Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction Seawater Pollution...............................................................................2

Background:...........................................................................................................................2
Problem statement:.................................................................................................................4
Research questions and objectives:........................................................................................7
Chapter 2: Methodology............................................................................................................8
Research Scope......................................................................................................................8
Methodology..........................................................................................................................9
Dissertation Structure:..........................................................................................................11
Chapter 3: Literature review....................................................................................................13
Port sustainability (sea water pollution factors)..................................................................13
Green port concept (sea water pollution factors).................................................................15
The impact of sea water pollution........................................................................................18
Analytical framework..........................................................................................................20
Chapter summary.................................................................................................................21
References:...............................................................................................................................22

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Chapter 1: Introduction Seawater Pollution

Background:

What is water pollution? Water is one of the most significant natural resources that man has

destroyed for his use. Although the earth is 97% water but the percentage of useable water

is quite less, yet humans have not wasted a single chance to pollute it. Water pollution is

basically defined as “the presence of toxic substances in water whether they are chemical or

biological agents, which change the natural state of water and the quality of water gets

degraded is known as water pollution.” Water is said to be polluted when its quality is

changed naturally or due to the presence of human activity. (Goel, 2006)

In entire universe, Earth is the only place that supports “LIFE”. As being humans, we are

highly dependent on the atmosphere and environment around us and of course on natural

resources as well. Increase in industrialization is haphazardly affecting our environment and

hence resulting in the depletion of natural resources. Industrialization is not only causing air

and land pollution but also resulting in water pollution as well.97% of the Earth is made up

of water and the other 3% land and the land pollution followed by seawater pollution is

ruining both the life in water and on earth.

Coastal waters are highly affected by the land pollution followed by seawater pollution. The

seawater gets polluted by the industrial waste that is thrown into the river that merges into

the sea. 44% of the seawater pollution constitutes of the waste that ends up in the sea

through the river or pipelines.

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Water pollution is not confined by the land-based activities, acid rain also results in

seawater pollution. The harmful and toxic gases that stay in the earth’s atmosphere comes

down in the form of acid rain.Daily traffic and air conditioners are releasing carbon dioxide

and chlorofluorocarbons into the air thus adding up in the acid rain.Not only the human

beings but marine life is devastatingly affected by seawater pollution, floating garbage, oil

spills, high levels of metal in the sea water, nuclear waste and plastic waste etc. are

destroying the marine life. (Parvez & Mahbub, 2011)

Gulf area close to the mainland is mainly affected by seawater pollution. Due to increase in

human population and increase in the number of industries the coastal water is more

affected. It is the land-based activities that are adding up to the pollution in sea water.

Water pollution is also associated with the demographic growth along with the

industrialization growth.

Causes of Water Pollution:

Mentioned below are some of the major sources of water/seawater pollution:

 High population.

 Increase in sewage waste.

 Oil spill on sea beds.

 Industrialization.

 Floods during monsoon that drives the wastage from land into the rivers and then in

the sea water.

 Combustion.

 Littering.

 Agricultural waste and chemicals such as pesticides.

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  Deforestation.

 Heavy metals that are directly thrown in the sea.

 Toxic waste that is dumped into the sea. (Singh, 2016)  

Water Pollutants:

Water pollutants are described as the chemical or biological or even a physical entity that is

causing adverse effect on the marine life and those living organisms that rely on water.

However, most of the water pollutants are in the form of chemicals that are either dissolve

or water or stay there in saturated forms. Moreover, the biological factors such as

microorganisms mainly the pathogen species cause adverse effect on human and animal

health when they are present in water, they are also known as bio pollutants. (Goel, 2006)

Problem statement:

The problem statement of this research is that human activities are causing severe damage

to the natural environment. The main area of this research is seawater pollution which is

caused by many reasons and the way it is affecting human health, marine life, and overall

environment. Increase in urbanization is also affecting the coastal areas, human beings

without having a second thought ought to dump every kind of waste in coastal waters.

Mentioned below are the three main reasons behind water or seawater pollution:

 Industrial waste.

 Agriculture waste.

 Domestic waste.

 Marine ports and shipping.

Industrial Waste:

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One of the major parts of sea water is adversely affected by the industrial waste.

Manufacturing industry, mining industry and food processing industry is destroying the

water all over the world, whether it is for domestic use or seawater. The most toxic

substances are released by the oil refining and chemical industries. Due to these industries

heavy metals are also released in the water which later on end up in sea waters thus

resulting in seawater pollution.

The other industries also release toxic substances but on a smaller scale, however, these still

cannot be neglected. They also play their part in damaging the sea water. The power

generating industries are dumping radioactive substances in the water, also adding up to

the release of toxic gases in the air. Although some industries try to dump the radioactive

waste in ground water but a few of them don’t care and end up polluting the surface

waters, which eventually ends up in seas. It is not only toxic for the humans but also for the

marine life.

Agriculture Waste:

Agriculture waste is the other reason that is adding up in the seawater pollution. The use of

pesticides and nitrogen fertilizers have a become a part of modern-day agricultural methods

due to which the concentration of nitrogen increases in the water. It has hazardous effects

on human health and marine life. Even the ground water gets highly polluted with the use of

pesticides.

Domestic waste:

Increase in human population is resulting in increase in domestic waste. Untreated sewage

water is directly dumped into the rivers and coastal waters. The human waste is polluting

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both land and waters but all the land-based pollution also ends up in sea water. Now a days

almost everything is available in plastic wraps, even plastics such as straws that are used a

single time end up in trash. Most people tend to throw their trash without separating the

recyclable materials into rivers which end up destroying marine life. It is said that a time will

come where there will be more plastic in sea than fish. The cleaning products and shampoos

also contain large amount of chemicals in them, these are not highly toxic but they play

their part in polluting the ground and surface waters. (Gambhir et al., 2012)

Marine ports and shipping:

Marine ports and shipping areas are at the target of marine pollution, land-based pollution

is adding up the pollution at the marine ports. The domestic waste and shipping waste are

also thrown in the sea without proper treatment due to which the marine is badly affected

by it. Even the cruise ship can result in seawater pollution. The ships add grey water

pollution in the water that includes the sinks and laundry water that is used in ships, this

water is directly dumped into the sea. Grey water mostly contains chemicals that are

present in the laundry detergents.

On the other hand, the ships present on marine ports throw up chemicals such as chemicals

that are present in the batteries directly in the sea. One of the other major cause of oil

pollution is the oil used in ships. The oil that is used to run the ships not only result in air

pollution but can also result in seawater pollution. Oil have heavy metals present in them

and are highly toxic for the marine life. The poor quality of engine or repair work done in an

improper way also results in leakage of oil in the sea thus resulting in oil pollution.

Moreover, the accidents in the sea or ship wreckage due to collision even on the marine

ports results in oil spillage at the gulf areas. (Abu-Hilal & Al-Najjar, 2004)

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Research questions and objectives:

The main objectives of this research are to point out the following things:

 What are the factors that are resulting in seawater pollution?

 Pointing out how industrial wastes are destroying the marine life and marine

environment.

 Impacts of land-based pollution on seawater pollution.

 Impacts of water or sea water pollution on human health.

 Impact of heavy metals on marine life.

 The remedies or solutions that will help save both the ground and sea waters.

 Techniques that are used to purify the land and sea water.

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Chapter 2: Methodology

Research Scope

Increase in human population is leading towards the depletion and destruction of natural

resources. The pollutants are building up on land and washing off on the sea waters. The

main purpose of this research is to point out the factors that are leading towards the sea

water pollution. The main target area of this research is the port of Al Aqabah.

The research will help to understand the factors whether they are humans based or natural

factors that is causing sea water pollution. There are multiple elements that are leading

towards the sea water pollution and the major cause of the pollutants is humans. The

increased amount of pollutants is piled up due to the activity of human beings are increasing

day by day. Most of the sea water pollution is caused by the land-based pollutants.

One other factor that adds up in the sea water pollution is increased traffic. As the number

of vehicles are increasing on streets so is the amount of air and land pollutants increasing.

These not only cause adverse effect on human health but are highly dangerous for the

ecosystem. When the rain falls, the pollutants that are present in the air and on the land

that were generated by the light or heavy traffic mixes up with the rain water; it not only

contaminates the ground water but also ends up polluting the sea water.

The construction waste is another reason that causes water pollution. The construction

waste involves chemicals and other debris that is added in the water. The debris contains

plastic and metal waste from the industries and other urban construction sites; that without

treatment is dumped directly into the water.

Apart from that different chemical waste from the industries is thrown up in the rivers and

those rivers merges up in the sea. The chemicals are highly dangerous for the marine

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ecosystem and health of seawater animals. The flesh of the fish becomes highly toxic

resulting in death of the fishes, and if the fishes don’t die later on they are consumed by the

humans or other larger marine animals. Thus, the circle of this toxic waste continues.

Another major factor that is linked with the sea water pollution is the oil spills at the coastal

or shipping areas. During the transport of good or while loading off, ships comes in contact

with accidents thus resulting in oil spills at the sea shores. Oil spills is one of the leading

factors or seawater pollution and it is very difficult to control it. Another issue with the

spilling of crude oil is that, the heavy particles in the crude oil sinks down at the bottom of

sea beds and it gets really hard to clean them. Even if the upper layer of oil that is floating

on the top layer of sea is cleaned, it gets almost impossible to clean out the heavy particles

at the sea bed.

Above mentioned are a few of the causes that are resulting in the seawater pollution. In this

research, the effect of seawater pollution will also be discussed. Marine life and human

health are badly affected by this pollution. This research study is going to point out the

negative impact of polluted sea water. As mentioned above, the main targeted research

area is the Gulf or coastal are of Al Aqabah, Jordan, the cause and effect of seawater

pollution will be pointed out in this research.

Methodology

Different methods are used to collect data for a research project. These research methods

are mainly divided into two categories based upon the methods for data collection:

 Primary data collection.

 Secondary data collection.

Primary data collection:

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The primary data is the original data that is collected for the first time. The primary data

collection method is a bit hard, but it is easy to analyze it. The primary data collection

method includes three different strategies:

 Interviews: The researcher in interviews takes face-to-face interviews and tries to

research the topic in detail. Face-to-face interviews help the researcher clarify the

questions, and he might get a useful response in return. The interview can be

structured, or it can even be an informal conversation. A few drawbacks are using

this approach; the data gathered can be in great volumes that it becomes difficult to

analyze it, or the responder might get confused and distort the information.

 Surveys/Questionnaires: Conducting a survey is another primary method for

collecting data; it is more reliable and an easy way to collect the desired data.

Written questions mostly with blanks or multiple choices are given to the

respondents, and they have to fill in that survey/questionnaire. Survey forms can be

done in both ways, wither in the hard copy or online. It is hard to analyze and gather

the data in printed form, whereas, online surveys generate automatic results by

using bar graphs or pie charts.

 Observations: Observing a particular scenario can be time taking, but it will give

authentic results. The situation is observed by the researcher, and later on, he

analyzes the data.

Secondary data collection:

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The secondary data is the data that already exists. It is easily available and very inexpensive.

The secondary data is available on peer-reviewed journal articles and is authentic, but it is

difficult to analyze it. (Hox & Boeije, 2015)

Data Collection:

The data approach used for this research is secondary data. Considering the ongoing issues,

the data that will be analyzed is from the secondary source. The sampling and doing quality

checks on the sea water samples is quite hard, especially in the current pandemic. The data

that will be collected is going to be from credible peer-reviewed articles.

Collecting the water samples at the coastal area of Al Aqabah is quite difficult and its more

difficult to analyze and treat them. Therefore, for this research the data obtained from the

credible journal articles is used.

Dissertation Structure:

The structure of the dissertation is a combination of different chapters ranging from Chapter

1 to Chapter 6. Chapter 1 provides the introduction to the sea water pollution that includes,

background, the problem statement, research questions and objectives. Chapter 2 adds up

the research scope, methodology and the dissertation structure. In chapter 3, the peer-

reviewed articles on the sea water pollution on Gulf of Al Aqabah will be discussed. It also

includes the analytical framework and the secondary data that is used in the research.

Chapter 4 will be detailed, it will introduce the coastal area of Al Aqabah and the way sea

water is getting affected by the human and natural pollutants. Chapter 5 will include the

solutions or recommendations that will help to control of solve the sea water pollution and

the limitations that will cause hurdles in solving the problems on such massive level. Finally,

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in chapter 6 there will be the conclusion of whole dissertation and future work will be

discussed.

The sea port of Al Aqbah wasn’t completely developed till 1960s, however, the economic

growth in the area started during 1972-1980. Due to the development the area became one

of the busiest sea ports and was colonized with a number of industries. The coastal line of Al

Aqabah which is approximately 26.5 km is surrounded with the industries that mostly use

the natural resources. However, the gulf came in crisis in 1990.

Moreover, to the present date, one of the main reasons behind the economic growth of the

country is its sea port. As the country is growing economically so is the threat to sea water

pollution. In this dissertation the two major sources of sea water pollution will be described.

The Gulf of Al Aqabah is 180km long, such a large area becomes easily vulnerable to sea

water pollution, especially when the coast is populated. Following are the two major

reasons that are piling up in the sea water pollution at the Gulf of Al Aqabah :

 Land Based Pollution

 Sea Based Pollution. (Aqaba Coastal Resources Environmental Management Study in

Jordan, 2013)

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Chapter 3: Literature review

Port sustainability (sea water pollution factors)

All around the world, different administration manages the ports under different ownership.

Some of the ports are managed by the public and private sectors, whereas, some of the

ports are under the control of the central Government. However, in the western countries

the sea ports are fully operated and managed by the public and private sector to get the

maximum profit with the minimum investment of finances. Despite of the sector with which

the sea ports are operated, the main objective of the sea pots is to increase the efficiency

and productivity, and to expand the economic benefit that comes directly or indirectly. The

details of this lie in accomplishing operational proficiency and financial stability, and in

generating sustainable income or profit within the bounds of given resources and budget.

From one perspective, the idea of supportability has been distinguished as one of the key

components affecting the improvement of the competitiveness of the seaport , then again

manageability is required to evacuate or limit the risks. The risks include leaving the short-

term benefits, the sustainability of the seaports always demands long-term goals and

benefits but still they need to consider the environmental factors as well, for example the

emission of CO2 and other harmful products that are eradicated in the sea at the ports.

Thus, sustainable economic growth is of great importance for the authorities that handles

the seaports, and a progressing debate has been centralized on neutralizing the

environmental and social issues, and obviously of the economic importance. The expansion

in volumes transported with the help of ships and boats has prompted the expansion and

13
development of seaports along with the activities that are carried out at the seaports

regularly, results in extreme ecological and seawater pollution .

The operations or the activities that are carried on the coastal areas including the dumping

of water directly in the sea, noise, the release of CO2 and other greenhouse gases have

severe and adverse consequences not only on the environment and sea water but also on

the human health, specially the employees working on the coastal areas.

These issues have expanded the requirement in the view of sustainability of the ports. Port

sustainability is divided into three major parts that includes the:

 Environmental sustainability.

 Social sustainability and,

 Economic sustainability.

Its fundamental reason is to look an approach that is safe, socially admissible, energy

proficient, and environment friendly, whereas, at the same moment increasing the profits.

Practical and multidisciplinary strategies are needed to incorporate socio-economic and

ecological practices, and to examine the potential or operations of sustainable

responsibilities with the help of proper data provided.

To understand better the main goal of port sustainability has been described below:

 Environmental sustainability: The environmental stability will help to lessen the

negative impacts that are carried by the activities of the sea port for both the

environment and human health.

 Social sustainability: It includes the factors by which the life of people gets effected

with the activities that are carried out at the coastal areas. It involves the

socioeconomic preferences, such as the education for the workers and making the

surroundings of the sea ports better or upgrading them.

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  Economic sustainability: It involves the increased performance with the minimum

investment of finances while considering the social and environmental factors.

Seaports need to think about the integration of ecological and sea water issues.

Environmental stability and considering the factors that result in seawater pollution is a

basic part of sustainable business procedures and activities in the seaport division, with the

end goal for them to consider the economic advancement guidelines and rules. This is

especially apparent in port activities, for example, digging, material removal, and cargo

loading/unloading.

In this regard, research linked with port sustainability has been centered around such day to

day port activities to elevate the performance of environmental ports, that includes the

activities such as the processing of waste oil, the reduction of emitted gases, generation of

renewable energy resources and reducing the substances that cause air, water, land, and

noise pollution. Apart from the research on the practices of port sustainability, they need to

understand the complexities that comes with the port activities. (Lim et al., 2019)

Green port concept (sea water pollution factors)

Water quality may be influenced by a wide range of natural factors (biological, geological,

hydrological, meteorological, and topographical). However, an equally important parameter

on water quality is the human effect . Marine pollution is a subject of global interest, due to

the large number of toxic substances transported from human activities. As shipping

expanded into a prominent means of transportation and exploration in the 15th century and

earlier, the number, size and speed of vessels rose dramatically. Ports are the best-known

15
places where man's activities and environmental issues are sometimes in direct interaction.

They often have long local traditions, as many principal ports have been centered on local

and regional development and are strongly associated with the city profile and image

unclear meaning please rephrase.

Ports around the world are usually of public ownership due to the nature, size and long-

term perspective of the investments needed, although operations are often privatized . This

public ownership should be focused on to understand how ports can shape the social and

environmental performance of transportation systems, since it allows for the internalization

of both social and environmental externalities. Political approaches around the world view

ports and port terminals as critical infrastructure assets. Their ongoing success is directly

linked to their ability to “go green” by reducing their carbon footprint and by taking into

account environmental considerations. Inevitably port planning, design and operation of the

future must change to accommodate these concerns.

An Ecological Port, also known as a Green Port (EcoPort), is an environmentally friendly and

sustainably developed port, which meets all environmental requirements. Green Port, which

allows the voluntary and sustainable environmental sensitivity and the promotion of all

company employees and stakeholders, aimed at increasing ownership during the result of

integrating the development and operation of port facilities unclear meaning please

rephrase. The policies that should be implemented in a Green Port deal with the following:

protection of nature, highest possible level of pollution reduction, increased use of

renewable energy and the recycling of materials.

All these policies are aimed to reduce the negative impact on the environment as well as to

protect and improve the ecosystem and marine aquatic environment (natural life policy), to

reduce airborne emissions (air policy), to ensure the cleanliness of the harbor and coastal

16
waters (water policy), and of the port base (soil and sediment policy), to collaborate with

stakeholders and spread awareness knowledge (education policy), to design and manage

applications of the port area, to perform operations (sustainability policy) and to reduce

energy consumption by using renewable and environmentally friendly energy (energy

policy).

Green Port Concept:

The concept of Green Port is to integrate environmentally friendly methods in port

activities, operations, and management. Green Port aims to utilize efficiently its resources,

to reduce the negative impact on regional environment, to raise the environment

management level and improve the quality of the natural surroundings of the port area. The

green concept deals with protection of the as well as with its promotion into action.

Examples of these enforcing policies are inclusion of trees in the port absorb noise and

diminish pollution, and use of renewable energy for the port operations and activities, or

enforcement of practices, such as recycling and material reuse.

Most of ports have to fulfil the following goals in order to be characterized as green. These

are:

 Waste management, reduce waste from port operations through material reuse,

recycling, and composting

 Sustainable development, enhance the environmental performance of port

buildings while maximizing long-term economic benefits

 Sustainable business practices, give equal weight to environmental, economic, and

social concerns

 Water, improve water quality

 Energy, conserve energy and maximize energy efficiency to port operations.

17
  Air, reduce greenhouse gas contributions and other air emissions from port

operations (Satır & Doğan-Sağlamtimur, 2018)

The impact of sea water pollution

Water is considered polluted if some substances or condition is present to such a degree

that the water cannot be used for a specific purpose. Olaniran defined water pollution to be

“the presence of excessive amounts of a hazard (pollutants) in water in such a way that it is

no long suitable for drinking, bathing, cooking or other uses.” Pollution is the introduction of

a contamination into the environment. It is created by industrial and commercial waster,

agricultural practices, everyday human activities and most notably, models of

transportation. No matter where you go and what you do, there are remnants earths

environmental and its inhabitants in many ways. The three main types of pollution are: Land

Pollution, Air Pollution and Water Pollution. Both for the purpose of this research, emphasis

is on water pollution and control.

Impact of seawater pollution:

Water pollution has a duel effect on nature. It has negative effects on the living and also on

the environment. The effects of pollution on human beings and aquatic communities are

many and varied. Water pollution causes approximately 14,000 deaths per day, mostly due

to contamination of drinking water by untreated sewage in developing countries. An

estimated 700 million Indians have no access to a proper toilet, and 1,000 Indians children’s

die of diarrhea every day and so many other countries too. Nearly 500 million Chinese lack

access of safe drinking water

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Water pollution leads to damage to human health. Disease carrying agents such as bacteria

and viruses are carried into the surface and ground water. Drinking water is affected and

health hazards result. Direct damage to plants and animals’ nutrition also affects human

health. Plants nutrients including nitrogen, phosphorus and other substances that support

the growth of aquatic plant life could be in excess causing algal gloom and excessive weed

growth. This makes water to have odor, taste and sometimes color. Ultimately, the

ecological balance of a body of water is altered. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides cause

acid rain which lowers the PH value of soil and emission of carbon dioxide cause ocean

acidification, the ongoing decrease in the PH of the Earth’s Oceans as CO2 becomes

dissolved. (Owa, 2013)

Physical impact on marine life:

Marine debris may cause entanglement of aquatic organisms and may be ingested by

indiscriminate feeders as well as organisms that mistake debris for natural prey. The

research community published several papers detailing the effects of these physical debris

interactions on marine species. As part of push from the scientific and policy communities to

understand the physical impacts of marine debris (entanglement, ingestion, and alien and

invasive species transport), a wide-ranging report investigated and synthesized the impacts

of debris on marine biodiversity Entanglement in debris, especially discarded or lost fishing

nets and traps (derelict fishing gear, or DFG), is a significant problem posed by marine

debris.

Chemical impact on marine life:

Kelly et al. (2011) showed isolated atoll environments in the central Pacific Ocean are

affected by iron introduced by shipwreck debris in these typically iron-limited areas.

19
Multiple lines of evidence. point to the impact of iron on shifts in reef productivity; these

include benthic surveys of cover, bio-available iron concentration in tested algae tissue (633

µmol Fe:mol C; 6x higher than in nearby reference sites), genomic sequencing of microbial

communities showing iron-associated virulence genes, and microcosm experiments showing

coral mortality through microbial action upon introduction of black reef rubble. (Mearns et

al., 2013)

The other chemicals that are used for the irrigation purpose also adds up in the ground

water. The chemical effects that are caused by the herbicides and pesticides are having an

adverse effect on marine life health.

Analytical framework

Many research studies have been conducted when it comes to the factors that leads to the

sea water pollution along the coastal lines. The study conducted by (Lim et al., 2019)

pointed out multiple factors such as social, enviornmental and economic factors that

resulted in seawater pollution or the pollution at coastal areas.

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Chapter summary

21
References:

 Goel, P. K. (2006). Water pollution : causes, effects and control. New Age

International.

 Parvez, S., & Mahbub, B. (2011). Impact of Urban Traffic and Climate Change on

Water Quality from Road Runoff. 

 Singh, S. (2016). Water Pollution: Sources, Effects, and Control Measures. Journal of

Agroecology and Natural Resource Management, 3(1), 64–66. 

 Gambhir, R. S., Kapoor, V., Nirola, A., Sohi, R., & Bansal, V. (2012). Water Pollution:

Impact of Pollutants and New Promising Techniques in Purification Process. Journal

of Human Ecology, 37(2), 103–

109. https://doi.org/10.1080/09709274.2012.11906453

 Aqaba Coastal Resources Environmental Management Study in Jordan. Final Report

(Oct. 1993). Vol.l,Text. COWIconsult. Delegation of the Commission of the European

Community in the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan.

 Abu-Hilal, A. H., & Al-Najjar, T. (2004). Litter pollution on the Jordanian shores of the

Gulf of Aqaba (Red Sea). Marine Environmental Research, 58(1), 39–63.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marenvres.2003.12.003

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 Hox, J. J., & Boeije, H. R. (2005). Data collection, primary versus secondary.

 Lim, S., Pettit, S., Abouarghoub, W., & Beresford, A. (2019). Port sustainability and

performance: A systematic literature review. Transportation Research Part D:

Transport and Environment, 72, 47–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2019.04.009.

 Satır, T., & Doğan-Sağlamtimur, N. (2018). The protection of marine aquatic life:

Green Port (EcoPort) model inspired by Green Port concept in selected ports from

Turkey, Europe and the USA. Periodicals of Engineering and Natural Sciences, 6(1),

120–129. https://doi.org/10.21533/pen.v6i1.149.

 Owa, F. D. (2013). Water pollution: sources, effects, control and

management. Mediterranean journal of social sciences, 4(8), 65.

https://doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2013.v4n8p65.

 Kelly, L. W., Barott, K. L., Dinsdale, E., Friedlander, A. M., Nosrat, B., Obura, D., Sala,

E., Sandin, S. A., Smith, J. E., Vermeij, M. J. A., Williams, G. J., Willner, D., & Rohwer,

F. (2011). Black reefs: iron-induced phase shifts on coral reefs. The ISME

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 Mearns, A. J., Reish, D. J., Oshida, P. S., Ginn, T., Rempel-Hester, M. A., Arthur, C., &

Rutherford, N. (2013). Effects of Pollution on Marine Organisms. Water Environment

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