212 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMPONENTS, PACKAGING, AND MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY-PART A, VOL. 17, NO.

2, JUNE 1994

Artificial Neural Networks in Manufacturing:

Concepts, Applications, and Perspectives
Samuel H. Huang and Hong-Chao Zhang

Abstract- New approaches and techniques are continuously
and rapidly introduced and adopted in today’s manufactur-
ing environment. Recently, there is an explosion of interest in
applying artificial neural networks to manufacturing. Artificial
neural networks have several advantages that are desired in
manufacturing practice, including learning and adapting ability,
parallel distributed computation, robustness, etc. There is an
expectation that neural network techniques can lead to the
realization of truly intelligent manufacturing systems. This paper
introduces the basic concepts of neural networks and reviews the
current application of neural networks in manufacturing. The
problems with neural networks are also identified and some pos-
sible solutions are suggested. We hope that the material presented
in this paper can provide useful guidelines and references for the
research and implementation of artificial neural networks in the
field of manufacturing.
M ANUFACTURING is “a set of correlated operations
and activities, which includes product design, material
selection, planning, production, inspection, management, and
marketing of the products, for the manufacturing industries
11.” Computers are commonly used in modern manufacturing
practice. In the late 1960s, computers were first used for
the direct control of groups of machine tools. In the 1970s,
the concept of flexible manufacturing system (FMS) was
introduced. An FMS is “a computer-controlled grouping of
semi-independent work stations linked by automated material-
handling systems [2].” Systems of this type are capable of
producing a variety of products automatically. They are now
widely used in the manufacturing industry. Currently, the
development of computer-aided manufacturing systems is ad-
vanced to the stage where computer integrated manufacturing
(CIM) systems are in a rapid, world-wide proliferation. A
CIM system “results when the design effort includes the use
of computers to achieve an integrated flow of manufacturing
activities, based on integrated information flow that links
together all organizational activities [3].” It is becoming clear
that the next stage will be that of intelligent manufacturing
systems (IMS). The systems belonging to this stage “may
be characterized by their ability to solve problems without
either a detailed, explicit algorithm available for each solution
procedure, or all the facts, mathematical relationships and
Manuscript received November 15, 1993; revised February
paper was presented at the International Electronics Manufacturing Sympo-
sium, Santa Clara, CA, October 1993.
The authors are with the Department of Industrial Engineering, Texas Tech
University, Lubbock, TX 79409-3061 USA.
IEEE Log Number 9401776.
models available in perfect arrangement and complete form
for a deterministic (and unique) answer to be found [4].”
Since the decision-making process in an advanced manufac-
turing system environment is becoming increasingly difficult
and overwhelming to humans, artificial intelligence (AI) is
widely adopted to assist human efforts. “Artificial intelligence
is an unfortunate choice of title for an ill-defined technology
that may, in the long run, be the single most important and
most pervasive ingredient for the realization of true computer-
integrated manufacturing (CIM) [5].” AI has provided several
techniques with applications in manufacturing. Knowledge-
based expert systems are the most popular AI techniques in the
1980s. Recently, there is an explosion of interest in applying
artificial neural networks to manufacturing. Artificial neural
networks are a type of AI that have the potential of increasing
I. INTRODUCTION the product quality, reducing the reaction time of a manu-
facturing system, improving system reliability and enhancing
its intelligence [6]. Since the late 1980s, hundreds of papers
have been published pertaining to neural network applications
in manufacturing. Most of them are widely scattered over
many different disciplines and publications. This makes it
very difficult for one to locate all the information necessary
for using artificial neural networks in manufacturing. A paper
that can help researchers and practitioners in applying this
emerging technology is highly desired.
The objective of this paper is to present the concepts,
applications, and perspectives of artificial neural networks
in manufacturing, thus providing some useful guidelines and
references for the research and implementation. Section 2
of this paper reviews the development of neural network
techniques and introduces the basic concepts of artificial
neural networks. Section 3 gives a comprehensive survey
of neural network applications in manufacturing. Section 4
identifies the problems with artificial neural networks and
suggests that neural network techniques should be combined
with knowledge-based expert system techniques in order to
develop intelligent manufacturing systems. This is followed
by a conclusion section.
11. ARTIFICIALNEURALNETWORKS
A. Historical Overview
1994. This The development of artificial neural networks has an in-
teresting history. In the 1940s, scientists found out that the
physiology of the brain was similar to the processing mode
used by electronic computing devices (computers). In both
cases, large amounts of data are manipulated. In computers, the
0162-8828/94$04.00 0 1994 IEEE

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 HUANG AND ZHANG: ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS IN MANUFACTURING 213

processing element is the bit, while in the brain, the processing

element is the neuron. This phenomenon suggests that research
in the design of brain-like processing might be interesting. In
1943, McCulloch and Pitts [7] outlined the first formal model
of an elementary computing neuron. Their neuron model
laid the groundwork for future development. In 1949, Hebb
[8] stated that information can be stored in connections and
proposed a learning scheme for updating a neuron’s connec-
tions. His learning rule (known as the Hebbian leaming rule)
made a primary contribution to the development of artificial Fig. An artificial neuron.
neural networks. In 1954, Farley and Clark [9] set up models
for adaptive stimulus-response relations in random networks.
Hinton [34], [35] developed a probabilistic neural network
Their theories were further elaborated by several researchers.
model known as the Boltzmann Machine. Other significant
Rosenblatt 101 invented the perceptron, which is a trainable
contributors include Anderson [36], Werbos [37], Rumelhart
machine capable of learning to classify certain patterns by
[38], etc.
modifying connections to the threshold elements. Caianiello
The overview provided above is by no means complete.
[ l l ] outlined a theory for thinking machines. Widrow and
Readers who are interested in more details may refer to
Hoff 121 introduced a device called ADALZNE (for ADAptive
[39], [40], [41]. One more thing worth mentioning here is
LINEar combiner). A learning rule (the popular Widrow-Hoff
the publication of a two-volume set of books on parallel
leaming rule) was then devised for neural networks with
distributed processing. It is believed that these two books,
multiple adaptive elements 131. Other early works include
edited by Rumelhart and McClelland [42], revitalized the
Stark’s mode-seeking technique 141 and Steinbuch’s Learning
field of neural network research. Beginning in 1986-87, many
Matrix [15]. A book on learning machines by Nilsson [16]
new research programs in neural networks were initiated. The
clearly summarizes many of these early developments. The intensity of research in neural networks can be measured by a
book also formulates inherent limitations of learning machines
quickly growing number of conferences and journals devoted
with modifiable connections.
to this field.
During the 1950s, the first neurocomputer was built and
tested 171. Many implementations of neural computers were
realized in the 1960s. However, the existing machine learning
theorems of that time were too weak to support more complex
B. Basic Concepts
computational problems. The computational resources avail-
able were also relatively modest at that time. As a result, neural Artificial neural networks have been defined by Kohonen as
network research entered a stagnation phase. In 1969, Minsky “massively parallel interconnected networks of simple (usually
and Papert 181 criticized the existing neural network research adaptive) elements and their hierarchical organizations which
as being worthless in their book entitled Perceptrons. It has are intended to interact with the objects of the real world in
been claimed that the pessimistic views presented in this book the same way as biological nervous system do 1431.” Neural
discouraged further funding for neural network research for networks attempt to achieve good performance via dense
several years. Instead, funding was diverted to further research mesh of computing nodes and connections. They also go by
of knowledge-based expert systems, which Minsky and Papert many names such as connectionist models, parallel distributed
favored. processing models, and neuromorphic systems. We will use
It is only after the mid-1980s that neural networks have the term neural networks or simply networks in the following
begun to make a strong comeback. The renaissance of neural discussion. Neural networks have the following main benefits
networks is the result of rigorous works by a handful of [61:
researchers. In Japan, Amari [19], [20] studied the learning in 1) processing speed through massive parallelism;
networks of threshold elements and the mathematical theory 2) learning and adapting ability by means of efficient
of neural networks. Also in Japan, Fukushima [21], [22] knowledge acquisition;
developed a class of neural network architectures known as 3) robustness with respect to fabrication defects and differ-
Cognitrons and Neocognitrons. In Finland, Kohonen [23], ent failures;
[24], [25] pursued the research on associative memory. He 4) compact processors for space- and power-constrained
also developed unsupervised learning networks for feature applications, etc.
mapping into regular arrays of neurons [26]. Carpenter and The basic components of a neural network are nodes (neu-
Grossberg [27], [28], [29], [30] introduced a number of neural rons) and weights (connections). The adjustable weights cor-
network architectures and theories and developed the Adaptive respond to biological synapses. A positive weight represents
Resonance Theory (ART). Hopfield [31], [32] developed a an excitatory connection. A negative weight represents an
recurrent neural network architecture for associative memories inhibitory connection. The weighted inputs to a neuron are
in the early 1980s. More recently, Kosko [33] extended accumulated and then passed to an activation function which
some of the ideas of Hopfield and Grossberg to develop his determines the neuron’s response. Fig. 1 shows an artificial
adaptive bidirectional associative memory (BAM) network. neuron with weighted connections.

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 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMPONENTS, PACKAGING, AND MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY-PART A, VOL. 17, NO. 2, JUNE 1994

Fig. 2. Neural networks: a back-propagation network, (b) a Hopfield network, and (c) an ART network.

Fig. 3. A taxonomy of neural network models.

The output of a neuron is given as recurrent networks. In a feedforward network (Fig. 2(a)),
signals propagate in only one direction from an input stage
o f(net) through intermediate neurons to an output stage. While in a
in which recurrent network (Fig. 2(b) and (c)), signals may propagate
from the output of any neuron to the input of any neuron.
Neural networks are able to store experiential knowledge
through learning from examples. They can also be classified
in terms of the amount of guidance that the learning process
f ( n e t ) is referred to as an activation function. Typical activa- receives from an outside agent. An Unsupervised learning
tion functions used are network learns to classify the input into sets without being
2 told anything. A Supervised learning network adjusts weights
f ( n e t ) 1 e--X.net - 1 (3)
on the basis of the difference between the values of output
or units and the desired values given by the teacher, given an
input pattern

in which the parameter 0) is used to control the C. Network Models

steepness of the continuous function f ( n e t ) near n e t 0. Today, more than a dozen neural network models have been
There are also other types of activation functions that can be developed. For the purpose of study, analysis, understanding,
used. Readers may refer to [44], for more details about and utilization, it is necessary to provide an overview and
model neurons and activation rules. taxonomy of neural network models. Fig. 3 summarizes the
A neural network is a collection of interconnected neurons taxonomy of the most important network models.
(Fig. 2). A neural network may be distinguished on the Since this paper is focused on the application of neural
basis of the directions in which signals flow. Basically, there networks in manufacturing, we have no intention of discussing
are two types of networks, i.e., feedforward networks and every network model in detail. Instead, we will briefly in-

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HUANG AND ZHANG. ARTIF'ICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS IN MANUFACTURING

troduce three types of network models that are very popular evolves to an equilibrium state. Therefore, one may design a
in manufacturing applications. There are back-propagation neural network for function minimization by associating vari-
networks, Hopfield networks, and ART networks. Readers may ables in an optimization problem with variables in the energy
refer to [41], for detailed information about different function. Hopfield and Tank illustrated the use of the energy
network models and learning algorithms. function to configure networks for several optimization appli-
Back-propagation networks are multi-layered feedforward cations including the traveling salesman problem [47], a signal
neural networks that apply the error back-propagation proce- processing problem [48], and a linear programming problem
dure [38] for learning. The back-propagation procedure uses In manufacturing applications, Hopfield networks are
a gradient descent method which adjusts the weight in its typically used for solving combinatorial optimization problems
original and simplest form by an amount proportional to the such as scheduling problems.
partial derivative of the error function with respect to the given ART networks are neural networks based on the Adap-
weight. The formula used for the adjustment is tive Resonance Theory (ART) provided by Carpenter and
Grossberg [29]. They belong to the class of unsupervised
8E learning networks. An ART network selects its first input as
Wij(t 1) W i j ( t ) 7)-
8Wij the exemplar for the first cluster. The next input is compared
in which 17 is a user-selected, positive constant called learning to the first cluster exemplar. It is clustered with the first if the
rate. The error back-propagation is a typical supervised learn- distance to the first cluster is less than a threshold. Otherwise
ing procedure. The learning procedure of a back-propagation it is the exemplar for a new cluster. This procedure is repeated
network is as follows: for all following inputs. If an input is clustered with the jth
cluster, the weights of the network are updated according to
1) Initialize the weights of the network at small random
the following formulae
values.
2) Start the learning cycle by exposing the network to a
certain input pattern paired with the desired output. (7)
3) Compute the network's output and compare it with the
desired output so that the error can be calculated. Vij(t 1) X i V i j ( t )
4) Adjust the weights of the network using the error back-
propagation algorithm so that a certain amount of the where i 1, M. Carpenter and Grossberg's ART2
detected error is removed. architecture, which works for analog and binary input pattern
Repeat step (2), (3), and (4) with all the input pat- as well, embodies solutions to a number of design principles
terns and their correspondent desired outputs (training such as the stability-plasticity tradeoff and the search-direct
examples), compute the cumulative error. access tradeoff. ART networks use an unsupervised learning
6) If the cumulative error is within a tolerable range, procedure. They are stable because new input patterns do
terminate the training process; otherwise, go back to not wash away previously learned information. They are also
step (2). adaptive because new information can be incorporated until
Back-propagation networks can be applied to almost all the full capacity of the architectures is utilized. ART networks
applications in the manufacturing domain. In fact, they are provide a fertile ground for gaining a new understanding of
the most popular neural network models in manufacturing biological intelligence. They also suggest novel computational
applications. theories and real-time adaptive architectures with promising
Hopjield networks are recurrent networks introduced by properties for tackling some of the outstanding problems
Hopfield [31], [32]. The earliest Hopfield network, which in computer science and technology [29]. In manufacturing
employs two-state neurons, is used for the design of applications, ART networks have been used in solving group
neural content-addressablememories [311. Hopfield later intro- technology (GT) and engineering design problems. It seems
duced a modified version of his earlier model that employed a the family of the ART networks can act as very valuable
continuous nonlinear function to describe the output behavior modules in intelligent manufacturing systems, where real-time
of the neurons. The neurons represent an approximation to classification abilities with self-learning and self-organizing
biological neurons in which a simplified set of important com- capabilities are required [6].
putational properties is retained. This neural network model,
which consists of nonlinear graded-response model neurons
organized into networks with effectively symmetric synaptic 111. MANUFACTURING APPLICATIONS
connections, can be easily implemented with electronic devices
The development of computer-aided manufacturing systems
[46]. A Hopfield network can be characterized by its energy
has evolved to the phase of computer integrated manufac-
function, as shown below:
turing (CIh4). It has been proposed that the next phase will

E
I n
~ w i j v i v j kiivi g t i v i .
i = l j=1 i=l i=l
--r
be that of intelligent manufacturing systems (IMS). As a
(6) trend, manufacturing systems are demanding more and more
flexibility in product design, process planning, scheduling,
process control, and quality assurance. This may be achieved
The network will seek to minimize the energy function as it by building intelligent systems that can adapt to changes in

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 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMPONENTS. PACKAGING, AND MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY-PART A, VOL. 17, NO. 2, JUNE 1994

their environment. The first effort in this endeavor is the

application of knowledge-based expert systems. Since the late
1970s, knowledge-based systems have been used in various
manufacturing domains [49]. However, they are less effective
in the ever-changing, complex, and open system environment
of today's manufacturing systems [50]. On the other hand,
neural networks emerged as a revolutionary technology for
solving problems that are intractable or difficult for traditional
computation. Successful applications of this technology in
pattern matching and speech recognition generated enormous
interest in the manufacturing arena. Since the late 1980s, neu-
ral network applications in manufacturing have been reported.
The application area of neural networks in manufacturing is
surprisingly broad. It covers nearly all of the fields spreading
from the design phase through process planning, scheduling
and process monitoring to quality assurance. This section pro-
I
vides a comprehensive survey of neural network applications
in manufacturing.

Fig. Design model based on associative memory

A. Design
Retrieval of old product designs that meet current re-
quirements on geometrical and/or technical information is a Arai and Iwata [56] suggested a four-layer neural network to
problem that is often encountered in batch manufacturing connect lower level items to upper level ones on the design
systems. Venugopal and Narendran [51] modeled the design specification step of the conceptual design phase. Kim et
retrieval system as a human associative memory and used a al. [57] applied a neural network approach for engineering
Hopfield network to develop a design retrieval system. The drawing with geometrical constraints. Dhingra and Rao [58]
system was verified with test cases on rotational as well as examined a new conceptual framework for solving design
non-rotational parts. The results show that neural network optimization problems based on a neural computing paradigm.
methodology is a promising tool for the development of Another interesting study was conducted by Chovan and
practical design retrieval systems. The use of neural networks Waldron [59]. The authors proposed a cognitive model of
for design data retrieval was also studied by Kamarthi et the transformation from perceived form to function based
al. [52]. Instead of Hopfield networks, a back-propagation on findings from a behavioral study of expert mechanical
network was used. The result is also promising. designers when they were reading two dimensional mechanical
Kumara [53], [54] suggested an associative memory based drawings. The model was simulated using an ART network
modeling procedure for conceptual design. The motivation for and was exercised and compared with findings from the
their research stems from the following discussion [54]: behavioral study. The top-down and bottom-up reasonings
exhibited by the subjects can be easily represented in the
It is possible that the designer may be aware of the ART network. Their results show that ART networks might
structures that satisfy a particular set of functions. In be useful for representing the behavioral system. The evidence
his memory the designer may have stored the representa- demonstrated in their paper may provide useful information for
tions of a number of physical devices (design solutions). the application of neural networks as the research community
Given a (a set functional requirement(s) the designer works toward the development of intelligent computer-aided
will be able to identify a structure or a set of structures systems for engineering design.
that will satisfy the required function(s) and hence by
associating these structures with physical devices stored
in his memory, he can selectively retrieve those designs. B. Process Planning
It must be noted that the physical devices could be from The first attempt to use neural network techniques in process
different domains. After having retrieved the designs, planning might be that of Osakada et al. 1601, 1611, [621. The
the designer mutates them to come up with new and authors applied neural network techniques to an expert system
creative design solutions. for the process planning of cold forging in order to increase
The author used a back-propagation network for modeling the consultation speed and to provide more reliable results. A
the associative memory. A design model based on associative three-layer neural network is constructed to relate the shapes
memory is also proposed to capture the conceptual design of rotationally symmetric products to their forming methods.
process (Fig. 4). The shapes of the products are transformed into 16x 16 black
The application of neural networks in design also has and white pixels and are given to the input layer of the
been studied by quite a few other researchers. Among them, neural network. The back-propagation algorithm is employed.
Coyne and Postmus [55] explored the application of neural After training, the network is able to determine the forming
networks to simple spatial reasoning in computer-aided design. methods for the products which are exactly the same or slightly

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HUANG AND WANG: ARTIF'ICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS IN MANUFACTURING

different from those used as training examples. To exploit C. Scheduling

the self-learning ability, the authors further applied neural Foo and Takefuji developed the Integral Linear Pro-
network techniques to the prediction of the most probable gramming Neural Network (ILPNN) and used it to solve job-
number of forming steps by considering the shape complexity shop scheduling problems. In a job-shop scheduling problem,
and material property, the prediction of the die fracture and
the resources are typically machines and the jobs are the basic
surface defect in the formed product, and the generation of
tasks that need to be accomplished using the machines. Each
rules from the knowledge acquired from an FEM (Finite
task may consist of several subtasks related by certain prece-
Element Modeling) simulation. It is found that the prediction
dence restrictions. This problem can be formulated as a linear
of the most probable number of forming steps can be made
programming problem. The cost function to be minimized is
successfully and the FEM results are represented better by the
defined as a sum of the starting times of all jobs subject to
neural network than by statistical methods.
compliance with precedence constraints. The problem is solved
Hwang and Henderson applied a perceptron network
using a linear programming network.
in feature recognition, which is the first step in automated
Vaithyanathan and Ignizio investigated the use of neural
process planning (i.e., to interpret the design data from a
networks for solving certain types of large-scale, resource
CAD model). The goal of feature recognition is to convert
constrained scheduling problems. Their work was focused
a low-level representation such as face, edge, vertex to a
semantically higher feature-based model. The network training on dynamic resource constrained scheduling problems. Such
is accomplished by manually presenting exemplars of features problems, so characteristic of real world situations, involve
the user considers important in an engineering analysis (for the determination of a schedule subject not only to limited
example, manufacturing-relatedfeatures for process planning). resources but also to sudden, unforeseen changes. They first
Their results show that the neural network approach took less decomposed the problem to be solved into a series of mul-
time in feature recognition than other traditional approaches. tidimensional knapsack models and established an equivalent
Knapp and Wang applied neural network neural network model for each particular representation. Then,
techniques for the automatic acquisition of process planning they developed an approach that ultimately served to solve the
knowledge. In their approach, two cooperating neural networks original problem by extending the work of Hopfield and Tank
are utilized. The primary network is a three-layer back- Their approach, to a great extent, avoided common neural
propagation network. The second fixed-weight network network difficulties such as instability and local minima.
utilizes the MAXNET architecture. Parts to be planned In addition to Hopfield networks, feedforward back-
are decomposed into machining features such as slots, propagation networks can also be used in solving scheduling
holes, and planes. Each feature type is associated with problems. Yih al. provided a hybrid method that
a set of characterizing attributes such as dimensions and combines back-propagation neural network, simulation, and
tolerances. Each feature is represented by a vector whose semi-Markov optimization to solve the crane scheduling
elements identify the feature type and its attribute values. problem. The crane scheduling problem occurs in a circuit
This vector forms the input pattern to the primary network. board production line where one overhead crane is used
The network responds to the presentation of a feature vector to transport jobs through a line of sequential chemical
by activating certain output nodes, corresponding to the process tanks. Because chemical processes are involved in
proposal of particular machining operations. The response this production system, any mistiming or misplacing will
of the network is trained using example process plans and result in defective jobs. The proposed method consists of
the back-propagation learning algorithm. The second network three phases: data collection, optimization, and generalization.
is used to force a decision between competing operation Training data are purified using an operations research method
alternatives. Its output is then fed back to the input layer of (semi-Markov optimization). The neural network is used in the
the primary network to provide a context for deciding the next building of the decision making model. The resulted system
operation in the machining sequence. The part is presented performed better than the human scheduler from whom the
to the neural network feature by feature, the network then models were formulated.
generates a sequence of operations for machining each feature Other neural network approaches to scheduling problems
of the part independently (global sequencing of operations reported in the literature include: time table scheduling
across all features is not considered). real-time scheduling multiple-job scheduling as-
Process planning is knowledge-intensive in nature. Neural sembly scheduling robot scheduling a stochastic
networks, being a useful knowledge acquisition tool, are ex- neural network (Gaussian machine) for scheduling and an
pected to play an important role in process planning. However, intelligent scheduling system (ISS) for flexible manufacturing
process planning is a challenging task due to the interdepen- systems where neural networks and expert systems are used
dencies among the steps in a plan. It is not clear how neural to generate good schedule
networks can reason about the causal relationships among the The application of neural networks in scheduling has been
entities in a process plan. Compared with symbolic systems studied by many researchers. In some cases, the neural net-
(e.g., knowledge-based expert systems), neural networks are work approach holds significant advantages. In others, the
less effective in representing structured, contextual knowledge usefulness and effectiveness of the neural network approach is
Therefore, neural networks should be integrated with debatable. However, at the very least, neural networks present
symbolic systems in order to solve process planning problems. a legitimate alternative to the more conventional methods for

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218 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMPONENTS. PACKAGING, AND MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY-PART A, VOL. 17, NO. 2, JUNE 1994

process are specified in terms of numerous parameters as well.

As a result, any arc welding process can generally be viewed as
a multiple-inputlmultiple-output system. The lack of reliable,
general, and yet computationally fast physical models of this
multi-variable system, makes the design of a generalized real-
time controller for arc welding nontrivial. One of the basic is-
‘m’ sues to be considered regarding the generalized control for arc
welding is to determine what is to be controlled and which pa-
rameters are accessible to enact control actions on the process.
The back-propagation networks were used for the modeling
and control of the Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW).
Various configurations, in terms of the number of layers and
the number of network nodes, were tested. For the application
presented, two-layer (not counting the input layer) networks
consisting of a single hidden layer and an output layer have
been proved to be adequate. Smartt et al. [82] also applied
the neural network approach in arc welding. Instead of using
neural network to model the arc welding processes, they de-
veloped a new approach to quantify conditional logic rules and
represent them in a neural network. The network was then used
in place of a PI controller for a gas metal arc welding process.
Fig. 5. Incremental learning and synthesis approach for process modeling Process modeling and control are a manufacturing domain
and control
where neural networks can play a very important role. Chrys-
solouris and Guillot 1831 combined process modeling and AI
scheduling. Since the scheduling problem is one of immense techniques for the determination of the operational range of
importance, it is certain that considerable efforts will continue the process parameters. The process models were determined
in applying neural networks in scheduling. by neural network learning techniques. Jalel et al. 1841 ap-
plied neural networks in imitating a skilled process operator.
D. Process Modeling and Control h g h [85] described the application of a neural network on
For the control of machining processes, perhaps the greatest manufacturing process control. Levin et al. [86] discussed
difficulty is that reliable models of the processes do not exist. the use of neural network architecture for adaptive system
Rangwala and Dornfeld [78] suggested neural networks as modeling and control. Patrick 1871 reported the application
learning structures for intelligent controllers that can model of a neural network to brownstock washer operations at a
machining processes and use adaptive control. They also pulp and paper mill. Karsai et al. [88] applied neural network
proposed an incremental learning and synthesis approach as methods for the modeling and control of welding processes.
shown in Fig. 5. This approach relies only on sensor data Guha [89] presented some neural network-based adaptive
generated by the manufacturing process and does not require control strategies that can be used for designing controllers for
a priori process model. Training samples are composed from continuous process control problems. Madey et al. 1901 used
the inputs and measured variables during operation and are neural networks and general-purpose simulation to model a
continually used to enhance the network performance; while continuous improvement system.
the knowledge embedded in the partially learned system is The advantages of using neural network approaches in
used for the determination of the local optimum of the input process modeling and control are indicated by Chryssolouris
variables. et al. [91]. The authors pointed out that while synthesis of
In the process industry, usually human operators rather than multiple sensor information would provide better result, neural
mathematically based advanced algorithms are used to achieve networks excelled in dealing with situations in which process
product control. Gingrich [79] discussed a methodology that models do not adequately reflect the process complexity. A
uses neural networks for capturing the knowledge of human neural network’s ability to learn a control algorithm without
process operators. The results show that it is possible to the benefit of a priori analysis or modeling can be of great
learn the control actions of a human operator using neural help for difficult, complex, and nonlinear control applications.
networks, at least for simple systems. The neural network The same conclusion also can be found in 1921, in which
approach is preferred over heuristic approaches for several Bozich and Mackay applied a neurocontroller in vibration
reasons including: (1) there is no need for the operator to cancellation.
formulate his knowledge as rules, and (2) to train a neural
network is easier than to design, build, and maintain an expert
system. E. Monitoring and Diagnosis
Anderson et al. 1801, applied the neural network ap- The first application of neural networks in monitoring
proach in arc welding. Any arc welding process is controlled reported in the literature could be that of Govekar et al.
by a number of parameters, and the ultimate objectives of the [93]. The authors applied a back-propagation network for

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HUANG AND W A N G : ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS IN MANUFACTURING
A
Fig. 6. Proposed monitoring scheme for machining processes
the monitoring of a drilling process. Their results show that
Acoustic Emission (AE) signals detected by a single sensor
are applicable to the recognition of operations like free run,
drilling at different positions, and drilling with a wom drill.
However, they also discovered that the recognition ability
was influenced not only by the neural network but also by
the properties of the detected system. Later applications [94],
[95] show that neural networks can advantageously be used
in real-time monitoring of manufacturing processes and other
technical prodesses.
Kamarthi et al. [96] investigated a new method for on-line
measurement of flank wear through the synergy of vibration
and force sensing. Their method used a Kohonen’s self-
organizing feature map for correlating force and vibration
signals with the tool wear levels. In the particular experiment,
it was found that the trained feature map learned to detect
the tool wear levels with a reliability close to 95%. Thkr
results show that methods based on sensor data fusion using
neural networks have the potential to offer reliable and robust
methods for correlating tool wear levels with the signatures
from force, vibration, and acoustic emission sensors for a wide
range of process conditions.
Hou and Lin [97] designed a monitoring system for iden-
tifying both periodic and aperiodic process signals using
neural networks. First, digital signal processing techniques
are used to convert collected manufacturing signals into fre-
quency domain. Then, a neural network based program is
used to identify the signals by examining their characteristic
frequencies. Two examples (periodic signals and aperiodic
signals) were presented to demonstrate the feasibility of the
monitoring system and its recognition ability. The results
are quite promising and show that the neural network based
system seems to have a good potential in monitoring automatic
manufacturing processes.
Masory [98] proposed a scheme for machining processes
monitoring using multi-sensor readings fused by neural net-
works. His scheme, shown in Fig. 6, functions in two modes
as the following:
1) Training Mode: In this mode a skilled operator is mon-
itoring the process and the is used to capture his
knowledge. The is fed with three groups of data:
a)
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Process inputs that include feed, cutting speed,
process geometry and workpiece/tool materials.
b) Sensory inputs that include data from a variety
of sensors such as force, acoustic emission, ac-
celerometers, etc.
c) The operator modifications to feed and cutting
speed.
2) Operation Mode: Upon convergence, the network is fed
with the process and the sensory input and according to
the mapping (“model”) established during the training
session, it automatically modifies the cutting parameters.
Many research efforts have been dedicated to the application
of neural networks in monitoring and diagnosis. Sorsa et al.
[99] reported the use of neural networks in process fault
diagnosis. Burke and Rangwala [lo01 discussed a neural
network approach for tool condition monitoring in metal
cutting. Ray [loll reported on a project in an integrated
steel industry that applied neural network in engine fault
diagnosis. Bauer [lo21 reported on a study of unsupervised
neural network for tool failure detection in milling operations.
Elanayar and Shin 1031 applied neural network techniques to
estimate the evolution of flank and crater wears using feed
and cutting force measurements. Wasserman et al. [lo41 used
the neural network approach to detect and measure small
cracks in the shafts of rotating machines. Guillot and El Ouafi
[lo51 applied a three-layer feedforward neural network in the
identification of tool breakage in metal cutting processes. Wu
et al. [lo61 presented a neural network approach to diagnose
processing damages in injection molding. Lin et al. 1071 used
neural network techniques for sensor failure detection and
data recovery. Chow et al. [lo81 discussed a neural network
approach to real-time condition monitoring of induction mo-
tors. Knapp and Wang 1091 applied a back-propagation neural
network for machine fault diagnosis. Upadhyaya and Eryurek
[110] used neural networks for sensor validation and plant
monitoring. Murphy and Kagle 1 1 11 applied neural networks
for the recognition of electronic malfunctions. As a logical
consequence of these and similar investigations, some authors
reported on the development of neuro monitoring system
using accelerator cards for neural network computations [94],
[112], [113]. Other authors [97] argued that combining an
expert system with neural network based pattem recognition
might lead to potential applications in manufacturing process
monitoring and fault diagnosis.
F. Quality Assurance
Quality is the single most important factor in determining
market share [114]. There are two different approaches to
quality assurance, namely, reactive quality assurance and
proactive quality assurance. Reactive tools include sampling
plans, lot acceptance determination, scrap or rework analysis,
and so forth. Proactive strategy requires. an emphasis on
physical cause-effect knowledge, risk analysis, experience, and
judgment to justify action. Neural networks have been used for
both reactive and proactive quality assurances.
Reactive quality assurance is strongly related to monitoring
and diagnostics. Therefore, neural networks can also play an
important role in reactive quality assurance, especially where
high processing and classification capabilities are required.
 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMPONENTS, PACKAGING, AND MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY-PART A, VOL. 17, NO. 2, JUNE 1994

Barschdorff 1 151 discussed the application of neural network and Suresh [120] proposed a neural network system for
techniques for the quality control of electric drive motors. shape-based classification and coding of rotational parts. A
Sixteen spectral features of the motors’ vibration were input back-propagation neural network was trained to generate part
to a three-layer neural network. The network was able to geometry-related digits of the Optiz code from the bitmaps of
recognize production faults, such as unbalance of the rotor, part drawings. Their principal study shows that the network
nonconducting winding connections, magnetic field failures, can generate codes accurately and promises to be a useful tool
failures on commutators or bearings, loose parts, etc. The for the automatic generation of shape-based classes and codes.
classifying ability of the network was compared with the The use of neural networks for part family formation was
results obtained by different pattern recognition algorithms. studied by a couple of researchers [121], [122], [123]. In
It was found that the performance of the neural network was their approach, a three-layer feedforward neural network was
superior. trained with the back-propagation algorithm. Each input unit
Smith 1161 reported the use of back-propagation neural of the network represents a part feature, and each output unit
networks in quality control in an injection molding corporation represents a part family. An operator plays the role of a teacher
(Orscheln Industries, Moberly, Missouri). Injection molding is to the network by presenting each part in terms of part features,
a process with many variations in raw materials, machinery and by telling which family it belongs to. The trained network
conditions and ambient conditions. It also has a temporal stores implicit discrimination rules through a set of connection
aspect where line conditions change during operation, affecting weights, and exhibits consistent classification practice. The
the end product. Neural networks are especially applicable research demonstrates that the neural network approach is
when the data considered do not follow a known distribution or capable of dealing with large part family formation problems
pattern, and, hence, are well suited for the quality control of efficiently.
injection molding. The results show that the neural network A problem in dealing with part classification and part family
approach is comparable to other quality control methods, formation is how to maintain consistency. The consistency
including control charts and statistical techniques, in goodness problem can be addressed most effectively if the classification
of output for quality control. An advantage of the neural and formation are a single procedure rather than two separate
network approach is the convenience of learning to establish procedures. Kao and Moon [124] presented an approach for
the relationships directly, rather than through analysis and using the learning ability of neural networks to automate the
assumptions. Using a single network to monitor multiple process of part family formation during the part classification
products and/or quality parameters is an additional advantage. process. They divided the task into four phases: ( 1 ) seeding
Neural network techniques also can be used in proactive phase, (2) mapping phase, (3) training phase, and (4) assigning
quality assurance. Schmerr et al. 1171 provided an innovative phase. In the seeding phase, three to five apparently distinctive
approach for planning robust design experiments through the parts are chosen from the part pool as part family represen-
use of neural networks. Robust design is a cost-effective tatives (seed parts). In the mapping phase, a code is assigned
technique for achieving high quality and reliability. The basis to each seed part. A neural network is also constructed. The
of the approach was to train a neural network on a set of number of input units is equivalent to the number of features
tuples where each tuple corresponds to a Taguchi experiment contained in a classification code system. In the training phase,
along with its observed product response. Once trained, the a set of training pattern pairs is presented to the network. The
neural network can probe the entire parameter space of design network learns based on the back-propagation algorithm. In
parameter settings, equivalent to performing a full factorial the assigning phase, the network compares the presented part
experimental design. With this information, a designer can to the training set. If the features of the part are similar to the
identify alternative settings and search for optimal designs. The generalized features of any existing part family representative,
neural network approach was compared with analytical model- the output of the network will be the same part family number.
based approach. It was found that the neural network had If there are no significant similarities between the part and any
remarkable capabilities for generalization when trained on the of the part family representative, the output of the network will
same sparse array of experiments as used in complementary not indicate any existing family code. That means a new part
Taguchi analysis. family should be set up for this part.
The research of neural networks for quality assurance has Another GT problem is the machine-part cell formation
actually be implemented in manufacturing practice. CTS Elec- problem. The assignment of a group of similar parts to
tronics of Texas has used a neural network system to detect a cell of machines having common processing characteris-
defective loudspeaker assembly lines 1181. Ford Motor Com- tics greatly improves the efficiency of batch manufacturing.
pany used neural network techniques to check car paint However, approaches to the problem of machine-part cell
finishes [118]. Motorola Incorporated used artificial vision formation have been computationally inefficient for large
based on neural network techniques for the quality inspection machine-part matrices. Dagli and Huggahalli 1251 applied the
of their chips 1 191. binary ART network (ART-1) for machine-part cell formation.
The columns and rows of the machine-part matrix are binary
vectors that can be directly applied as inputs to an ART-1
G. Group Technology network. Dagli and Huggahalli analyzed the performance of
Two engineering problems associated with implementing the neural network classifier and found that direct application
GT are part classification and part family formation. Kaparthi of the basic ART-I network did not provide very satisfactory

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HUANG AND ZHANG: ARTMCIAL NEURAL NETWORKS IN MANUFACTURING 22 1

result. They then reordered the input vectors derived from propagation networks and counter-propagationnetworks) have
the machine-part matrix, and modified the original ART- the ability to mathematically solve the kinematic problem
1 paradigm. This produced drastic improvement over the within acceptable error rates.
performance of the basic ART-1. The result obtained com- Nguyen et al. [133] have designed several neural network
pared favorably with popular algorithms proposed in the configurations for solving the forward kinematic problem for
literature, such as the ROC2 algorithm provided by King robots with two degrees of freedom. Each of the networks
and Nakomchai [126]. The application of neural network used for evaluation has two input nodes, and and two
approaches in the design of cellular manufacturing systems, output nodes, 2 and y. The network architectures studied
which involves the machine-part family formation problem, have 6een: 2-10-10-2 for the network trained with the error
has been studied by MalavC and Ramachandran 1271 and Lee back-propagation (BP), 2- 10-10-2 for the network trained
et al. [128]. with the back-propagation algorithm but with output splitting
Back-propagation networks and ART networks both can be (BPOS), 2-8-2 for the functional link network (FL),and a
used in solving GT problems. However, the learning results counter-propagationnetwork (CP) for trajectory mapping. The
of a back-propagation network depend on the frequency of networks were trained using a set of data (64 input/output
presenting a part. For example, if a network is trained three pairs) obtained from measurements taken in the robot work
more times with part A than with part B, the network becomes area. The training of all four network architectures resulted in
biased toward part A [124]. This problem is not so obvious quick learning convergence to the desired trajectory. The basic
when an ART network, which applies the unsupervised learn- BP network with two hidden layers gave a reasonably accurate
ing algorithm, is used. Since ART networks are both adaptive solution. The BPOS network, which involved considerably
and stable, they are more suitable for solving GT problems fewer connections than the BP network, yielded comparable
than back-propagation networks. The use of ART networks accuracy. The best solution of the trajectory learning task was
to solve GT problems is a research topic that is worthy of achieved with the FL network. The CP network resulted in
further studies. a relatively fast approximation of the trajectorjr, but the end-
effector position error was rather large and uneven. Therefore,
the CP network in this application can be recommended only
H. Robotics if a short development time is required for low-precision
Robotics constitute the study of a finite number of rigid trajectory tracking.
mechanical chains that represent a multi-variable non-linear Iberall 1341, 135J applied cooperativekompetitive neural
coupled system. The solution of this problem is difficult networks to compute the inverse kinematic solution for fingers
because even the simplest desired movement requires sophis- of a simulated robot hand during grasping. Guez and Ahmad
ticated and computationally intensive mathematics 1291. The 1361 investigated the inverse kinematics solution for two-
problem areas involved in robotics are kinematics, dynamics, and three-degrees-of-freedom manipulators using multiple-
trajectory planning, control, sensing, and intelligence. layer perceptrons. They suggested that neural networks might
Kinematics refers to the study of robot joint motions without be best for providing a good initial estimate for a manipulator
considering the causes of motion. Two distinct subproblems that required iterative methods for its solution, because of
are involved, namely, forward kinematics and inverse kine- the relative numerical accuracy of neural networks compared
matics. The forward kinematics problem involves a non-linear with the closed form solutions. Aylor et [137] provided
matrix mapping from the joint space (a description in terms of proof that back-propagation neural networks can provide ac-
joint angles and positions) of the robot to its Cartesian space ceptable solutions to the inverse kinematic problem. The
(Cartesian coordinates of the robot end-effector). The forward authors developed a network that is capable of taking into
kinematic solution computes the Cartesian location of the end- account the unknown number of faults, errors, and limitations
effector given the joint space description. On the other hand, of the poorly constructed Fishertechnik robot and provides
the inverse kinematic solution computes the joint space coordi- solutions that are as accurate as the robot’s mechanical and
nates given the end-effector location in Cartesian coordinates. electrical systems can support. Also, they argued that back-
Given the angular movement of each joint and the length of propagation neural networks were ready to leave the laboratory
each arm it is relatively easy to find the Cartesian location and enter the real working world to solve the inverse kinematic
(coordinates) of the end-effector, except that several non- problem.
linear trigonometric and matrix multiplications are needed. Pa0 and Sobajic [138], and Sobajic et al. [139] studied
The inverse kinematics problem can yield multiple number of the use of neurocontrollers in robot arm movement with two
solutions when the robot has multiple degrees of freedom. It degrees of freedom and with a desired final end-effector posi-
is more computationally intensive than the forward kinematic tion. The results that were achieved demonstrated the unusual
problem and is the most difficult problem in robotics [130]. efficiency and potential of neurocontrollers for use in robot
Neural networks can be used to reduce the computational kinematics control systems. Albus [140], [141], 1421 pre-
complexity of the kinematic problem. The trade-off is that sented his Cerebellar Model Articulation Controller (CMAC)
the results yielded by the neural network approach may not for general robotic control. The basic idea of the CMAC
be as accurate as those yielded by the conventional analytic approach is to learn an approximation of the system charac-
approach. Hecht-Nielsen 1311, Josin 1301, and Saxon and teristics and then to use it to generate the appropriate control
Mukerjee 1321 have proven that neural networks (back- signal. The approximation of the system characteristics is

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222 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMPONENTS, PACKAGING, AND MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY-PART A, VOL. 17, NO. 2, JUNE

understood as gradual learning based on the observations of I. Other Applications

the plant input-output data in real time [143], [144]. Miller et The ill-structured characteristics of manufacturing problems
al. 1451 used CMAC neural networks to control a robot whose provided fruitful grounds for neural network applications. Due
kinematics is unknown. After training, the neural network to the abundance and diversity of technical publications, we
controller performed very well. The average error was always cannot cover all the manufacturing applications in this paper.
below the error of a fixed gain controller without learning. The following is a list of specific applications that may be of
The applications of neural networks in robot control have been interest to the readers.
addressed by many authors. Readers may refer to the following
1) Multisensor fusion and integration 1601.
partial list of projects:
2) Sensing on the factory floor [161].
1) Multiple-layer perceptrons for an inverse Jacobian con- 3) Maintenance management problem 1621.
troller 1461. 4) Plant layout determination 1631.
2) The use of a proprietary neural network system, GLN 5 ) Operational policy determination 1641.
(Graded Learning Network), for controlling robots’ 6) Assembly system selection [165].
movement and action [147]. 7) Sampling inspection plans determination 1661.
3) A neural network based controller for a single degree 8) Design of manufacturing systems [167].
freedom robot arm [148]. 9) Design of assembly system [168].
4) A neural network based controller for tracking moving 10) General-purpose simulation 1691.
objects with a two-joint robot arm [149].
5 ) Hierarchical neurocontroller for robotics manipulation IV. PROBLEMS
WITH NEURALNETWORKS
AND
[150]. SUGGESTED
SOLUTIONS
6) Learning optimization in robot positioning control 1511.
Neural networks have several advantages over knowledge-
7) Visual control of robotics manipulator based on neural
based expert systems. Their learning ability and parallel dis-
networks [152].
tributed structure are very attractive to researchers who want
8) Neural network compensator for uncertainties of
to develop intelligent systems. Currently, there is an explosion
robotics manipulators 1531.
of interests in neural networks. However, some of the scientific
Neural networks have also been used for robot dynamics and economic expectations on neural networks (e.g., replacing
due to their nonlinear mapping property. The basic idea is that conventional computers and eliminating programming) are
the neural network learns the inverse dynamical relationship unreasonable 1701. This is because neural networks have the
of the robot directly, which can be used as an inverse dynamic following disadvantages:
controller. Kawato 1541 implemented a novel neural network 1) A neural network cannot explain its results explicitly,
for inverse dynamics control based on neurophysiology. which implies that the user interface of a neural network
The research of neural network approaches in trajectory may not be as friendly or productive as that of an expert
planning includes the following: system.
1) Eckmiller 1551 developed a novel neural network called 2 ) The knowledge representation of a neural network is
Neural Triangular Lattice (NTL) for storing and retriev- vague and not easily understood.
ing trajectories. 3) The configuration of a neural network is usually time
2 ) Jorgenson 1561 investigated the use of neural networks consuming, as one needs to use a trial-and-error method
for mobile robot path planning. to find the proper neural network architecture for a given
3) Tsutsumi and Matsumoto 1571 implemented obstacle problem.
avoidance in an unknown environment using Hopfield 4) The current neural network learning algorithms are not
networks for multi-joint robots and truss structures. efficient enough and cannot guarantee network conver-
4) Seshadri 1581 investigated the use of Hopfield networks gence.
for mobile robot path planning. 5 ) How to derive some type of optimal training set for a
5 ) Lee and Park [159] used a neural network approach for neural network application still remains a question.
collision-free path planning. Experience with expert systems has shown that the ability
The objective of the research in neural network approaches to generate explanations is absolutely crucial for the user ac-
to robotics is to investigate the feasibility of creating an ceptance of AI systems [171]. However, neural networks have
intelligent robot control scheme in an unmanned working no explicit, declarative knowledge representation and therefore
environment. The research is quite diverse and rudimen- have considerable difficulty in explaining their results. In order
tary, leaving much room for improvement and new areas to solve this problem, Caudill [172] suggested that one can
for development. Much of the preliminary research discussed construct an additional small rule-based system and use it
here is quite promising. However, some of the works yield for explanation. The explanation system would be neither as
poor performance relative to conventional techniques partially complete nor as detailed as a full-blown rule-based solution;
because neural networks are not yet fully understood or its function is solely to explain why an answer is correct.
developed. Hopefully many of these problems will disap- Another solution to the problem is to introduce structure to
pear as we develop and understand neural networks more a neural network, e.g., the explicit encoding of relations and
fully. modular network architectures [171].

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HUANG AND ZHANG ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS IN MANUFACTURING 223

To build a neural network based system, one has to make hidden layers). To apply the knowledge in the trained network,
decisions regarding the type of neural network to be used, a reasoning strategy that hybridizes forward-reasoning and
its architecture, topology, type of nonlinearity, and associated backward-reasoning schemes was proposed to realize the
parameters. However, there is still not an efficient method that inference mechanism. The results proved that neural networks
exists to make the decisions. Cios and Liu [173] proposed a can work sufficiently for classification problem-related expert
machine learning method to automatically generate a neural systems.
network architecture for a given problem. Their approach Ben-David and Pao [176] presented an architecture, which
also allows interpretation of the knowledge embedded in the is based upon a hybrid of neural networks and rule-based
generated connections and weights. However, neural networks models, for the design of self-improving expert systems. The
generated using the approach are usually more complicated architecture was tested on an expert system which assists users
than those generated using the trial-and-error method. during the planning stage of a chemical product that has given
While very large rule-based systems have been built, ex- properties and composition. In the application, 15 chemical
tremely large neural network based systems are not feasible substances are components that will be mixed and processed
with today’s technology [172]. Such networks can be con- in order to produce a product that exhibits certain required
structed, but they cannot be effectively trained. The current properties. The designer’s goal is to find a composition that
neural network learning algorithms available are heuristic in meets these properties. A neural network can be used to predict
nature. For small problems those algorithms are sufficient a composition given the required properties. Any prediction
enough. However, problems with moderate size usually require is naturally susceptible to errors. Laboratory tests must be
long learning time; and network convergence is not guaran- carried out in order to verify the actual properties before any
teed. One solution to this problem is to break big problems mass production takes place. The results of the laboratory
into smaller pieces. This method also facilitates the selection tests (i.e., the actual properties) can be stored for further
of a proper set of training examples. network training. When a prediction is not accurate, the system
One can expect that expert systems can help overcome the invokes another source of knowledge, a rule-based component
problems inherent in existing neural networks and enable them that iteratively suggests possible modifications to the current
to do what they cannot accomplish alone in the following formula. All the suggestions made by the rule-base are fed into
[174]: a second neural network. The network estimates the effects of
each suggestion before resorting to a costly laboratory test. The
1) to deal with knowledge representation, symbolic rea-
designer then selects a plan based on the estimation provided
soning, non-numerical operations, which conventional
by the network for laboratory testing. The results are fed back
neural networks cannot cope with;
into the system for further training of the neural network. At
2) to determine the number of nodes, number of layers,
intervals, all the neural networks are trained using feedbacks.
connections, and initial weights of a neural network,
The rule-based component, on the other hand, is static. It can
based on the degree of nonlinearity, complexity, and
only be modified explicitly. The consultation process repeats
other data that are available in the design process;
iteratively until an acceptable formula is found.
3) to improve the learning ability of neural networks AI Ware has developed a commercial Integrated Technology
by controlling on-line the minimal number of nodes,
Platform [177], [178], [179], [180]. The workstation-based
weights, and layers (i.e., determine the optimal network
software platform combines neural networks, expert systems,
architecture while training); and and optimization. The platform system attempts to provide
4) to help train neural networks using the key data classified all the capabilities of the individual technologies, while min-
by expert systems from a great number of the collected imizing the limitations of each. The individual technologies
data. within the platform are essentially transparent to the user. This
Quite a few researchers are interested in building hybrid leaves the user free to concentrate on the problem to be solved.
systems that merge the structures and functions of expert The user does not need to address the application issues and
systems with those of neural networks. There are some man- technical quirks typically associated with each technology. AI
ufacturing applications that exemplify the functionality and expertise is not mandatory when using the platform system.
power of combining expert systems and neural networks. We Therefore, domain experts can both develop and apply systems
will provide a brief review in the following. based on the platform.
In order to overcome the knowledge acquisition bottleneck The platform has been incorporated in a new application-
in the building of expert systems, neural networks have specific product designed for chemical engineers. The product,
been used as a learning mechanism to transfer engineer- called CAD/Chem Custom Formulation System, helps de-
ing experience into formulated knowledge. Yeh et al. [175] signers rapidly optimize the formulation and processing of
employed a neural network to build an expert system for products such as plastics, rubber, alloys, composite materials,
debugging FEM program input data. The back-propagation and pharmaceuticals [177], 1781, [179]. The functionalities
learning algorithm was used to train the network for extracting of CAD/Chem and the underlying Integrated Technology Plat-
knowledge from training examples. The authors examined the form include “Best Match,” “Estimate,” and “Optimize.” “Best
influences of various control parameters including learning Match” enables a product designer find in the database the
rate and momentum factor, and various network architecture current or past product that best meets a given set of new
factors (e.g., the number of hidden nodes and the number of product requirements. This capability is based on a neural

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224 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMPONENTS, PACKAGING, AND MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY-PART A, VOL. 17, NO. 2, JUNE 1994

network’s pattern matching ability. The “Estimate” capability cause the two paradigms (expert systems and neural networks)
basically is also a neural network function. It tells the user use different representations. One solution to this problem is
what product properties to be expected for a given change in to subdivide the problem, delegating one set of tasks to each
formulation. This estimation capability is based on a system component. However, this approach restricts the effectiveness
model that is automatically learned by the neural network. An of the hybrid system; the components cannot benefit from each
automatic neural network configuration capability is provided other’s information when solving their individual tasks. An
by an expert system embedded in the platform. The rules alternative is to convert the representations of each component
in the expert system are used to select an initial network into a common language, or simply use one of the original
configuration and a set of parameters, based on the nature and representations (e.g., connectionist representation). The credit
dimension of the task. Additional rules adjust the configuration assignment problem also can be largely solved by using a
and parameters in real-time, as required, to enhance the homogeneous representation and adjusting all learning param-
learning rate of the neural network. The “Optimize” function eters with a single mechanism. This approach seems to be a
finds the best way to formulate or process a product. better solution. It is a very interesting research topic which
The platform system has also been applied to tasks such as requires tremendous amounts of effort.
quality control, product design, process control, power system
security monitoring, material selection, and finite element
V. CONCLUSIONS
modeling. A Functional Link Network (FLN) Combustion
Optimizer, which is also built upon the Integrated Technology The idea of building manufacturing systems that can func-
Platform, as discussed in 1SO]. tion automatically has attracted a lot of attention and created
Other significant applications reported in the literature in- continuous research activities. Recently, artificial neural net-
clude the following. Holden and Suddarth [181] used neural works have emerged as a revolutionary AI approach and
networkhowledge-based hybrid systems for large scale dy- generated enormous interests in the manufacturing arena.
namic control. Bulsari et al. 1821, 1831 applied the so-called This paper introduces the basic concepts of neural networks
“productive neural networks” for continuous steel casting and reviews the current application of neural networks in
diagnosis. Hall and Lu [184] used a hybrid methodology to manufacturing. The problems with neural networks are also
develop an adaptive controller for optimizing the operation of identified and some possible solutions are suggested. We
a harvester. Spelt el al. [185] presented a hybrid architecture hope that the materials presented in this paper can provide
for the diagnosis and decision-making in manufacturing. some useful guidelines and references for the research and
When we are dealing with a manufacturing problem, most implementation. Our conclusions are summarized as follows:
often we have a certain amount of apriori knowledge about the 1) There is an intense research interest in applying neural
problem domain. However, the a priori knowledge is neither network techniques in manufacturing.
complete nor necessarily accurate. While expert systems can 2) Some manufacturing problems have attracted more re-
handle a priori knowledge easily, neural networks can be used search attention than others.
to refine the knowledge base. Due to the recent successes of 3) Many of the applications reported in the literature are ei-
connectionism, one may argue that the a priori knowledge ther laboratory experiments or preliminary applications.
can also be learned by neural networks. This is possible but 4) While Hopfield networks are used in solving optimiza-
may be inappropriate. First, the task may not be well suited tion problems and ART networks are used in group
to inductive learning. For example, in his connectionist model technology, back-propagation networks have been ap-
of beam-balance physics, McClelland 1861 suggested that the plied in a variety of problems (including optimization
highest level of knowledge, i.e., using the concept of torque and group technology).
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from examples and required explicit transfer of knowledge. have been tested in real manufacturing practices and
Second, many learning algorithms are often designed to extract found to be true.
previously unknown regularities from their environment. Thus 6) Most of the applications are simulated in conventional
the representations they developed may not be comprehensible computers rather than implemented in hardware.
to the user. Third, it makes little sense to train a neural network 7) The development of VLSI (Very-Large Scale Integrated)
when the a priori knowledge can be explicitly embedded in neural chips will further accelerate the computation
the system architecture. Therefore, it is desirable to build a speed of neural networks.
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neural network components. solving different types of large-scale problems is desired.
Although hybrid systems can exploit the advantages and 9) There is a trend to integrate neural network and expert
neutralize the disadvantages of their components, they also system techniques to solve manufacturing problems.
bring some new problems. Hybrid systems face two problems Artificial neural network techniques are still very new and
not found (or found to a lesser extent) in their single-paradigm are developing quickly. We are witnessing fast expansion of
counterparts 1871. First, the expert system and neural network neural network-based intelligent machines. Neural networks
components in a hybrid system must be able to communicate. are an enhancing rather than replacing technology. As most
Second, if learning is to be supported, credit must be assigned researchers agree, artificial neural networks are not going to
to each component. The communication problem arises be- replace conventional computer and eliminate programming.

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 AND
Instead, they Will be integrated with conventional comput-
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expert systems) in order to develop truly intelligent manufac-
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Samuel H. Huang is a Ph.D. Student in the Depart-
ment of Industrial Engineering, Texas Tech Univer-
sity, Lubbock, TX.
Mr. Huang is a member of SME, ASME, and
IIE. He is also the vice-president of SME student
chapter at Texas Tech University. His research in-
terests are intelligent manufacturing, CIM, CAPP,
PDEWSTEP, CAD/CAM, and manufacturing sys-
tems. He has published several technical papers in
these areas.
Hong-Chao Zhang received the Ph.D. degree in
manufacturing from the Technical University of
Denmark in 1989 and the M.Sc. degree in mechan-
ical engineering from the University of Aalborg,
Denmark, in 1986.
He is currently an Assistant Professor in the
Department of Industrial Engineering, Texas Tech
University, Lubbock, TX. His research and teaching
interests are in the areas of concurrent engineering
and computer integrated manufacturing (CIM), in-
cluding computer aided process planning (CAPP),
CAD/CAM, application of artificial intelligence (AI) in manufacturing, auto-
mated tolerancing analysis, as well as manufacturing processes and systems.
Dr. Zhang has published more than 40 technical articles in a variety
of journals and conferences. One of his recent books, titled Computerized
Hall in 1993. He has received a research initiation awards from the NSF.