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CHAPTER - 20
Boiler Pollution Control
Introduction:
Undesirable contamination of environment is termed ‘Pollution’.
‘ ’. In all industrial
processes, there are some byproducts that possess any commercial value and are
armful to humans and/or cattle beyond a certain concentration. When such
byproducts are disposed freely in the environment ‘Pollution’ is caused. Uncontrolled
Uncontroll
disposal, into environment, of these byproducts constitutes Pollution of Air and
Water. In early times adverse effects of such Pollution were not known. Hence it was
taken for granted that Pollution is a necessary evil associated with industrialization.
However, as more and more knowledge is being gathered and Pollutants and their
effects are being studied and recorded, scientific norms for making disposal of
polluting byproducts are evolving. Norms are being established about the degree of
pollution thatt can be tolerated by everyone harmlessly. Rules and Regulations have
been made in almost all countries for this purpose. In India too there are Acts of Law
and Rules & Regulations for control of Pollution. Certain standards have also been
laid down for most st potential forms of Pollution nuisance. Failure to comply
constitutes a breach of the law with the possibility of fines or even injunctions
restricting production.
In the following have been discussed the sources of pollution associated with boilers
and the steps to abate them.
Persons engaged in the design operation and maintenance of industrial plant should
aim at not only meeting the emission norms but also minimizing the nuisance.
Boilers can cause Pollution of Atmosphere through emissions, Water through
thr effluents
and Noise. Sources of such pollution are shown in diagram below.

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Atmospheric Pollution
Atmospheric pollution can be caused by a) Dark smoke, b) Ash particles as Suspended
Matters or Particulate, c) Oxides of Sulphur, d) Acidic smut
smut emission from oil fired
boilers, e) Oxides of nitrogen and f) CO as described below.

Dark smoke:
Dark smoke causes blackening of buildings and by excluding sunlight it is detrimental
to health and adversely affects the growing of crops.
It is due to the presence of particles of carbonaceous matter because of bad
combustion, inefficient maintenance and cleaning of heating surfaces, faulty design
and installation of firing equipments, overloading of plants, insufficient air supply,
improper draught, air leakages from the brickwork and other openings and
inadequate size of stack. With modern plant and skilled operators it can be avoided
considerably.
The colour of smoke is measured by comparing it with a Ringlemann chart.

Ash particles or Particulates:

In pulverised coal firing 85% ash appear as fly ash and in others it is 25%. The term fly
ash is used when fine ash and slag particles are carried over to the exit end of the
plant. Cleaning and washing coal is considered as one of the means to reduce
pollution.
Flyash from the combustion process is collected using one of four major technologies:
a. electrostatic precipitator (ESP),
b. fabric filters (or baghouse),
c. mechanical collectors and
d. wet scrubbers.
With today’s removal requirements in excess
excess of 99.9%, modern ESPs and fabric filters
dominate fly ash collection. Mechanical collectors are still used for specialty
applications as a preliminary collection device, especially where fly ash recycle is
part of the combustion process, but they are almost always followed by an ESP or
fabric filter for final particulate control. Wet scrubbers are no longer used for
primary particulate collection because of their high energy requirements for the
desired removal efficiencies.
In addition to efficient grit
rit collection the use of high stacks distributes the residual
ash over a wide area. The dust can travel over a distance of 70 miles in a light wind
from a 300 ft. stack.

Oxides of Sulphur:
Sulphur in the fuel burns off to liberate SO2 which forms SO3 in the final stage of
flame burning when there is an exigency of atomic oxygen. SO3 is also produced from
SO2 on the surface of the superheater deposits that act as a catalyst at elevated
temperatures. SO3 reacts with the atmospheric moisture to form an aerosol ae of
sulphuric acid which rains down as acid rain.

Historically, SOx pollution has been controlled by either dispersion or reduction.

Dispersion involves the utilization of a tall stack, which enables the release of
pollutants high above the ground and
and over any surrounding buildings, mountains, or
hills, in order to limit ground level SOx emissions. Today, dispersion alone is not
enough to meet more stringent SOx emission requirements; reduction methods must
also be employed.
Methods of SOx reduction include switching to low sulfur fuel, desulphurizing the
fuel, and utilizing a flue gas desulphurization (FGD) system. Fuel desulphurization,
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which primarily applies to coal, involves removing sulfur from the fuel prior to
burning. Flue gas desulphurization involves the utilization of scrubbers to remove SOx
emissions from the flue gases.
Flue gas desulphurization systems are classified as either non-regenerable
non or
regenerable. Non-regenerable
regenerable FGD systems, the most common type, result
res in a waste
product that requires proper disposal. Regenerable FGD converts the waste by- by
product into a marketable product, such as sulfur or sulfuric acid. SOx emission
reductions of 90-95%
95% can be achieved through FGD. Fuel desulphurization and FGD
are primarily used for reducing SOx emissions for large utility boilers. Generally the
technology cannot be cost justified on industrial boilers.
For users of industrial boilers, utilizing low sulfur fuels is the most cost effective
method of SOx reduction. Because SOx emissions primarily depend on the sulfur
content of the fuel, burning fuels containing a minimal amount of sulfur (distillate
oil) can achieve SOx reductions, without the need to install and maintain expensive
equipment.

Acidic smuts from oil fired boilers

The burning of high sulphur content fuel oil can give appreciable quantities of
sulphuric acid which together wilt particles of unburnt carbon can cause acidic soot
to fall in an area of about 1 mile radius. These smuts are very destructive to car
finishes, clothing, etc., although the total quantity is very low compared with coal
burning.
Improved boiler operating technique and the use of chemical additives to limit
sulphuric acid formation has reduced the extent of the problem.

Oxides of nitrogen (NOX):

Oxides of nitrogen are produced by combustion of fuels. Nitrogen dioxide is a highly
dangerous air pollutant. NO + NO2 are produced in the high-temperature
temperature zones of the
flame. NOX may undergo a photochemical reaction with the hydrocarbons in i the
atmosphere in the presence of sunlight to release some toxic substances in the air.
The concentration of NOX in combustion gases largely depends on the combustion
technique in the furnace. Since the bulk of NOX produced in the combustion process
comess from chemical reaction between aerial nitrogen and oxygen in the high
temperature combustion zone (above 1600oC), the chief means of limiting NOX
generation is to lower the temperature in the combustion zone.

NOx control technologies:

NOx controls can be classified into two types: post combustion methods and
combustion control techniques. Post combustion methods address NOx emissions
after formation while combustion control techniques prevent the formation of NOx
during the combustion process.
ess. Post combustion methods tend to be more expensive
than combustion control techniques and generally are not used on boilers with inputs
of less than 100 MMBtu/hr. Following is a list of different NOx control methods.
Post combustion control methods include:
in
• Selective Non-Catalytic
Catalytic Reduction
• Selective Catalytic Reduction
Combustion control techniques include:
• Low Excess Air Firing
• Low Nitrogen Fuel Oil
• Burner Modifications
• Water/Steam Injection
• Flue Gas Recirculation
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Each method results in a different degree of NOx control. For example, when firing
natural gas, low excess air firing typically reduces NOx by 10%, flue gas recirculation
by 75%, and selective catalytic reduction by 90%

Post combustion control methods:

Selective Non-catalytic
catalytic Reduction
Selective non-catalytic
catalytic reduction involves the injection of a NOx reducing agent, such
as ammonia or urea, into the boiler exhaust gases at a temperature of approximately
1400-1600
1600 °F. The ammonia or urea breaks down the NOx NOx in the exhaust gases into
water and atmospheric nitrogen. Selective non-catalytic
non catalytic reduction reduces NOx up to
70%.
However, the technology is extremely difficult to apply to industrial boilers that
modulate or cycle frequently. This is because the ammonia ammonia (or urea) must be
injected in the flue gases at a specific flue gas temperature. And, in industrial boilers
that modulate or cycle frequently, the location of the exhaust gases at the specified
temperature is constantly changing. Thus, it is not feasible
feasible to apply selective non-
non
catalytic reduction to industrial boilers that have high turndown capabilities and
modulate or cycle frequently.
Selective Catalytic Reduction
Selective catalytic reduction involves the injection of ammonia in the boiler exhaust
gases
ases in the presence of a catalyst. The catalyst allows the ammonia to reduce NOx
levels at lower exhaust temperatures than selective non-catalytic
non catalytic reduction. Unlike
selective non-catalytic
catalytic reduction, where the exhaust gases must be approximately
1400-1600 °F, selective catalytic reduction can be utilized where exhaust gasses are
between 500 °F and 1200 °F, depending on the catalyst used. Selective catalytic
reduction can result in NOx reductions up to 90%. However, it is costly to use and can
rarely be costt justified on boilers with inputs less than 100 MMBtu/hr.

Choosing the best NOx technology for the job:

What effect does NOx control technology ultimately have on a boiler's performance?
Certain NOx controls can worsen boiler performance while other controls cont can
appreciably improve performance. Aspects of the boiler performance that could be
affected include turndown, capacity, efficiency, excess air, and CO emissions.
Failure to take into account all of the boiler operating parameters can lead to
increased
sed operating and maintenance costs, loss of efficiency, elevated CO levels,
and shortening of the boiler's life.
The following section discusses each of the operating parameters of a boiler and how
they are related to NOx control technologies.

Turndown:
Choosing a low NOx technology that sacrifices turndown can have many adverse
effects on the boiler. When selecting NOx controls, the boiler should have a
turndown capability of at least 4:1 or more, in order to reduce operating costs and
the number of on/off
n/off cycles. A boiler utilizing a standard burner with a 4:1 turndown
can cycle as frequently as 12 times per hour or 288 times a day because the boiler
must begin to cycle at inputs below 25% capacity.
With each cycle, pre- and post-purge
post air flow removeses heat from the boiler and sends
it out the stack. The energy loss can be reduced by using a high turndown burner
(10:1), which keeps the boiler on even at low firing rates.
Every time the boiler cycles off, before it comes back on, it must go through a
specific start-up
up sequence for safety assurance. It takes between one to two minutes

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to get the boiler back on line. If there is a sudden load demand, the response cannot
be accelerated. Keeping the boiler on line assures a quick response to load changes.
Frequent cycling also deteriorates the boiler components. The need for maintenance
increases, the chance of component failure increases, and boiler downtime increases.
So, when selecting NOx control, always consider the burners turndown capability.

Capacity:
When selecting the best NOx control, capacity and turndown should be considered
together because some NOx control technologies require boiler derating in order to
achieve guaranteed NOx reductions. For example, flame shaping (primarily enlarging
the flame to produce a lower flame temperature - thus lower NOx levels) can require
boiler derating, because the shaped flame could impinge on the furnace walls at
higher firing rates.
However, the boiler's capacity requirement is typically determined by the maximum
load in the steam/hot water system. Therefore, the boiler may be oversized for the
typical load conditions that may occur. If the boiler is oversized, its ability to handle
minimum loads without cycling is limited. Therefore, when selecting the th most
appropriate NOx control, capacity and turndown should be considered together for
proper boiler selection and to meet overall system load requirements.

Efficiency:
Some low NOx controls reduce emissions by lowering flame temperature, particularly
in boilers with inputs less than 100 MMBtu/hr. Reducing the flame temperature
decreases the radiant heat transfer from the flame and could lower boiler efficiency.
The efficiency loss due to the lower flame temperatures can be partially offset by
utilizing external components, such as an economizer. Or, the offset technique can
be inherent in the NOx design.
One technology that offsets the efficiency loss due to lower flame temperatures in a
firetube boiler is flue gas recirculation. Although the loss of radiant
radiant heat transfer
could result in an efficiency loss, the recirculated flue gases increase the mass flow
through the boiler - thus the convective heat transfer in the tube passes increases.
The increase in convective heat transfer compensates for losses in radiant heat
transfer, with no net efficiency loss. When considering NOx control technology,
remember, it is not necessary to sacrifice efficiency for NOx reductions. Excess Air A
boiler's excess air supply provides for safe operation above stoichiometric
stoichiomet conditions.
A typical burner is usually set up with 10-20%
10 excess air (2-4%
4% O2). NOx controls that
require higher excess air levels can result in fuel being used to heat the air rather
than transferring it to usable energy. Thus, increased stack losses and reduced boiler
efficiency occur. NOx controls that require reduced excess air levels can result in an
oxygen deficient flame and increased levels of carbon monoxide or unburned
hydrocarbons. It is best to select a NOx control technology that has little
littl effect on
excess air.

Carbon Monoxide (CO) Emissions:

High flame temperatures and intimate air/fuel mixing are essential for low CO
emissions. Some NOx control technologies used on industrial and commercial boilers
reduce NOx levels by lowering flame temperatures
temperatures by modifying air/fuel mixing
patterns. The lower flame temperature and decreased mixing intensity can result in
higher CO levels.
An induced flue gas recirculation package can lower NOx levels by reducing flame
temperature without increasing CO
CO levels. CO levels remain constant or are lowered
because the flue gas is introduced into the flame in early stages of combustion and
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the air fuel mixing is intensified. Intensified mixing offsets the decrease in flame
temperature and results in CO levels that are lower than achieved without FGR. But,
the level of CO depends on the burner design. Not all flue gas recirculation
applications result in lower CO levels.
Total Performance:
Selecting the best low NOx control package should be made with total boiler bo
performance in mind. Consider the application. Investigate all of the characteristics
of the control technology and the effects of the technology on the boiler's
performance. A NOx control technology that results in the greatest NOx reduction is
not necessarily
ecessarily the best for the application or the best for high turndown, adequate
capacity, high efficiency, sufficient excess air, or lower CO. The newer low NOx
technologies provide NOx reductions without affecting total boiler performance.

Carbon monoxide:
Carbon monoxide is a pollutant that is readily absorbed in the body and can impair
the oxygen-carrying
carrying capacity of the hemoglobin. Impairment of the body's
hemoglobin results in less oxygen to the brain, heart, and tissues. Even short-term
short
over exposure to carbon monoxide can be critical, or fatal, to people with heart and
lung diseases. It may also cause headaches and dizziness in healthy people.
During combustion, carbon in the fuel oxidizes through a series of reactions to form
carbon dioxide (CO2). However, 100 percent conversion of carbon to CO2 is rarely
achieved in practice and some carbon only oxidizes to the intermediate step, carbon
monoxide.
Older boilers generally have higher levels of CO than new equipment because CO has
only recently become e a concern and older burners were not designed to achieve low
CO levels. In today's equipment, high levels of carbon monoxide emissions primarily
result from incomplete combustion due to poor burner design or firing conditions (for
example, an improper air-to to-fuel
fuel ratio) or possibly a leaky furnace. Through proper
burner maintenance, inspections, operation, or by upgrading equipment or utilizing
an oxygen control package, the formation of carbon monoxide can be controlled at
an acceptable level.
Water pollution:
Large boilers in thermal power station and of process industries contribute to water
pollution by way of discharging into the water basin the:
a. boiler blowdown
b. SO2-scrubber waste
c. Cooling waters that mainly causes thermal pollution
d. Waste waters from waste treatment plants and demineralising units
e. Waste waters contaminated with petroleum products
f. Waste waters from hydraulic ash-disposal
ash system.
These discharged waste waters carry a rich load of harmful impurities, viz heavier
metal cations,
tions, organic substances and coarse-dispersed
coarse dispersed solids besides dissolved salts.
The toxic substances added to the water basin from boiler plants may adversely
affect the hydrobionts-all all living organisms inhabiting the water basin. At higher
concentrations theyhey will simply perish while at lower concentrations they may suffer
from reduced metabolism and growth rate, abnormal change in mutagenesis and
reproductive capacity.
The load of impurities discharged into water basins can be decreased in two ways:
1. by purifying
rifying the waste waters
2. by reducing the quantitative discharge of impurities from particular
technological process.

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Boiler blowdown: This waste stream results from periodic purging of the impurities
that become concentrated in steam boiler systems. These pollutants include metals
such as copper, iron and nickel, as well as chemicals added to prevent scaling and
corrosion of steam generator
ator components.

Thermal pollution: The heat released by cooling water (open-

(open-circuit) from the
turbine condensers of super thermal power stations is enormous. This creates a high
zone of elevated temperature in the water basin, reduces its dissolved oxygenoxyg
thereby impairs the growth and development of aquatic life. The zone of elevated
temperature in a water basin can be reduced by allowing the inflow of hot discharge
water into the basin through:
a. open type spillways with
i. transverse and side weir bulkheads
bulkhead
ii. distributing grill
b. submerged jet-type
type spillways

Waste waters from water treatment plants and DM units: Waste water of water
treatment plants (WTP) contains slime, coarse dispersed solid, organic substances,
magnesium hydroxide, calcium carbonate and salts salts of iron and aluminum. The
composition and concentration of various impurities in waste water depends on the
quality of raw water and the methods adopted for water treatment. In DM-unit, DM
regeneration of H-cation
cation exchanger and OH-anion
OH anion exchanger is done by using H2SO4
and NAOH solutions and as a consequence, the disposed waste becomes respectively
acidic and alkaline in nature.
Purification: The waste water of WTP and discharge from DM-unit
DM unit may be disposed as
follows:
a. transferring the waste water into the hydraulic ash handling system of coal fired
boiler units
b. neutralizing the waste water (pH>9) of WTP with acid wastes of the DM-unit.
DM
c. Subjecting the waste to slime separation, i.e. slime dewatering in drum type
vacuum filters and recycling the clarified water for washing of mechanical
filters.
Reducing waste water discharge of WTP and DM-units:
DM units: The amount of impurities
discharged into the water basin by waste waters from the WTP and DM-unitDM can be
diminished by adopting techniques that will minimise thethe use of reagents and water
for water treatment and regeneration purposes.
The quantity of water used for regeneration of mechanical filters can be drastically
cut down by increasing the filtering capacity of mechanical filters. By using expanded
clay instead
tead of quartz sand in mechanical filters it is possible to use less water for
regeneration by a factor 2.5-3.5.
2.5
The flowrate of wastes from the DM-unit
DM unit can be effectively reduced by adopting the
process of:
a. continuous ion exchange
b. stepwise counter-current
current ion-exchange
c. thermal regeneration (instead of chemical regeneration) of ion exchanges.
The colloidal impurities of waste water can be precipitated down by
electrocoagulator using either Fe or Al anodes.
Stripping waste water of its dissolved salts can be be effectively accomplished by a
physical process known as reverse osmosis. In this process, the waste water with
dissolved salts is forced through a semi-permeable
semi permeable membrane at a pressure,
exceeding the osmotic pressure of the solution. The membrane allows only water and
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a small fraction of salts as ions to pass with the effect that the filtrate contains an
appreciably smaller quantum of dissolved impurities. Reverse osmosis technique has
drastically cut down the consumption of reagents used for water treatment
treatm with the
effect that the concentration of impurities in discharged waste waters sharply
declines.
The line up of reverse osmosis plant upstream of DM-unitsDM units can slash down the
discharge of salt solution by 50% and the cost of desalted water by 25%.
Desalination
lination of waste waters can be successfully carried out by another technique
known as electrodialysis.. The apparatus consists of an assembly of parallel cation
and anion exchange membranes flanked by a stainless steel cathode and platinum
coated steel anode.
de. Electrodialysis substantially reduces the use of reagents for the
waste water treatment and consequently the amount of salt discharged to waste
waters is also diminished.

Waste waters contaminated with petroleum products: The petroleum products like
lube oils, fuel oils, kerosene. etc. find their way to the water basin in an emulsified,
colloidal or dissolved state. They are particularly dangerous for water basins. The
maximum allowable concentration of petroleum products in the water basin is 0.5
mg/kg
/kg of water. They form films on the water surface, inhibit the natural aeration of
water and thereby inflict serious harm to aquatic life.
Purification:: The oil contaminated waste water is charged to oil traps that separate
out efficiently the course oil particles of size 80-100
100 µm or more. The clarified water
is then fed into the flotator where finer oil particles are separated from water at a
high rate under pressure flotation. The purified water is then filtered through a
mechanical filter. The former consists
consists of double layer packing of quartz sand and
anthracite. The carbon filter consists of bed of activated carbon to adsorb oily
suspensions. The final effluent water of this plant is 95% free from oil.

Waste water of hydraulic ash disposal system:

syst In a hydraulic ash disposal system
water is allowed to act upon the ash, a part of which dissolves and the rest forms a
pulp (suspension) which is pumped to ash settling ponds where the course impurities
settle down and the clarified water can either be
be discharged directly into a water
basin or recycled for reuse.
The composition and concentration of impurities transferred from ash to water
depends largely upon the chemical composition of ash which may vary appreciably.

SiO3: 10-70%; Al2O3: 10-40%;

40%; Fe2O3: 2-30%; CaO: 2-70%; MgO: 0-10%;
10%;
K2O + Na2O: 0-10%.

It may also contain traces amount of compounds of vanadium, germanium, arsenic,

mercury, beryllium and fluorine.
Decontamination of ash disposal water: The high flowrate and high concentration of
impurities in the waste water of a hydraulic ash disposal system prevent purification
of the entire bulk of the ash disposal system. What can be achieved is
decontamination of toxic impurities to a safe level and the principal processes
involved are as follows:
1. Precipitation as well as co-precipitation
co of impurities
2. Sorption of impurities
3. Oxidation reduction followed by precipitation.
Removal of impurities by forming sparingly soluble precipitates or by adsorption on
the surface of the solid phase separated
separated in the water mass during the course of the
chemical treatment of ash disposal water is the most popular one
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Zero liquid discharge:

Utilities are looking for waste water treatment techniques to retrieve almost entire
gamut of their effluents as a high quality
quality distillate for reuse and to convert the
contaminants of waste steam into manageable solid wastes for disposal. The most
popular among these techniques is the ZERO LIQUID DISCHARGE (ZLD) system that can
recover 90-99%
99% of the waste water as a high quality
quality distillate suitable for reuse in the
boiler makeup or the cooling tower while simultaneously producing a clean salt for
byproduct sale with only a minor volume of contaminants.

Pollution Control Acts In India

Environmental Laws
1. The water (Prevention
vention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974;
2. The water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977;
3. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981;
4. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986;

I. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974:

The water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 provides for the prevention
and control of water pollution and the maintaining or re-storing
re storing of wholesomeness of
water. Under the scheme of the Act, the relevant provisions, casting obligations on
persons may be referred under sections - 24, 25/26
/26 and 31 of the Act.
Section - 24, prohibits on the use of stream or well for the disposal of polluting
matters, which is in excess of the standards laid down by the Board. In other words,
people are under obligation to observe the standards laid down by the Board, in the
matter of use of stream
tream or well by way of disposal of the polluting matters,
determined in accordance with the Board's Standard.
Section - 25/26, restricts establishment or use of new or existing outlets or discharge
without prior consent from the Board. In other words, person
person are under obligation to
apply for consent, before they are taking steps to establish any industry or are
bringing into use any new outlet or are continuing with the existing Outlet for the
discharge of sewage or trade effluent.
Section - 31, cast obligation
igation on any industry, operation or process to furnish
information to the Sate Board, including other agencies, about accidental discharge
of any poisonous matter into a stream or well or sewer on land. Failure to carry out
the aforesaid obligations attracts
attracts penal provisions under sections 43,
43 44 and 42
respectively.

II. The water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act,

Act, 1977:
1977
The water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977 provides for the levy
and collection of Cess on water consumed
consumed by persons carrying on specified industry
and by local authorities, with a view to augmenting the resource of Central and State
Board's for the prevention and Control of water pollution, constituted under the
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Pollution) Act, 1974. The relevant provisions casting
obligation under this Act may be referred under sections 3,4 and 5.
Section - 3 casts liability on every person carrying on any specified industry under
Schedule I of the Act, and also on every authority to pay
pay a Cess for the purpose of the
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 and utilization of water there
under.
Section - 4,, requires every person carrying on any specified industry and every local
authority to affix meters of prescribed standard,
standard, so as to measure the quantity of
water consumed by them.
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Section - 5,, requires the said persons to furnish returns in the prescribed format,
showing the quantity of water consumed in the previous month.

Failure to carry out the obligations and liability,

liability, as aforesaid, attracts the penal
provision under section 14 of the Act.

III. Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,1981:

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 provides for the
prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.
pollu
The liability/obligations imposed on the concerned persons under the scheme of this
Act may be referred under the provisions of sections 21,22 and 23.
Section - 21,, similar to the provision under section 25/26 of the Water Act, 1974,
puts obligation by way of restriction on any person on the establishment or operation
of any industrial plant in an air pollution control area, without obtaining prior
consent from the concerned Board.
Section - 22 is also comparable to section 24 of the Water Act, 1974. It requires any
person carrying on any industrial plant to allow discharge or emission only within the
prescribed standard.
Section - 23 is also comparable to section 31 of the Water Act, 1974, where whe under
any person, carrying on an industrial plant, shall furnish information to the State
Board or other agencies, in case due to any accident or other unforeseen act or event
emission has occurred in excess of the standards laid down by the Board.
In the
he event of failure to carry out ones obligations or liabilities, as aforesaid, penal
provision under Section - 37 of the Act is attracted.
IV. Environment (Protection) Act, 1986;
It provides for the protection and improvement of environment and the matters matt
connected therewith. This legislative piece was brought into existence by the
Parliament, as Umbrella Act, which intended to cover all the specific and general
provisions left by the earlier enactments.
The instant Act, being broader in approach, has broader catch also in creating
liabilities and obligations on the Nation. The obligations created under this Act may
be broadly referred under sections 7,8,and 9.
Section - 7 puts obligation on every person carrying on any industry or operation to
allow emission
ission or discharge only within the standards prescribed by the Central
Government.
Section - 8 requires any person handling hazardous substance to handle them in
accordance with such procedure and safe - guards as has been prescribed by the
Central Governmentment by the following Rules . These Rules, further break obligations
and liabilities on certain persons to carry out, as discussed below separately :-:

(A.) The Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989:

These rules apply to hazardous wastes, as specified in its Schedule but shall not apply
to discharge or emissions covered under the the Water Act, 1974 and the Air Act,
1981; shall not apply to wastes arising out of the operation from ships, beyond 5
Kilometers in the sea; and shall also not apply
a to Radio-Active
Active Wastes covered under
the Atomic Energy Act, 1962.
These rule create liability on all such persons, who are handling or causing to be
handled hazardous wastes specified in its schedule.
Rule - 4 creates responsibilities on the occupiers,
occupiers, who generate hazardous waste
listed in column - II of the schedule in quantities equal to or exceeding the limit
given in column - III of the said Schedule, to take all proper steps during handling and
disposal of such waste without creating any adverse
advers effect.
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He is also required to give specified information by the State Board to the operator of
a facility intending to get his hazardous Waste treated.
Under Rule 5,, every occupier generating hazardous wastes and having facility for
collection, treatment, storage and disposal of such wastes, is required to obtain
authorization for handling such hazardous wastes from State Pollution Control Board.
Similarly, any person,
on, who intends to or is operating a facility for the collection,
reception, treatment, transport, storage and disposal of hazardous wastes, shall have
to obtain authorization from the State Board.
Under Rule 10,, the occupier or the operator of a facility shall be under obligation to
report immediately to the state Board about any accident occurring at the facility or
on a hazardous wastes site.
Water Pollution:
THERMAL POWER PLANTS
Maximum limiting concentration milligram
Parameters per liter
(Except for pH and temperature)
1. CONDENSER COOLING WATERS ( ONCE THROUGH COOLING
SYSTEM )
pH 6.5 to 8.5

Not more than 50 C higher than the intake

Temperature
water temperature.

Free available chlorine 0.5

II. BOILER
BLOWDOWNS
Suspended Solids 100
Oil & Grease 10
Copper ( total ) 1.0
Iron ( total ) 1.0
III. COOLING TOWER
BLOW DOWN
Free available chlorine 0.5
Zinc 1.0
Chromium ( Total ) 0.2
Phosphate 5.0
IV. ASH POND
EFFLUENT
PH 6.5 - 8.5
Suspended Solids 100
Oil and grease 20

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Standards prescribed for emissions of Air Pollutants under Air

(Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

1. (a) STACK EMISSION STANDARDS FOR BOILER PLANTS

Steam Required particular matter
Generating
Capacity A B
Area upto 5 Km from the periphery of other than "A"
class I and class II Town
less than 2 800 mg/NM3 1200 mg/NM3
ton/ht
2 ton to 10 500 mg/NM3 1000 mg/NM3
ton/hr
above 15 150 mg/NM3 150 mg/NM3
ton/hr
All emissions normalized to 12% carbon dioxide
(1)) STANDARDS FOR STACK HEIGHT FOR BOILER PLANTS
Steam Generating Capacity Stack Heights
1 More than 2 ton/hr. 9 meters or 2.5 times the height of
neighboring building whichever is more

2.more than 2 ton/hr to5 12 meters

ton/hr.
3.more than 5 ton/hr to10 15 meters
ton/hr.
4.more than 10 ton/hr to15 18 meters
ton/hr.
5.more than 15 ton/hr to 20 21meters
ton/hr.
6.more than 20 ton/hr to 25 24 meters
ton/hr.
7.more than 25 ton/hr to 30 27 meters
ton/hr.
8.more than 30 ton/hr 30 meters or using the formula
H = 14(Q)0.3
where Q SO2 2 emission in kg/hr.
For higher KVA rating, stack height H (in meter) shall be worked out
according to the formula H=h+0.2 Where h=height of the building in
meters where the generator set is installed. For the industries which
install the facilities for removal of particulate or gaseous emissions to
adhere to the limits pre-
pre scribed, the stack height can be relaxed as
under: b) H= 14 (Q)0.3 where Qg is the gaseous emissions in kg/hr. c)
H=74 (Qp is the quantity of particular matter in tonnes /hr minimum

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stack height in all cases shall be 9 meters or as calculated from relevant
relev
formula whichever is more.
2. STACK EMISSION STANDARD FOR FURNACES
1) cupola Furnace Capacity of the furnace
Particular matter i) Less than 3 tonnes /hr=450 mg/NM3
ii) 3 tons /hr and above = 150 mg/NM3
2) Are Furnace
Particular matter All sizes = 150 mg/NM3
3) Induction Furnace
Particular matter All sizes = 150 mg/NM3
4) Reheating (Reverberatory
Furnace
Particular matter All sizes = 150 mg/NM3

3. EMISSION STANDARDS FOR THERMAL POWER PLANT

A) STANDARDS FOR PARTICULAR MATTER EMISSIONS
i) Less than 150 mg/NM3 350mg/NM3
210 MW
ii)210 MW & 150 mg/NM3 350mg/NM3
above
B) STANDARDS FOR SULPHUR DIOXIDE EMISSIONS
i) So2 when emitted shall not
exceed 600 ng/i
of energy produced
ii) Control through stack Height
Boiler size Stack Height
Less than 210 MW H=14 (Q)0.3
210 MW to less than 500 MW 220 meters
500 MW and more 275 meters
Where Q = SO2 , emission in kg/hr.
H = Stack height in meters.

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Electrostatic Precipitators
Introduction:
Particulate matter is one of the industrial air pollution problems that must be
controlled. Electrostatic Precipitators are one of the most frequently used devices for
collection of fine ash particles from flue gases of boilers.

Theory of Precipitation
Every particle either has or can be given a charge—positive
charge positive or negative. If we impart
a negative charge to all the particles in a gas stream and then set up a grounded
plate having a positive charge, the negatively charged particle would migrate to the
grounded
unded collection plate and be captured. The particles would quickly collect on the
plate, creating a dust layer. The dust layer would accumulate until it is removed,
which can be done by rapping the plate. Charging, collecting, and removing—that's
removing
the basic idea of an ESP,

Basic Principle of ESP:

Electrostatic Precipitator functions on the principle of attraction between particles
having opposite charge. For this purpose, Flue Gas is made to pass through a
succession of chambers (called ‘field’) made of steel
steel ducting material with vertical
plates suspended from top such that they do not obstruct the flow of Flue Gases but
horizontally divide the flow in a large number of parallel paths.

Typically the space between two successive plates is 600 mm. These plates are called
‘Collector Electrodes or Collector Plates’.
Between these Collector Plates are rods or helical coil shaped components, which are
electrically insulated from the Collector Plates and are suspended through insulating
bushings from top of the he chamber of field. These components are called ‘Emitting
Electrodes’. The Emitting Electrodes are negatively charged with the help of a
system of High Voltage Transformer and Rectifiers. Typically the Voltage at which the
Emitting Electrodes are charged is of the order of 25 to 125 kilo Volts dc. As the flue
gas containing ash particles passes between the Collector Plates, the ash particles
get negatively charged by the Emitting Electrodes and as a result they are attracted
towards the Collector Plates and
an get deposited on them.

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From time to time the Collector Plates are rapped with the help of a hammer
arrangement due to which the collected ash on the Collector Plates falls down into
ash collecting hoppers situated below the chamber.
From the above description
cription it becomes clear that the slower the flow of flue gas
through the arrangement of Emitting Electrodes and Collector Plates the higher the
ESP collection efficiency. Alternatively, the larger the area of Collector Plates the
larger the collection efficiency
ficiency of the ESP.
Particle Removal
Dust that has accumulated to a certain thickness on the collection electrode is
removed by a process called rapping.
Rapping is a process whereby deposited, dry particles are dislodged from the
collection plates by sending mechanical impulses, or vibrations, to the plates.
Precipitator plates are rapped periodically while maintaining the continuous flue-gas
flue
cleaning process. In other words, the plates are rapped while the ESP is on-line;
on the
gas flow continues through h the precipitator and the applied voltage remains
constant. Plates are rapped when the accumulated dust layer is relatively thick (0.08
to 1.27 cm or 0.03 to 0.5 in.). This allows the dust layer to fall off the plates as large
aggregate sheets and helps eliminate
e dust re-entrainment.
Most precipitators have adjustable rappers so that rapper intensity and frequency can
be changed according to the dust concentration in the flue gas. Installations where
the dust concentration is heavy require more frequent rapping.
ra
Dislodged dust falls from the plates into the hopper.. The hopper is a single collection
bin with sides sloping approximately 50 to 70°
70 to allow dust to flow freely from the
top of the hopper to the discharge opening. Dust should be removed as soon as a
possible to avoid (dust) packing. Packed dust is very difficult to remove. Most
hoppers are emptied by some type of discharge device and then transported by a
conveyor.

Cold-side
side ESPs have been used for over 50 years with industrial and utility boilers,
where the flue gas temperature is relatively low (less than 204°C or 400°F). Cold-side
Cold
ESPs generally use plates to collect charged particles. Because these ESPs are
operated at lower temperatures than hot-side
hot side ESPs, the volume of flue gas that is
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handled is less. Therefore, the overall size of the unit is smaller, making it less
costly. The location of this ESP is between the last heat exchanger (generally Air Pre-
Pre
heater) and the ID fan/ chimney as shown below.

ESP size is often measured in terms of Specific

Specific Collection Area (SCA). The Specific
Collection Area (SCA) has units, of square feet per 1,000 actual cubic feet per minute
(acfm) of flue gas flow. The SCA for the required performance can be determined by
using the Deutsch-Anderson
Anderson equation, which relates the collection efficiency (E) to
the unit gas flow rate, the particulate’s effective migration velocity and the
collection surface area:

1 - E = e (-wA/V)
or
A = [ ln (1/(1-E)]. V/w
Where,
E = ESP removal efficiency, %
= 100 [(Inlet dust loading - Outlet dust loading)/(Inlet dust loading)]
w = effective migration velocity, ft/min or (m/s)
A = Collection surface area, ft2 or (m2)
V = gas flow, ft3/min or (m3/s)
Because of the assumption about an effective migration velocity to make use of this
sizing equation, the empirical nature of ESP design is obvious.

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Filter systems

Principle of operation, layout

Filter systems are the main alternative for ESP systems discussed in the previous
section. Gases (and also liquids) are separated from dispersed particles by passing it
through a fabric or ceramic filter “medium” with a large surface area. Particles
that are not able to penetrate the medium will be retained on its surface, forming
the so- called “filter cake”. Generally this filter cake is equally important to
the actual filtration process as the medium.

Filter systems offer very high collection efficiencies of typically above 99%, over
rather large size ranges. Operating mostly in the same temperature range (120 –
200oC) they have the advantage over ESPs that the electric resistivity of the particles
does not play any role, making them competitive for high-resistivity resistivity ashes. A
disadvantage when compared with an ESP is the larger pressure drop and the
allowable gas velocity: typically the face velocity (= gas flow/filter surface, unit: m/s)
also referred to as “air-to-cloth”
cloth” (A/C) ratio is in the range 0.5 - 5 cm/s. Hundreds
or more than a thousand typically cylindrical or tubular filter bags of fabric materials
are collected in a “baghouse” in which the filtration process is confined, see Figure
below.
Alternatively, more rigid “candle” filter elements can be used, depending on the filter
medium choice which depends on temperature, gas and particle properties
prop and unit
size.

Bag house filter systems based

base on inside out (left) and outside-in (right) filtration

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Figure above shows the two possible modes of operation for baghouse f i l ter s.
I nsi d e- o ut filtration implies that the gas passes through the filter from the
inside. This “blows up” the bag filters to their maximum volume and produces
the cake on the inside of the bag. Outside-in operation involves t h a t t h e
g a s enters the filter from the outside surface where the cake builds up accordingly.
In this case a support structure is needed to keep the filters in their shape. The
pro’s and contra’s of the two options depend mainly on the mechanical properties
of the filter medium and the method that is used to clean the filter after a certain
pressure drop has been reached (see next section). During this filter cleaning
stage the cake is to detach from the filter medium and is collected in a hopper
which usually comprises the bottom part of the filter unit.

Early stages of dust cake build-up

build up (left) and filtration through an established dust
cake

The actual filtration process must be distinguished from filtration on a clean filter and
the early stages of filtration until a filter cake has built-up, as shown in Figure
5.34. Filtration efficiency is at its lowest for a clean filter element
elemen and the earliest
stages of filtration may result in bad filter performance over a longer filter period.
Often a pre- coat and pre-heat
pre procedure is used that prevents that the filter
medium from acid condensation and from becoming “blinded” by the finest particles
present in the gas to be cleaned.

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Filter types and filter cleaning methods
Three types of fabric filter systems can be distinguished, based on the filter cleaning
method that is used: 1) reverse air cleaning, 2) pulse-jet cleaning and 3)
shake/deflate systems, the principles of which are shown in Figure below.

Baghouse cleaning methods: reverse-air (top), pulse-jet (centre

centre) and
shake/deflate (bottom)

Reverse-gas and shake/deflate methods operate off-line, i.e.. the dusty gas
stream must be temporarily interrupted or by- passed. The pulse-jet
pulse method
operates on-line, cleaning a few bags at a time while the rest of the filter
bags continue filtration, and is most suitable for outside- in filter systems.
Depending on the duration of the pulse that is required high pressure (3 ~ 7 bar
over-pressure),
pressure), intermediate pressure (1 ~ 2 bar over- pressure) or low pressure
(0.5 ~ 0.7 bar over-pressure)
pressure) pulses can be applied. Reverse gas systems are

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found in inside- out systems, using cleaned gas from another filter unit. Low
frequency sound helps removing the cake from the filter.
Shake/deflate systems are based on a shaking force exposed by a mechanical
system in combination with reverse air.

A shake/deflate baghouse filter

The forces that are exerted on the particles that actually removes them from
the filter are inertial forces in shake/deflate systems, viscous drag forces in
reverse flow systems and a combination of these two in pulse-jet
jet systems.

The filter velocity (or air to cloth ratio) for reverse air systems is ~ 1 cm/s, for
pulse-jet systems 1.5 ~ 2 cm/s and for shake/deflate systems 3 ~4 cm/s, giving a
comparable pressure drop.
drop

Dust cake loads vary from 1~2.5 kg/m² for shake/deflate systems and 2.5~7.5 kg/m²
for reverse air systems to 5~10 kg/m² for pulse-jet filters. A typical filter bag has
a length of 5~10 m, and a diameter of 0.2~0.3 m, giving a surface of 3~10 m² per
bag. Pulse-jet units operate with somewhat smaller bags

Filtration efficiency, pressure drop

Particles of different size are removed by different physical mechanisms in
a baghouse filter and rigid barrier filters. As shown in Figure below, which shows
the flow around a filter fibre, five m e c h a n i s m s c a n b e distinguished.
distinguished The
largest particles experience a gravity force that determines their
t r a j e c t o r i e s . S e c o n d l y , somewhat smaller particles will be
b removed by
internal impaction, not being able to follow the trajectory of the gas. These
particles may also be come in contact with the fibre collector by a third
mechanism: the streamlines of the gas flow are contracting when passing the
fibre which leads to interception of the particle. The finest particles are removed
by a fourth mechanism, which is diffusion as a result of Brownian motion. A fifth
mechanism may be effective when electrostatic forces are generated between
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the particles and the collector. This can be accomplished by an electric field
across the filter in combination with a particle charging process.

Particle capture
captur mechanisms in fabric filtration

Which collection mechanism finally will be the most effective depends on particle
size and mass, velocity, density and viscosity of the gas, electrostatic forces
and the filter used. Moreover,
Moreover the different mechanisms are not independent
but operate simultaneously.

The highest removal efficiencies are obtained for the large particles at high gas
velocities and for the finest particles at low velocities. The r e m o v a l
e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e intermediate size range of 0.2 to 2 µm, roughly, depends
much more on the particle size/collector diameter ratio, and shows a minimum
in the size versus efficiency curve shown in Figure below. This minimum can be
shifted t o f i n e r p a r t i c l e s i z e s b y higher gas velocities; it can be
alleviated by electrostatic forces.

Typical filter efficiency as function of particle size

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Examples
Q.1 What are the elements in flue gases which pollute the atmosphere? How they
can be controlled?

Q.2 What are the measures for controlling the air pollution?

Q.3 Enumerate objectionable ingredients in flue gases with respect to air

pollution control.

Q.4 What causes heavy black smoke when fuel oil is burnt?

Q.5 What is the main constituent in fuel to be considered for chimney height
calculation? What is the formula for calculating chimney height?
Q.6 What are the Boiler flue gas pollution control equipments and measuring
devices? Explain function and working principal of bag filter and ESP with
sketch. Mention limits of boiler flue gas pollutant discharged through chimney
chimne
as per pollution control board.

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