSK, the incoming data are divided into groups of three
bits (tribits): the I, Q, and C bit streams, each with a bit rate equal to one-third of the incoming data rate.
Again, the I and Q bits determine the polarity of the PAM signal at the output of the 2-to-4-level
converters, and the C channel determines the magnitude. Because the C bit is fed uninverted to both the
I and the Q channel 2-to-4-level converters, the magnitudes of the I and Q PAM signals are always equal.
Their polarities depend on the logic condition of the I and Q bits and, therefore, may be different.

Figure 16. 8-QAM Transmitter

Above figure shows the truth table for the I and Q channel 2-to-4-level converters(b); they are
identical.
For a tribit input of =0, I =0, and C =0 (000),let us determine the output amplitude and phase
for the 8-QAM transmitter
The inputs to the I channel 2-to-4-level converter are I =0 and C= 0.
The output of I channel 2- to-4 level converter  - 0.541 V. (from truth table)
The inputs to the Q channel 2-to-4-level converter are Q= 0 and C= 0.
The output of Q channel 2- to-4 level converter  - 0.541 V.
Thus, the two inputs to the I channel product modulator are 0.541 and sin ωct.
The output is I (0.541)*(sin ωct) = - 0.541 sin ωct
The two inputs to the Q channel product modulator are 0.541 and cos ωct.
The output is Q (0.541)*(cos ωct) = - 0.541 cos ωct
The outputs from the I and Q channel product modulators are combined in the linear summer
Output of summer = - 0.541 sin ωct - 0.541 cos ωct
upon simplification;
√2
× ly &÷ Linear summer output by √2
.
√2
Output of summer = 2
[ - 0.541 sin ωct - 0.541 cos ωct ]
= 0.541√2 [ - sin ωct - cos ωct ]
√2
1 1
= 0.765 [ ( - √2 ) sinωct - (+ √2 )cos ωct ]
= 0.765 [cos 135° sinωct - (sin135° ) cos ωct ]
= 0.765 [sinωct cos135° - cos ωct sin135° ]
= 0.765 [sinωct *cos135° - cos ωct * sin135° ]

∴ Output of summer {8-QAM O/P for tribit message 000} = 0.765 [ sin ωct - 135°]

For the remaining tribit codes (001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, and 111), the procedure is the
same . The 8 phasors for all tribit codes are represented in the following Truth table, Figure 17
(a)

The Phasor digram and constellation diagram of 8-QAM transmitter is given in the figure 17 .(b)
and (c) respectively.
8-QAM modulator:; (b) phasor diagram; (c) constellation diagram

Figure 17.(a) truth

table Figure 17. (b) phasor
diagram

Figure 17. (c) constellation

diagram
Output phase and amplitude-versus-time relationship for 8-QAM
 8-QAM receiver.

• An 8-QAM receiver is almost identical to the 8-PSK receiver ,Refer Figure 15.
• The differences are the PAM levels at the output of the product detectors and the binary
signals at the output of the analog-to-digital converters.
• Because there are two transmit amplitudes possible with 8-QAM that are different from those
achievable with 8-PSK, the four demodulated PAM levels in 8-QAM are different from those in
8-PSK.
• Therefore, the conversion factor for the analog-to-digital converters must also be different.
• Also, with 8-QAM the binary output signals from the I channel analog- to-digital converter are
the I and C bits, and the binary output signals from the Q channel analog-to-digital converter
are the Q and C bits.

BANDWIDTH OF 8-QAM

O/P of I-Channel 8- QAM modulator = A (sin2πfct) . (sin2πfat) ; A = 0.541

Since binary i/p’s are not fed to directly to BM ,they are level converted as electrical
/voltage signals and denoted as sine wave with frequency fa /cycle.
Upon , expansion
O/P of 8-QAM modulator/ 8-QAM output = A[ ½ {cos 2π(fc- fa) t - cos 2π(fc + fa) t } ]

fH = upper cutoff frequency of modulated signal .

fL fH
fL = Lower cutoff frequency of modulated signal .
WKT, Bandwidth = f H - fL
so BW of 8-QAM O/P = (fc + fa) - (fc- fa) = 2 fa , where fa = fb/2
Here in 8-QAM the frequency of the signal in I-Channel is (1/3) of fb; tribit is given to
3 parallel channels .
Therefore fa [8-QAM] = = (1/2 ).(fb/3) = fb/6
and Bandwidth (BW8-QAM) = 2 fa = 2(fb/6 ) = fb/3 hertz .
 COMPARISION OF DIGITAL MODULATION TECHNIQUES

Parameter BPSK QPSK DPSK M-ARY PSK

Information is to be transmitted Phase Phase Phase Phase

by change in

Number of Bits per Symbol N=1 N=2 N=1 N

Number of possible symbols[M= Two Four Two [M= 2N]

2N]

Minimum Bandwidth fb 𝑓𝑏 fb 2𝑓𝑏

2 𝑁

Baud fb 𝑓𝑏 fb 𝑓𝑏
2 𝑁

Bandwidth Efficiency(η) 1 2 1 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐵𝑖𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 (𝑏𝑝𝑠)

Bη = 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐵𝑖𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 (𝑏𝑝𝑠) 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ(𝐻𝑧)
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ(𝐻𝑧)

Detection Method Coherent Coherent Coherent Coherent method of Detection

Method of method of method of
Detection Detection Detection
 3.7 Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)

INTER SYMBOL INTERFERENCE

In communication, intersymbol interference (ISI) is a form of distortion of a signal in
which

one symbol interferes with subsequent symbols.

This is an unwanted phenomenon as the previous symbols have similar effect as noise,
thus making the communication less reliable.
The spreading of the pulse beyond its allotted time interval causes it to interfere with
neighboring pulses.
The presence of ISI in the system introduces errors in the decision device at the receiver
output.
Therefore, in the design of the transmitting and receiving filters, the objective is to minimize the
effects of ISI, and thereby deliver the digital data to its destination with the smallest error rate
possible.

The four primary causes of ISI are as follows:

1.Timing inaccuracies.

 In digital transmission systems, transmitter timing inaccuracies cause intersymbol

interference if the rate of transmission does not conform to the ringing frequency designed
into the communications channel.
 Generally, timing inaccuracies of this type areinsignificant.
2.Insufficient bandwidth.
 Timing errors are less likely to occur if the transmission rate is well below the channel
bandwidth (i.e., the Nyquist bandwidth is significantly below the channel bandwidth).
 As the bandwidth of a communications channel is reduced, the ringing frequency is reduced,
and intersymbol interference is more likely to occur.
3.Amplitude
 distortion.
Filters are placed in a communications channel to bandlimit signals and reduce or
eliminate predicted noise andinterference.
 When the frequency characteristics of a communications channel depart from the normal or
expected values, pulse distortion results.
 Pulse distortion occurs when the peaks of pulses are reduced, causing improper ringing
frequencies in the time domain.
 Compensation for such impairments is called amplitude equalization.
4.Phase distortion.
 Phase distortion occurs when frequency components undergo different amounts of time delay
while propagating through the transmission medium.
 Special delay equalizers are placed in the transmission path to compensate for the varying
delays, thus reducing the phase distortion.
 Phase equalizers can be manually adjusted or designed to automatically adjust themselves to
varying transmission characteristics.
Figure 18. (a) shows the input signal to an ideal minimum bandwidth, low-pass filter.

Figure 18. ISI Illustration

• The input signal is a random, binary nonreturn-to-zero (NRZ) sequence.
• Figure 18.(b) shows the output of a low-pass filter that does not introduce any phase or
amplitude distortion.
• Note that the output signal reaches its full value for each transmitted pulse at precisely the
center of each sampling interval.
• However, if the low-pass filter is imperfect (which in reality it will be), the output response
will more closely resemble that shown in Figure 18. (c) .
• At the sampling instants (i.e., the center of the pulses), the signal does not always attain the
maximum value.
• The ringing tails of several pulses have overlapped, thus interfering with the major pulse
lobe.
• Assuming no time delays through the system, energy in the form of spurious responses
from the third and fourth impulses from one pulse appears during the sampling instant (T=
0) of another pulse.
• This interference is commonly called intersymbol interference, or simplyISI.
• ISI causes crosstalk between channels that occupy adjacent time slots in a time-division-
multiplexed carrier system.
• Special filters called equalizers are inserted in the transmission path to “equalize” the
distortion for all frequencies, creating a uniform transmission medium and reducing
transmission impairments.
DUO- BINARY ENCODING
• Duo-binary encoding is also called as correlative level coding/signalling which adds Inter
symbol Interference (ISI) to the transmitted signal in a controlled manner.
• By doing so it is possible to achieve a signalling rate of 2W symbols per second in a
channel of bandwidth W Hertz.
• “Duo” means doubling the transmission capacity of a straight binary system.
Duo- binary encoder:
• Consider a binary sequence {bk} consisting of uncorrelated binary symbols 1 and 0 with duration Tb .
•The sequence is applied to PAM (Pulse Amplitude Modulator) producing two level sequence of short
pulses.
ak = +1 if symbol bk is 1
-1 if symbol b k is 0

• The duo binary encoder converts the 2 level binary sequence a k into 3 level output namely , -2, 0 ,+2
• This transformation is achieved by the equation
ck = a k+ a k-1, which can be implemented using the duo-binary encoder circuit, shown previously
in Figure. 19

Detection of duo- binary signals : [DECODING]

Decoder circuit is shown in Figure 20.

Figure. 20 Decoder

+
ck ∑ 𝑎ෝ
k
-
delay (tb)

In order to recover the bits in its original order the operation done at the modulator is reversed using the
following detector rule as follows.
𝒂ෝ k= ck - 𝒂 ෝ
Example of duo-binary coding and decoding k-1
Consider the binary sequence bk = 001011
finding the coded sequence ck and decoded sequence 𝑎ෝ k assuming the first bit as reference bit
,
Reference bit

bk  0 0 1 0 1 1 0

ak  -1 -1 1 -1 1 1 -1
Ck  0
-2 0 0 0 2

𝑎ෝ + 𝑎ෝ +
ෝ 𝒂k k- -1 k-
-1 +1 +1 -1
=-
11 =-1
11


෢𝒃k  0 1 0 1 1 0
 Duo-binary encoder with precoding

Drawbacks of duo-binaryencoding:
• Error Propagation occurs (i.e.) if one bit in the received information is errored ,error propagates to the
other bits also known as error propagation, resulting in multi-bit errors.
• Error propagation can be solved by using pre-coding .
Figure 21. Duo-binary encoder with precoding

• In precoding the binary sequence {bk} is converted into another binary sequence {dk} according to
dk = bk⊕ dk-1

the coded sequence ck produced with precoding consist of three levels as given by
c k= a k+ a k-1

ck = 0 if data symbol is 1
±2 if data symbol is 0
Detection - duo binary precoder Figure 22.
• Decoder circuit is a simple rectifier followed by decision device (Comparator) as shown in Figure. 22
• the decision device finds detects the signal based on the following detection rule

if ck < 1 ; symbol bk = 1
ck > 1 ; symbol bk =0

Let us see an example of duo- binary coding with precoding.

Binary Sequence { bk } 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
Precoded sequence {dk} 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
Two- level sequence {ak} +1 +1 +1 -1 -1 +1 -1 -1
Duo-binary coder o/p {ck} +2 +2 0 -2 0 0 -2
Binary sequence obtained
By applying decision rule 0 0 1 0 1 1 0

Figure 23. Modified duo-binary encoder

with precoder

LPF

• Thus duo-binary encoding and decoding is studied.

 Eye Pattern
Why Eye Pattern?
The performance of a digital transmission system depends, in part, on the ability of a repeater to regenerate
the original pulses. Similarly, the quality of the regeneration process depends on the decision circuit within the
repeater and the quality of the signal at the input to the decision circuit. Therefore, the performance of a
digital transmission system can be measured by displaying the received signal on an oscilloscope. Such a
display is called an eye pattern or eye diagram.
Eye pattern:
An eye pattern is a convenient technique/display method for determining the effects of the degradations
introduced into the pulses as they travel to the regenerator at channel in digital communication process.
Figure 24. Test setup to display an eye pattern

The received pulse stream is fed to the vertical input of the oscilloscope, and the symbol clock is fed to the
external trigger input, while the sweep rate is set approximately equal to the symbol rate.
Figure 20. shows an eye pattern generated by a symmetrical waveform for ternary signals in which the
individual pulses at the input to the regenerator have a cosine-squared shape.

Figure 25. Eye digram

• Inanm-levelsystem,therewillbem1separateeyes.
• Theverticallineslabeled1, 0, and 1 correspond to the ideal received amplitudes.
• The horizontal lines, separated by the signaling interval, T, correspond to the ideal decision times. The
decision levels for the regenerator are represented by crosshairs.
• The vertical hairs represent the decision time, whereas the horizontal hairs represent the decision level
• Theeye-opening (theareainthemiddleoftheeyepattern)is a function of the number of code levels and the
intersymbol interference caused bytheringingtailsofanyprecedingorsucceedingpulses.
• Toregeneratethepulsesequence without error, the eye must be open (i.e., a decision area must exist),
and the decision crosshairsmustbewithintheopenarea.
• Theeffectofpulsedegradationisareductioninthe size of the ideal eye. In Figure , it can be seen that at the
center of the eye (i.e., the
samplinginstant)theopeningisabout90%,indicatingonlyminorISIdegradationduetofilteringimperfections.
• ThesmalldegradationisduetothenonidealNyquistamplitudeandphase characteristics of the transmission
system.
Mathematically, the ISI degradationis

ISI = 20 log𝐻ℎ , Where,

H ideal vertical opening(cm)
h degraded vertical opening(cm)
For the eye diagram shown in Figure,
90
20 log100 = 0.915 dB (ISI degradation)

JITTER :
• From Eye Diagram itcanalsobeseenthattheoverlappingsignalpatterndoesnotcrossthehorizontal zero line at
exact integer multiples of the symbol clock. This is an impairment known as data transition jitter.
• This jitter has an effect on the symbol timing (clock) recovery circuit
and,ifexcessive,maysignificantlydegradetheperformanceofcascadedregenerativesections.
 EQUALIZERS
• Equalization is commonly used strategy for resisting Inter Symbol Interference.
• An Equalizer within a receiver compensates for the average range of expected channel
amplitude and delay characteristics.
• equalizers must be adaptive as the channel is generally unknown and time varying.
• ‰ISI has been recognized as the major obstacle to high speed data transmission over mobile
radio channels.
• Equalizers are used to overcome the negative effects of the channel. In general, equalization
is partitioned into two broad categories;
1. Maximum likelihood sequence estimation (MLSE) which entails making
measurement of channel impulse response and then providing a means for adjusting the
receiver to the transmission environment. (Example: Viterbi equalization)

2. Equalization with filters, uses filters to compensate the distorted pulses.

Depending on the time nature

These type of equalizers can be grouped as preset or adaptive equalizers.

Preset equalizers assume that the channel is time invariant and try to find H(f) and design
equalizer depending on H(f).
The examples of these Adaptive equalizers are
 zero forcing equalizer,
 minimum mean square error equalizer, and
 desicion feedback equalizer.

Adaptive equalizers assume channel is time varying channel and try to design equalizer filter
whose filter coefficients are varying in time according to the change of channel, and try to
eliminate ISI and additive noise at each time.
The implicit assumption of adaptive equalizers is that the channel is varying slowly.
 Figure 26. Block Diagram of
Adaptive Equalizer

Operating modes of adaptive equalizer

1) Training mode
2) Tracking Mode

Training mode :
Initially, a known, fixed length training sequence is sent by the transmitter so that the receiver’s
equalizer may average to a proper setting. The training sequence is a pseudo random signal or a
fixed, prescribed bit pattern. Immediately following the training sequence, the user data is sent.

Tracking mode :
When the data of the users are received, the adaptive algorithm of the equalizer tracks the changing
channel. As a result of this, the adaptive equalizer continuously changes the filter characteristics over
time. Equalizers are widely used in TDMA Systems.
Quiz link:

Quiz on Phase shift Keying Techniques

https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/5b40c73c42acae0019aa2a56/comm002-midterm

Video link:
Video link illustrating the basics of digital modulation techniques

https://youtu.be/C8eebS5MhuU

Video link on Eye Diagram

https://youtu.be/tZiKRfH2yZ4

PPT Link for Unit 3

https://www.slideshare.net/RemyaRoseS/unit-3-ppt-238320499

Equalization Techniques

https://www.slideshare.net/OladapoKayode1/adaptive-equalization-109433468?from_action=save

E-book link:
1.“Principles of Communication Systems” H Taub, D L Schilling, G Saha, 3/e, TMH 2007. For Unit 3

https://archive.org/details/PrinciplesOfCommunicationSystemsByTaubAndSchilling/page/n9/mode/2up
 10. ASSIGNMENTS

UNIT 3

1.A Digital Terrestrial television using DVB is intended to produce

16 different output signals with improved efficiency. Design a
transmitter and receiver for the same.

2.An Optical fiber communication system needs to improve its bit

rate. It is having the limitations on noise level and channel linearity.
Suggest a modulation scheme to meet the requirements and justify
it.

3.Give some real time applications in digital world.

43
 11. UNIT- III PART A

S. PART- A K CO
NO Level Level
1 State the necessity of equalizers and types of K1 C205.3
equalizer.

The equalizer is a device that attempts to reverse the

distortion incurred by a signal transmitted through a channel.
In digital equalizer is used to reduce inter symbol
interference and to allow recovery of the transmit symbols.
The most commonly used equalizers are
 Linear equalizer
 Zero forcing equalizer
 Adaptive equalizer
 Viterbi equalizer
2 What is Duobinary encoding? Why precoding is used? K1 C205.3
DUOBINARY ENCODING
Duobinary data encoding is a form of correlative coding in
partial response signaling. The modulator drive signal can be
produced by adding one-bit-delayed data to the present data
bit to give levels 0, 1, and 2. An identical effect can be
achieved by applying a low-pass filter to the ideal binary data
signal.
NEED OF PRECODER:
A precoder is added to eliminate error propagation in receiver
3 Explain the term ISI. How do you alleviate ISI K1 C205.3

ISI
Intersymbol interference (ISI) is a form of distortion of a
signal in which one symbol interferes with subsequent
symbols.
This is an unwanted phenomenon as the previous symbols
have similar effect as noise, thus making the communication
less reliable.
ISI is usually caused by multipath propagation or the
inherent linear or non-linear frequency response of a
communication channel causing successive symbols to "blur"
together.

By using adaptive equalization and error control codes ISI

effects can be reduced
4 State the advantages of digital communication K1 C205.3

 The effect of distortion, noise, and interference is much

less in digital signals as they are less affected.
 Digital circuits are more reliable.
 Digital circuits are easy to design and cheaper than analog
circuits.
 The hardware implementation in digital circuits, is more
flexible than analog.
 The occurrence of cross-talk is very rare in digital
communication.

5 State the disadvantages of digital communication. K1 C205.3

 It requires a larger channel bandwidth

 Digital communication needs synchronization in case of
synchronous modulation.

6 Draw the BPSK signal for binary input K2 C205.3

11000011010010.
7 Draw the constellation diagram of QPSK Signal. K1 C205.3

8 Draw the modulated waveform representing FSK K2 C205.3

signal
9 What are eye patterns? K1 C205.3

Eye pattern

In telecommunication, an eye pattern, also known as an eye

diagram, is an oscilloscope display in which a digital signal
from a receiver is repetitively sampled and applied to the
vertical input, while the data rate is used to trigger the
horizontal sweep.

It is a tool for the evaluation of the combined effects of

channel noise and intersymbol interference on the
performance of a baseband pulse-transmission system. It is
the synchronized superposition of all possible realizations of
the signal of interest viewed within a particular signaling
interval.

10 Draw the Eye pattern. K1 C205.3

11 Develop the Nyquist criterion for zero ISI. K2 C205.3
Nyquist proposed a condition for pulses p(t) to have zero–ISI
when transmitted through a channel with sufficient
bandwidth to allow the spectrum of all the transmitted signal
to pass. Nyquist proposed that a zero–ISI pulse p(t) must
satisfy the condition

P (t) = ቊ 𝟏 𝒕= 𝟎
𝟎 𝒕 = ±𝑻𝒃, ±𝟐𝑻𝒃 … ..

12 Write any two applications of eye patterns. K2 C205.3

 To determine the interval over which the received wave

can be sampled without error due to ISI.
 To determine the sensitivity of the system to timing error.
13 Analyze the cause for ISI K2 C205.3

 ISI is usually caused by multipath propagation or the

inherent linear or non-linear frequency response of a
communication channel causing successive symbols to
"blur" together.
 The presence of ISI in the system introduces errors in the
decision device at the receiver output.
 Produce the Truth Table and Constellation diagram for
14 K2 C205.3
BPSK modulation.

TRUTH TABLE

Binary input Output phase

0 180°

CO N 1 DIAGRAM
STELLATION 0°

15 Draw the QPSK Signal for binary input 01010101 K2 C205.3

16 Illustrate the truth table for QPSK K2 C205.3

Binary input QPSK QPSK Output Phasor

Output
Q I Phase

0 0 -135ₒ 1.414 Sin(2πfct - 135ₒ )

0 1 -45ₒ 1.414 Sin(2πfct - 45ₒ )

1 0 135ₒ 1.414 Sin(2πfct + 135ₒ )

1 1 45ₒ 1.414 Sin(2πfct + 45ₒ )

17 Define bit rate and baud rate. Specify their units K1 C205.3

BIT RATE (fb) :

Bit rate is the number of bits transmitted during one second
between the transmitter and receiver. It is expressed as
bits/sec
BAUD RATE:
Baud rate is the rate of change of signal on transmission
medium after encoding and modulation have occurred. Baud
rate is also expressed as bits/ sec.

18 Define Bandwidth Efficiency. K1 C205.3

Bandwidth efficiency is the ratio of the transmission bit rate

to the minimum bandwidth required for a particular
modulation.
19 How Noise immunity can be improved using QAM? K2 C205.3
 Quadrature-amplitude modulation (QAM) is a form of
digital modulation similar to PSK except the digital
information is contained in both the amplitude and the
phase of the transmitted carrier.

 With QAM, amplitude and phase-shift keying are

combined in such a way that the positions of the
signaling elements on the constellation diagrams are
optimized to achieve the greatest distance between
elements, thus reducing the likelihood of one element
being misinterpreted as another element.

 This reduces the likelihood of errors occurring.

20 State the principle for QPSK K1 C205.3

 QPSK(Quaternary phase shift keying) is an M-ary

encoding scheme where N=2 and M=4.
 With QPSK, four output phases are possible for a single
carrier frequency.
 To produce four different input combinations, the
modulator requires more than a single input bit to
determine the output condition.
 Therefore, with QPSK, the binary input data are
combined into groups of two bits, called dibits. In the
modulator, each dibit code generates one of the four
possible output phases(45°, 135°, 45°&135°).

21 State the principle of BPSK. K1 C205.3

 The simplest form of PSK is binary phase-shift keying

(BPSK), where N = 1 and M= 2. Therefore, with BPSK,
two phases (21 = 2) are possible for the carrier.
 One phase represents a logic 1, and the other phase
represents a logic 0.
 As the input digital signal changes state (i.e., from a 1
to a 0 or from a 0 to a 1), the phase of the output
carrier shifts between two angles that are separated by
180°.
22 Draw the block diagram of 8-QAM transmitter. K1 C205.3

23 What is raised Cosine Filter? K2 C205.3

In signal processing, a root-raised-cosine filter (RRC),
sometimes known as square-root-raised-cosine filter (SRRC),
is frequently used as the transmit and receive filter in a
digital communication system to perform matched filtering.
This helps in minimizing intersymbol interference (ISI). The
combined response of two such filters is that of the raised-
cosine filter.
24 Draw the block diagram of Digital Modulation systems. K1 C205.3
 12. PART- B (UNIT- 3)

S.NO QUESTIONS K CO
Level Level
1 Explain PSK system with the help of transmitter and receiver, and K2 C205.3
state its advantages and disadvantages over other system.

2 Derive the expression for spectrum of PSK system and hence K3 C205.3
calculate its bandwidth

3 Explain the generation and detection of a coherent binary PSK K2 C205.3

signal and derive the power spectral density and plot it. .

4 With the help of block diagram, waveforms and expression K3 C205.3

explain the operation of DPSK transmitter and receiver.

5 Explain the steps involved in non - coherent DPSK receiver K2 C205.3

6 With neat diagram explain in detail transmitter section of 8-QAM K3 C205.3

along with truth table, phasor diagram and constellation
diagram.
7 (i) Explain how eye pattern is used to study the performance of a K2 C205.3
data transmission system (5)
(ii)Explain the adaptive equalizer with neat diagram (8)

8 a) Explain adaptive equalization for data transmission K2 C205.3

9 Draw the block diagram of an adaptive equalizer and explain its K3 C205.3
two different modes of operation.

10 Draw the BPSK, QPSK, DPSK waveform of bit sequence K3 C205.3

110101001. (8)
Compare all PSK techniques

11 With the help of block diagram, waveforms and expression K2 C205.3

explain the operation of QPSK transmitter and receiver

113
 12. PART- B (UNIT- 3)

S.NO QUESTIONS K CO
level Level
12 Discuss the principle of operation BPSK transmitter and BPSK K3 C205.3
receiver detail

13 Explain in detail the working of 8-PSK. Draw the phasor diagram, K2 C205.3
constellation diagram and truth table for the same

14 Explain ISI in detail and explain with any two methods to control K2 C205.3

15 With neat diagram, explain in detail the working operation of k3 C205.3

Duo binary encoding with precoder techniques

113
 13.Supportive online Certification courses (NPTEL, Swayam,
Coursera, Udemy, etc.,)

UNIT 3

NPTEL
Modern Digital Communication techniques

https://nptel.ac.in/courses/117/105/117105144/

UDEMY
Digital Communication
https://www.udemy.com/course/digital_communications/

49
14.Real time application in day to day life and to industry

How mobile phone works ?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1JZG9x_VOwA

How does satellite television works?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OpkatIqkLO8
 15.Contents beyond the Syllabus
( COE related Value added courses) – UNIT 3

5G Network:

In telecommunications , 5G is the fifth generation technology standard for cellular

networks, which cellular phone companies began deploying worldwide in 2019, the
planned successor to the 4G networks which provide connectivity to most current
cellphones. Like its predecessors, 5G networks are cellular networks, in which the
service area is divided into small geographical areas called cells.

All 5G wireless devices in a cell are connected to the Internet and telephone
network by radio waves through a local antenna in the cell.

The main advantage of the new networks is that they will have greater bandwidth,
giving higher download speeds, eventually up to 10 gigabits per second (Gbit/s).

Due to the increased bandwidth, it is expected that the new networks will not just
serve cellphones like existing cellular networks, but also be used as general
internet service providers for laptops and desktop computers, competing with
existing ISPs such as cable internet, and also will make possible new applications in
internet of things (IoT) and machine to machine areas.

Current 4G cellphones will not be able to use the new networks, which will require
new 5G enabled wireless devices.

The increased speed is achieved partly by using higher-frequency radio waves than
current cellular networks. However, higher-frequency radio waves have a shorter
range than the frequencies used by previous cell phone towers, requiring smaller
cells. So to ensure wide service, 5G networks operate on up to three frequency
bands, low, medium, and high.
A 5G network will be composed of networks of up to 3 different types of cells, each requiring
different antennas, each type giving a different tradeoff of download speed vs. distance and
service area.

5G cellphones and wireless devices will connect to the network through the highest speed
antenna within range at their location

Low-band 5G uses a similar frequency range to current 4G cellphones, 600-700 MHz, giving
download speeds a little higher than 4G: 30-250 megabits per second (Mbit/s). Low- band
cell towers will have a similar range and coverage area to current 4G towers.

Mid-band 5G uses microwaves of 2.5-3.7 GHz, currently allowing speeds of 100-900 Mbit/s,
with each cell tower providing service up to several miles in radius. This level of service is
the most widely deployed, and should be available in most metropolitan areas in 2020. Some
countries are not implementing low-band, making this the minimum service level.

High-band 5G currently uses frequencies of 25-39 GHz, near the bottom of the millimeter
wave band, altfuture. It often achieves download speeds of a gigabit per second (Gbit/s),
comparable to cable internet. However, millimeter waves (mmWave or mmW) have a more
limited range, requiring many small cells. They have trouble passing through some types of
walls and windows.

Due to their higher costs, current plans are to deploy these cells only in dense urban
environments and areas where crowds of people congregate such as sports stadiums and
convention centers. The above speeds are those achieved in actual tests in 2020, and speeds
are expected to increase during rollout.
 Massive MIMO (multiple input and multiple output) anennas increases sector throughput
and capacity density using large numbers of antennas and Multi-user (MU-MIMO). Each
antenna is individually-controlled and may embed radio transceiver components. Nokia
claimed a five-fold increase in the capacity increase for a 64-Tx/64-Rx antenna system. The
term "massive MIMO" was coined by Nokia Bell Labs researcher Dr. Thomas L. Marzetta in
2010, and has been launched in 4G networks, such as Softbank in Japan.

Edge computing is delivered by computing servers closer to the ultimate user. It reduces
latency and data traffic congestion.

Small cells are low-powered cellular radio access nodes that operate in licensed and
unlicensed spectrum that have a range of 10 meters to a few kilometers. Small cells are
critical to 5G networks, as 5G's radio waves can't travel long distances, because of 5G's
higher frequencies

Application areas
The ITU-R has defined three main application areas for the enhanced capabilities of 5G.
They are Enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB), Ultra Reliable Low Latency Communications
(URLLC), and Massive Machine Type Communications (mMTC).Only eMBB is deployed in
2020; URLLC and mMTC are several years away in most locations.

Enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB) uses 5G as a progression from 4G LTE mobile

broadband services, with faster connections, higher throughput, and more capacity.
Ultra-Reliable Low-Latency Communications (URLLC) refer to using the network for mission
critical applications that require uninterrupted and robust data exchange.

Massive Machine-Type Communications (mMTC) would be used to connect to a large number

of device, 5G technology will connect some of the 50 billion connected IoT devices.Most will
use the less expensive Wi-Fi.

Drones, transmitting via 4G or 5G, will aid in disaster recovery efforts, providing real-time
data for emergency responders.Most cars will have a 4G or 5G cellular connection for many
services.

Autonomous cars do not require 5G, as they have to be able to operate where they do not
have a network connection.While remote surgeries have been performed over 5G, most
remote surgery will be performed in facilities with a fiber connection, usually faster and more
reliable than any wireless connection.
 16.Assessment Schedule
( Proposed Date & Actual Date)

Name of the Start End

S.NO Portion
Assessment Date Date

1 Unit Test 1 UNIT 1

2 IAT 1 UNIT 1 & 2

3 Unit Test 2 UNIT 3

4 IAT 2 UNIT 3 & 4

5 Revision 1 UNIT 5 , 1 & 2

6 Revision 2 UNIT 3 & 4

7 Model ALL 5 UNITS

55
 17. PRESCRIBED TEXT BOOKS & REFERENCE BOOKS

TEXT BOOKS

1.H Taub, D L Schilling, G Saha, ―Principles of Communication

Systems‖ 3/e, TMH 2007
2. S. Haykin ―Digital Communications‖ John Wiley 2005

REFERENCE BOOKS

1. B.P.Lathi, ―Modern Digital and Analog Communication Systems‖, 3rd

edition, Oxford University Press, 2007
2. H P Hsu, Schaum Outline Series – Analog and Digital Communications‖
TMH 2006
3. B.Sklar, Digital Communications Fundamentals and Applications‖ 2/e
Pearson Education 2007.

56
 18. MINI PROJECT SUGGESTIONS

UNIT 3

Design a PSK Modulator and Demodulator

Design of 8-PSK,16-PSK Modulators and Demodulators

Design a effective Transmitter and Receiver of digital signal using

Cosine filters.

57
 Thank you

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58