MODULE 1.

1. INTRODUCTION TO ENIRONMENT
AND HEALLTH ASPECTS

• HISTORY OF SANITATION WITH RESPECT

TO HUMAN CIVILISATION

• IMPORTANCE OF HEALTH CLEANLINESS

• WATER BORNE, WATER RELATED,

EPIDEMIC DISEASES

• CONSERVANCY TO WATER CARRIAGE

SYSTEM

• URBAN AND RURAL SANITATION

HISTORY OF SANITATION WITH RESPECT TO
HUMAN CIVILISATION

The history of water supply and sanitation is a challenge to provide clean water
and sanitation systems since the dawn of civilization. Where water resources and
sanitation systems were insufficient, diseases spread and people fell sick or died.
Early human habitations were often built next to water sources, such as rivers or
springs.

The historical focus of sewage treatment was on the conveyance of raw sewage to
natural water like river or ocean, where it would be diluted and dissipated. Rivers would
often serve as a crude form of natural sewage disposal.

SANITATION IN THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

The earliest evidence of urban sanitation was seen in Harappa, Mohenjo-daro of

Indus Valley civilization. This urban plan included the world's first urban
sanitation systems. Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained
water from wells. From a room that appears to have been set aside for bathing,
waste water was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets.
A large well and bathing platforms at Harappa, remains of the
city's final phase of occupation from 2200 to 1900 BC.
The Indus Valley Civilization in Asia shows early evidence of
public water supply and sanitation. A typical example is the
Indus city of Lothal (c. 2350 BCE).

Lothal is one of the

southernmost cities of the
ancient Indus Valley
Civilization, located in the
modern state of Gujarāt.
Discovered in 1954, Lothal
was excavated from 13
February 1955 to 19 May 1960
by the Archaeological Survey
of India (ASI), the official
Indian government agency for
the preservation of ancient
monuments.

Archaeological remains of washroom drainage system at Lothal

 bathroom-connected-to-
The drain system at Lothal drainage-system

Oval cesspit(sewage
Covered well disposal) in Mohenjo-Daro
 CITY OF LOTHAL
• In Lothal all houses had their own private toilet which was
connected to a covered sewer network constructed of
brickwork that emptied either into the surrounding water
bodies or alternatively into cesspits.

• The urban areas of the Indus Valley civilization included

public and private baths. Sewage was disposed through
underground drains built with precisely laid bricks. Drains
from houses were connected to wider public drains. Many of
the buildings at Mohenjo-daro had two or more stories. Water
from the roof and upper storey bathrooms was carried
through enclosed terracotta pipes or open chutes that
emptied out onto the street drains.

• Ruins from the Indus Valley Civilization like Mohenjo-daro

Dholavira in Gujarat had settlements with ancient world's
most sophisticated sewage systems. They included drainage
channels, rainwater harvesting, and street ducts.
•
Engineers of Indus Valley Civilization had mastered the channeling of
water and disposal of wastewater thousands of years before the
Romans began to start building aqueducts.
 USE OF WASTE WATER

• Wastewater reuse is an ancient practice, which has been

applied since the dawn of human history, and is connected to
the development of sanitation provision. Reuse of untreated
municipal wastewater has been practiced for many centuries
with the objective of diverting human waste outside of urban
settlements.

• Domestic wastewater was used for irrigation by prehistoric

civilizations (e.g. Mesopotamian, Indus valley Minoan
civilization—i.e. The ancient Greek civilization ). Moreover, in
China, use of human excreta for fertilizing agricultural crops
has been practiced since ancient time.

• Some of the earliest evidence of water wells are located in

China. Archaeological evidence and old Chinese documents
reveal that the prehistoric and ancient Chinese had the
aptitude and skills for digging deep water wells for drinking
water as early as 6000 to 7000 years ago.
 MINOAN CIVILIZATION

• The ancient Greek civilization known as the Minoan

civilization, was the first civilization to use underground
clay pipes for sanitation and water supply. It was also
one of the first uses of a flush toilet, dating back to the
18th century BC. The Minoan civilization had stone
sewers that were periodically flushed with clean water.
In addition to sophisticated water and sewer systems
they devised elaborate heating systems. An inverted
siphon system, along with glass covered clay pipes,
was used for the first time in the palaces of Crete,
Greece. It is still in working condition, after about 3000
years.

• The Roman Empire had indoor plumbing, meaning a

system of aqueducts and pipes that terminated in
homes and at public wells and fountains for people to
use. Rome and other nations used lead pipes.
AQUADUCT IN CYPRUS
 ANCIECT DRAINAGE SYSTEM

• Open drains, or gutters, for waste water ran

along the center of some streets. These were
known as "kennels" (i.e., canals, channels).
The first closed sewer constructed in Paris
was in 1370 and was 300 meters long. Pail
closets and cesspits were used to collect
human waste. The use of human waste as
fertilizer was introduced in China and Japan,
where cattle manure was less available.

• River Thames was identified as being thick

and black due to sewage, and it was said that
the river “smells like death. During the early
19th century, the River Thames was almost
an open sewer, leading to frequent outbreaks
of cholera epidemics.
 A BRIEF HISTORY FROM ANCIENT
CIVILIZATIONS TO MODERN TIMES
• Water is life – and life on earth is linked to water and our
existence is dependent on water. The availability of water in
large quantities has been considered an essential part of
civilization throughout the different periods.

• In Egypt there are traces of wells, and in Mesopotamia of

stone rainwater channels, from 3000 B.C.. From the early
Bronze Age city of Mohenjo-Daro, located in modern
Pakistan, archaeologists have found hundreds of ancient
wells, water pipes and toilets.

• The experience of humankind from the very beginning

testifies to the importance and safety of groundwater as a
water source, particularly springs and wells. If wells and
toilets were in good shape, health problems and
environmental risks could be avoided.

• The Greeks and Romans used at least boiling water. Although

the boiling of water might have been feasible from a hygienic
point of view, it was ecologically and economically not
feasible for extensive use.
STEP WELLS HAVE MAINLY BEEN USED IN
THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT.
 PUBLIC SANITATION
• 300 BC-AD 400: The system of aqueducts built in Ancient Rome
provided inhabitants with fresh running water, which was piped
directly to homes of the wealthy, and to public fountains and baths.
This greatly improved domestic sanitation and adequate disposal of
sewage.

• 200-100 BC: "It is more important to prevent illness than to cure the
illness when it has arisen" - Clean water was known to be important
in disease prevention so wells were covered, devices were used to
filter water.

• WHEN DID INDOOR TOILETS BIGIN

• Flush toilets were also known as "water closets" first appeared in

Britain in the 1880s. In America, the chain-pull indoor toilet was
introduced in the homes of the wealthy and in hotels in the 1890s.

• WHY IS IT CALLED REST ROOM

• You do technically rest there because you are sitting down. At one
time public restrooms not only had toilets and sinks but a separate
room with couches, chairs, tables for women to rest from shopping.

• Restroom: Originally meaning a public toilet, this seems to be of

American origin.
 IMPORTANCE OF HEALTH
• Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well
being. For a healthy life cycle, a person needs to have a
balanced diet and has to regularly exercise. The health
depends on their surrounding or their environment.
• Good nutrition is an important part of leading a healthy
lifestyle. Combined with physical activity, your diet can help
you to reach and maintain a healthy weight, reduce your risk
of chronic diseases (like heart disease and cancer), and
promote overall health.
• If you're eating the right food and keeping fit, your body will
be strong and help you to cope with stress and also fight
illness. Eating well and exercising often when you're a
teenager will also help you stay in good health later in life.
Getting regular sleep is another really important way to stay
healthy.
• LIFE INSURANCE POLICY
• Life Risk Cover: Life insurance provides you with a high life
risk cover that keeps you and your family protected in case of
an unfortunate event.
• Death Benefits: ...
• Return on Investment: ...
• Tax Benefits: ...
• Loan Options: ...
 HYGIENE CLEANLINESS
• Hygiene is a concept related to cleanliness, health and
medicine. It is as well related to personal and professional
care practices. Hygiene practices are employed as
preventative measures to reduce the incidence and
spreading of disease. According to the World Health
Organization (WHO), "Hygiene refers to conditions and
practices that help to maintain health and prevent the spread
of diseases.
• It also includes personal habit choices as how frequently to
bathe, wash hands, trim fingernails, and change clothing,
attention to keeping surfaces clean and pathogen(harm full
bacteria)-free in the home and workplace, including toilets.

• Further it includes body hygiene, personal hygiene, sleep

hygiene, mental hygiene, dental hygiene, and occupational
hygiene with reference to public health. One must live in a
proper shelter, take enough sleep and have good hygiene
habits.

• Our social environment is an important factor in our

individual health. Public cleanliness is important for
individual health. Therefore, we must ensure that we collect
and clear the garbage regularly.
 HYGIENE CLEANLINESS

• Our health is affected not only by unbalanced diet but also by

diseases, infections, poverty, large family, overcrowded
houses etc. The diseases are normally caused by external
organisms (microbes) intersecting the body’s natural barriers
and invading into our healthy body.

• FOR GOOD HYGIENE CLEANLINESS & PERSONAL HYGIENE

• Wash your hands frequently. ...

• Bathe regularly. ...

• Take good care of your teeth. ...

• Build Good Grooming Habits. A woman brushing her hair. ...

• Clean Your Clothes and Your Home.

 WATER-BORNE DISEASES

• Waterborne diseases--including cholera, typhoid, and dysentery, are

caused by drinking water containing infectious bacteria, which often
come from human or animal waste.
• They are caused by pathogenic microorganisms found in
contaminated fresh water. Various forms of waterborne diarrheal
disease affect mainly children in developing countries.
• Transmission of malaria is facilitated when large numbers of people
sleep outside in hot weather, or sleep in homes that have no
protection against mosquitoes.
• PREVENTING WATER-BORNE DISEASES
• Clean water is a prerequisite for reducing the spread of water-borne
diseases. It is well recognized that the prevalence of water-borne
diseases may be greatly reduced by providing people with safe,
sanitary disposal of feces and provision of clean drinking water.
Water is disinfected to kill any pathogens that might be present in
the water supply and to prevent them from growing again in
distribution systems.
 WATER-RELATED DISEASES

• Water contaminated with human faeces for example from municipal

sewage, septic tanks and latrines is of special concern. Animal
faeces also contain microorganisms that can cause diarrhea.

• Diarrhea can also spread from person to person, aggravated by poor

personal hygiene. Food is another major cause of diarrhea when it is
prepared or stored in unhygienic conditions.

• Key measures to reduce the number of cases of diarrhea include:

• Access to safe drinking water.

• Improved sanitation.

• Good personal and food hygiene.

• Giving more fluids than usual, including salts solution, to prevent

dehydration.
 WATER-BASED DISEASES

• Diarrhea is most commonly caused by gastrointestinal

infections which kill around 2.2 million people globally
each year, mostly children in developing countries.
Contaminated water is an important cause of diarrhea.
Cholera and dysentery cause severe, sometimes life
threatening forms of diarrhea.

• Diarrhea is the passage of loose or liquid stools more

frequently than is normal for the individual. It is
primarily a symptom of gastrointestinal infection.

• Diarrhea is a symptom of infection caused by a host of

bacterial, viral and parasitic organisms most of which
can be spread by contaminated water.
 EPIDEMIC DISEASES
• EPIDEMIC: An outbreak of disease that attacks many people at
about the same time and may spread through one or several
communities.

• POLIO
• This disease is suspected to have been around for thousands of
years. It usually spreads through contaminated food and water and
targets the human nervous system, affect the legs and lead to
paralysis.
• MALARIA
• Mosquito, (water is breeding place for mosquitoes)the transmitter of
Malaria This is one of the longest-surviving threats to our livelihood,
and cases are still being recorded today.
• SMALLPOX
• Effects of Smallpox on the skin. Symptoms include body aches, high
fevers, and a serious rash that results from fluid-filled bumps that
leave extensive scarring on the skin.
• YELLOW FEVER
• This disease is related to malaria(water related) in that it spreads
from person to person through infected mosquitoes. It is a life-
threatening disease that can cause severe internal bleeding and
liver failure, which is marked by the yellowing of the skin –prompting
this disease’s name.
 EPIDEMIC DISEASES
• THE GREAT INFLUENZA EPIDEMIC OF 1918
• There are many names for this one – including The Spanish Flu and
the Flu of 1918 –it is widely known as one of the most deadly
outbreaks in history. Though it only survived for a year, this strain of
virus was responsible for the deaths of 50 to 100 million people, as
it was able to quickly spread from country to country. Symptoms
were common to those in today’s influenza virus, but excessive fluid
buildup in the lungs as a result of the complications from the flu is
what ultimately caused the death of millions.
• TUBERCULOSIS (TB)
• Strains of this disease have been traced back to the DNA of ancient
Egyptian mummies, revealing that this epidemic has been wreaking
havoc on humanity for thousands of years. Caused by a bacteria that
spreads through the air, this disease attacks the lungs and causes
internal weakness, chest pains, night sweats, and terrible fits of
coughing.
• CHOLERA
• This disease was common in India for centuries and moved on to the
rest of the world in the 19th century. Most often spread through
contaminated water and food, cholera causes flu-like symptoms like
vomiting, diarrhea, cramping, and severe dehydration, which
ultimately leads to the death. Unfortunately, outbreaks are still
occurring today, with an estimated three to five million cases and
120,000 deaths reported each year. The largest and most recent
cholera outbreak began in Haiti in 2010. It has already claimed over
7,000 lives and has yet to be eradicated.
 SOME DEFINITIONS

1. Bacteria :Microscopic unicellular organisms.

Aerobic : depends on light and oxygen for existence.

Anaerobic : does not depend on light and oxygen for existence

Facultative : Exist in presence or absence of oxygen but grow

in absence of air.

2. REFUSE : “ Rejected matter or left as worthless( waste )

TYPES OF REFUSE: a. Garbage

b. Sewage
c. Storm water
d. Subsoil water
e. Sullage (Waste water from
bathrooms , wash basin, kitchen sink
which does not smell)
a. GARBAGE : Dry refuse which includes decayed fruits, grass,
leaves, paper waste, sweepings, vegetables etc.
b. SEWAGE : Liquid waste which includes discharge from latrines,
urinals, stables (NIGHT SOIL), Industrial waste, storm
water, waste water from bathrooms , kitchen sinks,
washing machine, dish washer wash basin etc. The
term NIGHT SOIL is to indicate the human and animal
excreta.
c. STORM WATER : Rain water
d. SUBSOIL WATER :Ground water which finds its entry into sewer
through leakages.
e. SULLAGE : Waste water from bathrooms , wash basin, kitchen sink
etc. which generally does not smell.
3. SEWER : Underground drains through which sewage is conveyed.
4. SEWERAGE : The entire science of collecting and conveying sewage
by water carriage system through sewers.
 CONSERVANCY TO WATER CARRIAGE SYSTEM
COLLECTION AND CONVEYANCE: Two types---------1. CONSERVANCY SYSTEM
2. WATER CARRIAGE SYSTEM

1. CONSERVANCY SYSTEM : The garbage is collected from roads & streets in

pans or baskets – conveyed through tractors or trucks to suitable places—
flammable ones are burnt in an incinerators and rest are buried into low
lying areas. Night soil is collected in pan or basket from lavatories by
labour--then by tractors or by trucks -- buried into ground – which is
converted into manure. The storm water & sullage are conveyed by open or
closed channel --------- to rivers or streams.

The conservancy system is out of date at present in cities. It is however

adopted in villages, small towns & under developed areas in big cities where
there is a scarcity of water.

2. WATER CARRIAGE SYSTEM : Water as medium to convey the sewage. Water

and solid matters together almost act like a liquid matter. The garbage is
collected and conveyed same as in the conservancy system. Storm water
may be carried separately or along with sewage.
 COPMPARISION :
CONSERVANCY SYSTEM
1. Used in rural areas . Design is not compact, Laid above ground
level , non hygienic and More chances of outbreak of epidemic.
2. Less water --- 30 to 40 L / capita / day
3. Although more unskilled labour is required initial cost is cheap but
maintenance is expensive.
4. There are chances for the outbreak of epidec
5. Underground water may get polluted due to soaking of liquid
waste from latrines.
WATER CARRIAGE SYSTEM
1. Used in urban area, compact design , laid below ground level ,
hygienic and less risk of outbreak of epidemic.
2. More water 100 to 120 L /capita / day.
3. Skilled labour and technical hands required for supervision , more
expensive in the initial stage but less maintenance cost.
4. Risk of outbreak of epidemic is greatly reduced
5. there is no risk of underground source getting polluted since
sewage is carried in closed sewers.
 URBAN AND RURAL SANITATION IN INDIA
India has the largest numbers of malnourished people in the world.
Studies show that malnourishment is not only the product of access to
food but also access to safe drinking water and sanitation. About one-
third population lived in urban areas and three-fourth lived in rural.

Rural and urban sanitation should be seen differently due to diverse

conditions prevailing in the rural and urban areas.

The situation in urban areas is better than rural areas, but still one-
third of the urban households have no access to piped drinking water.

Similarly one-fifth of urban households are not connected to any

drainage facilities.

Slums add an acute dimension to the sanitation and unhygienic

conditions in urban areas. It is not possible to have toilet facility in
every slum household due to space crunch, therefore public toilets
were provided in some of big cities like Mumbai.
 URBAN SANITATION
Sanitation is aggravated by the lack of garbage collection
system in some parts of the urban areas and wastes are thrown
in the open spaces along the streets, Outside households,
schools, public places and railway stations is quite alarming.

Most of our railway stations are stinking places as human

waste is released on the tracks. We need to better design the
toilets in the railway coaches and see that human wastes are
not released in the open.

Therefore, water supply is critical for providing sanitation. On

the other hand, more use of water generates higher volumes of
wastewater which requires good drainage system for its out
flow.

In many parts of urban areas even if the drainage system

exists, it gets choked as people throw garbage in the open
drainage. This leads to accumulation of wastewater leading to
water logging in many cities and towns. Treatment and
recycling of waste water should also be tried as a part of
sanitation strategy. Thus, sanitation is a larger issue in urban
areas and a holistic view will be helpful.
 URBAN SANITATION
• Lack of toilet facility affects children, elderly and women more. It is
torturous for women who cannot use open spaces as freely as men
in the day time and have to wait until the sunset.

• In 2013, the central government has banned the manual scavenging

and offenders will be punished with an imprisonment up to five
years.

• In many houses sanctum sanctorum (Puja Griha) is treated the

purest and kept clean without fail followed by cleanliness of the
kitchen and the rest of the house. However, no such sanctity is
attached to the surroundings outside the house. The exterior space
lying outside the household is little cared rather used unhesitatingly
for throwing all sorts of household wastes turning them into a
perpetual polluted space.

• Swachh Bharat Abhiyan initiated by the government on the birthday

of Mahatma Gandhi is a noble initiative.

• Also, there is a need to have a plan to reuse the garbage and waste
materials. It will help in generating large number of jobs and also
making our cities and towns sustainable. Thus, sanitation is also an
issue of waste management, keeping the sources of water clean by
sewage treatment and recycling of waste water for industrial and
agricultural use.
 RURAL SANITATION

• Rural areas are more deprived of water supply and sanitation

compared to urban areas

• Sanitation is not only an absence of garbage and waste materials

but also access to toilet facility, safe drinking water and
connectivity to a drainage system.

• In rural India, this is a huge problem. Thus, progress in the

provision of toilet facility in rural areas is very slow and open
defecation is a serious problem. Similarly the proportion of
households with tap water and drainage facilities also remains at
the one-third level.

• It is worthwhile to mention that due to lack of drainage facility the

low lying areas of many villages often get flooded during monsoon
season.

The rural satiation can be divided into four categories.

1. Collection and disposal of dry refuse :

2. Collection and disposal of sullage
3. Disposal of night soil
4. Supply of potable or wholesome water for domestic use.
 RURAL SANITATION
1. Collection and disposal of dry refuse :
It consists of sweeping, vegetable wastes, papers, etc. which is
disposed off by suitable economical method. Animal dung may be
dumped along with other dry refuse and top covered with earth for a
month to get good manure which could be used for agricultural
fields.
2. Collection and disposal of sullage :
Waste water from bath, kitchen etc. may be collected in small pits
formed in front of house, or conveyed through gutters to trees, garden
etc. or left into pit containing animal dung and dry refuse so as to
accelerate the decomposition process or may be conveyed to natural
streams.
3. Disposal of night soil
Any type of privy or latrine which can dispose off the night soil (
human excreta ) without the water carriage system can be
constructed.
4. Supply of potable or wholesome water for domestic use.
Main source is usually in the form of lake, streams, river, pond or well.
This water can be supplied very safely only after disinfecting the water
frequently with potassium permanganate (KmnO4).
 IMPORTANT MEASURES NEEDED FOR SANITATION IN RURAL
AND URBAN AREA OF INDIA

1. People should be made conscious about the hazards of poor

sanitation through publicity and sanitation education.

2. Steps should be taken to eradicate malaria by killing

mosquito.

3. Open defecation should be avoided along road sides,

boundary of ponds, river side’s etc. by constructing a
ventilated improved pit latrines.

4. Bleaching powder or chlorine tablets should be added

regularly to the village wells.

5. Drinking water should as for as possiblle be taken from a

tube well.

6. Village ponds should not be used for the bathing of village

animals.
 MODULE 1.2

• 2. WATER SUPPLY: Sources of water supply-

Municipal, bore well, river etc. quantity of
water for different usages like domestic, hot
water, flushing, gardening, commercial,
industrial applications, assessment of
requirement for different uses, quality of
supply for different uses as per national and
international standards,, treatment of water
for different uses, filtration,, softening,,
disinfection, storage and pumping-gravity
system, hydroneumatic system, distribution
of water to fixture and fittings,, schematic
diagrams, swimming pool, water bodies,
efficient usage of water.
 CHINESE STORY ON CRACKED POT
• A water bearer in China had two large pots, each hung
on the ends of a pole which he carried across his neck.
One of the pots had a crack in it, while the other pot
was perfect and always delivered a full portion of water.
At the end of the long walk from the stream to the
House, the cracked pot arrived only half full. For a full
two years this went on daily, with the bearer delivering
only one and a half pots full of water to his house.
Of course, the perfect pot was proud of its
accomplishments, Perfect for which it was made. But
the poor cracked pot was
Ashamed of its own imperfection. And miserable that it
was able to accomplish only half of what it had been
made to do.
• After two years of what it perceived to be a bitter
failure, it spoke to the water bearer one day by the
stream. "I am ashamed of myself, and I want to
apologize to you. I have been able to deliver only half
my load because this crack in my side causes Water to
leak out all the way back to your house. Because of my
Flaws, you have to do all of this work, and you don't get
full value from your efforts," the pot said.
• The old woman smiled and replied, “Did you notice that
there are flowers on your side of the path, but not on
the other pot’s side? I have always known about your
flaw, so I planted flower seeds on your side of the path,
and every day while we walked back home you watered
them and made them grow. For two years, I have been
able to pick these beautiful flowers to decorate the
table and give to my friends and neighbors. Without you
being just the way you are, there would not have been
this special beauty to grace our homes and lives.”
• Moral of the story:
• Each of us has our own unique flaws. We're all cracked
pots. But it's the cracks and flaws we each have that
make our lives together so very interesting and
rewarding. You've just got to take each person for what
they are, and look for the good in them. Blessed are the
flexible, for they shall not be bent out of shape.
Remember to appreciate all the different people in your
life. Don't forget to send this mail to all worthy people.
 INTRODUCTION

Air--- then---water---reliance on monsoon----famine—epidemic----

water is used by man, plants, animals. Every living soul requires

water----wthout food man can live for two months ---but without
water---just 3-4 days. Water sourcs-----generation of electric
power----transportation, recreation---industry etc.—growth of
crops.

Water supply system –first in Calcutta in the year 1870---film—

Ek boond pani---a film.

DASTUR & CO.----Project in 1960

“ INDIANS HAVE MORE WEALTH IN WATER THAN WHAT ARABS

HAVE GOT IN OIL”

International Drinking Supply and Sanitation Decade –1981---

1990 (IDWSSD-Nov. 10, 1980 at U.N. General assembly)
 TERMS OFTEN USED---AND WATER UNITS

TOP SOIL: The first 1.5 m layer of original soil.

SUB SOIL: The soil layer below 1.5 of original soil.

GROUND WATER: Water that fills up pores in the subsoil at shallow and
deep layers to saturation which can be drawn for use through bore
wells.

ACQUIFER : Pervious layers are known as aquifers.

WATER TABLE: Uppermost layer of soil is generally pervious. Upper

surface of free water in top soil is termed as “ground water level” or
water table.

1000 ml = I liter and 1000 liters =1kiloleter or 1 KL.= 1cubic meter

1cft=28.32 liters
lcpd=liters per capita per day, 1gallon=4.54 liters
tmc=thousand million cubic feet
mld=million liters per day
cusecs = cubic feet per second (rate of flow)
 RAIN-THE ULTIMATE SOURCE OF WATER
RAIN-THE ULTIMATE SOURCE OF WATER
It is rain that nourishes and sustains all the water sources across
the world except in the icy Polar Regions where water remains
permanently frozen and in the high altitudes of the mountains where
glaciers supply water by melting and feeding the rivers. It is only
rain that fills up ponds, lakes, tanks and rivers and also the huge
storage available below the ground

CARE FOR WATER BEFORE IT BECOMES REAR.

 WELL AS ASOURCE
• In the early ears of this century, there were no multi-
storied or apartment complexes and most houses were
either ground or ground plus first floor on independent
plots surrounded by unpaved soil that had flowering
plants, fruit trees and other shady trees.

• The family drew its water needs from a shallow open

well. The water used for bathing and washing of clothes
and floors went to the garden, coconut palms and other
trees and flowering plants. What the trees and plants
did not need went into the soil. The water used for
washing vessels in the kitchen nourished banana and
other plants.

• Effluent from septic tank spread into surrounding soil

below ground level. The soil which thus received the
water after use purified with the assistance of soil
bacteria and the purified water moved across the soil
and recharged open well from where it was reused.
 NEED FOR WATER

The water plays an important role in the manufacture of

essential commodities, generation of electric power,
transportation, recreation, industrial activity etc. Hence we
must take preventive measures to avoid careless pollution of
contamination of available water source.

Water is essential for growth of crops-------------------Irrigation

Engineering

First water supply system was installed by Kolkatta Municipal

authorities in the year 1870.

The water approx. covers 70% of our planet and the same
percentage of world’s population do not get clean drinking
water. For this reason, the United Nations General Assembly
has declared decade 1891-1990 as the “international Drinking
Water Supply and sanitation Decade” (IDWSSD) which was
launched on Nov.10, 1980.
 WATER RESOURCES
• water resources are divisible into three distinct
categories :
• Groundwater(lies under the surface of the land, where it
travels through and fills openings in the rocks. The
rocks that store and transmit groundwater are called
aquifers), surface water (lakes, rivers, and reservoirs)
and rainwater. In arid regions where seawater is
accessible (such as in the Middle East), desalination
(the removal of salts from water) is used to generate
drinking water

• India is rich in water resources, being endowed with a

network of great rivers to hold groundwater.

• Whereas there are some chronically drought affected

areas, there are others which are frequently subject to
damage by floods. On the whole, under the pressure of
rapid population growth, the available resources of
water are being depleted at a fast rate.
 RAIN WATER AND SEA WATER
• Rain water is considered the purest form of water. Impurities and
salts present in water on earth are left behind during vaporisation
by the sun. However, the rain water we receive on earth is not
necessarily pure, as it brings down impurities and particles present
in the atmosphere along with it.

• Why is sea water unfit for drinking?

• Human kidneys can only make urine that is less salty than salt
water. Therefore, to get rid of all the excess salt taken in by
drinking seawater, you have to urinate more water than you drank.
Eventually, you die of dehydration.

• The problem is that the desalination of water requires a lot of

energy. Salt dissolves very easily in water, forming strong chemical
bonds, and those bonds are difficult to break. Energy and the
technology to desalinate water are both expensive.

• The largest desalination plant in South Asia is the Minjur

Desalination Plant near Chennai in India, which produces 36.5
million cubic meters of water per year. A second plant at Nemmeli,
Chennai has a full capacity of 100 million litres of sea-water per day
since 2013.
From outer space, the Earth looks
BLUE in colour. That’s because
THE
BLUE PLANET
approximately 70% of the Earth is
covered with water
Distribution of Global Water
India receives 110 cm. rains whereas entire world
receives 80 cm. rains annually. This rainfall
however is not evenly distributed across our
country. Areas like kerala, Coastal Maharashtra,
West Bengal, North Eastern States and Orissa
receive good rain and other areas like Deccan
Plateau receive moderate rains and areas like
Kutch, Saurashtra and pats of Rajasthan where
the annual rainfall is very scanty.
 SUB-SURFACE RUNOFF AND AQUIFERS
• Part of the water that infiltrates into the surface soil may continue
to move laterally at shallow depth as interflow owing to the
presence of relatively impervious lenses just below the soil surface
& may eventually reach the stream channel when it is called the
sub-surface runoff.

• When it rains, some of the water soaks into the soil passing
between soil, gravel and rock until it reaches a depth below which
the Earth is saturated with water. This depth is called the water
table.

• Groundwater can be found almost everywhere but the depth at

which it can be found (the water table) differs from place to place.
The water table is dependent on many factors. Heavy rains can
cause it to rise and considerable extraction of groundwater, as is
happening in most urban areas, may cause it to fall.

• An unconfined aquifer is a water bearing formation, which has an

impermeable layer beneath but no confining layer on top of the
water level. The top of the water level is designated as the water
table. Above the water table is the unsaturated zone and below it
the saturated zone.

• A confined aquifer is a porous and permeable layer of rock that is

sandwiched above and below by impermeable layers of rock.
SOURCE OF FRESH SURFACE WATER

Glaciers

Rivers
Lakes, ponds

Freshwater
wetlands
THE WATER CYCLE

Transpiration
 WATER CYCLE

• The water cycle ensures that the absolute quantity of

water on Earth remains the same. From surface of
oceans, evaporation takes place and clouds are formed

• The condensation of clouds results into rain or snow

over land. The part of rain percolates into soil to join
underground source. The rest flows down known as
surface run-off and is converted into streams and
rivulets which discharge into rivers. The oceans are
ultimately replenished by rivers.

• The water percolated into soil rises to the surface of

land as springs or joins the rivers. The soil moisture
that is evaporated or transpired by plants and trees
enters the atmosphere in the form of vapour. Thus the
hydrological cycle or water cycle links up into single
unit.
RUNOFF
• Precipitation replenishes surface water
sources. When it rains, only a portion of the
water seeps into the ground. Most of it flows
downhill over the land surface and is termed
as runoff.

• Runoff is what keeps rivers and lakes full of

water. The hydrosphere indicates the
aqueous envelop of the earth which includes
oceans, rivers, lakes, streams, wells, polar
glaciers, soil moisture and water vapour in
the atmosphere.
 SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY

SURFACE SOURCES UNDER GROUND SOURCES

Lakes and streams Rivers Infiltration galleries Springs wells

Storage reservoirs Infiltration Wells artesian shallow well
gravity deep well
surface tube well
artesian well

• ACQUIFER : Pervious layers are known as aquifers. WATER TABLE :

Uppermost layer of soil is generally pervious. Upper surface of free
water in top soil is termed as “ ground water level ”.
Interaction between groundwater and surface water
Groundwater and surface water are not isolated bodies of water

Surface water seeps into the ground

and reaches groundwater aquifers.
This can take days, years, decades or
millennia

Recharge area

Discharge area

pumped well
Surface water
water table

Unconfined aquifer
Ground water
confining bed

days
Groundwater moves slowly towards Confined aquifer
surface water sources by gravity,
confining bed
with the sea being at the lowest level
millennia millennia
The water source is an underground cavern
which pours the water out
 INFILTRATION GALLERIES

• It is a horizontal tunnel
constructed in brick
with r.c.c. slab through
water bearing strata at
a depth of 5 to 10
meters. Water is
obtained through
porous drain pipes
which are covered with
pebbles, gravel etc. to
prevent fine particles
entering into pipe.(also
acts as filter ). It is laid
to slope, water
collected in sump—
treated--- pumped and
supplied to consumers.
Inspection chambers
are provided at
intervals for cleaning.
INFILTRATION WELLS-IMAGES
Infiltration Well Schemes In
some areas, infiltration wells are
sunk into riverbeds to tap water
from underground streams. The
subsoil water is then drawn
throughout the year from these
wells and fed to a collection well
(Jack well) from where it is
distributed to many places
through a system of pumps. The
water obtained is pure and
requires very minimal treatment.
Wells were sunk on the banks of
the Chitravathi, Hagari and
Pennar rivers for this purpose.
 SPRINGS

When under ground appears at surface for any

reason springs are formed.

• a. ARTESIAN SPRING : Ground water comes to

surface under pressure via fissure in impervious
layer.

• b. SURFACE SPRINGS : This is formed when sub

soil water is exposed to the ground surface by
obstruction of an impervious layer.

• c. Gravity springs :These are formed due to

overflowing of the water table. It rises or falls as
per surface ground water level. Trenches act as
a storage reservoir.
2.9

GAYSER AT FRANCE
FAITHFUL GAYSER OF CALIFORNIA
 MANIKARAN (45 KM. FROM KULLU)
PARVATI VALLEY- HIMACHAL PRADESH
 HOT WATER SPRINGS

• Hot water springs are due to presence

of sulpher which have medicinal value--
not for Also known as thermal spring, is
a natural discharge of hot water from
the earth. Such springs occur in areas
where underground water passes
through hot igneous rock. They can form
pools, geysers or fumaroles. Hot water
springs often contain chemicals which
are beneficial to humanism so spas are
built around them.
 HOT WATER SPRINGS
• On the banks of Parvati river the Manikaran springs has
both religious and geological significance. It is
piligrimage centre for Hindus and Sikhs. Springs come
out to surface with pressure and are very hot. It is said
to be radioactive. The healing properties are wellknown
especially for Rheumatism and Muscular pans. (30
degrees for a depth of each KM.) When underground
water accumulates it is heated by the rocks underneath
and this hot water makes its way towards the surface
to form geothermal springs. Locals use this for cooking
purposes.

• India has more than 350 hot water springs, most

famous of them are

• Manikaran near Kullu

• Vashisht near Manali and
• Sulpher rich springs of Yeshi and Yamthang in Sikkim.
• HOT WATER SPRING AT RAJAPUR
 SURYA KUND

• 365 days a year HOT WATER SPRING

170 kms from Goa/Panjim
16 Kms from Rly Stn 'Rajapur Road'
3 kms from Rajapur NH 17
(Near Ratnagir. Maharastra State, India)
VASHISHT NEAR MANALI
 WELLS: An artificial pit made in ground
for the purpose of tapping water

• SHALLOW WELLS ( draw wells, gravity wells )

• Water is obtained from top pervious strata.

Constructed in the uppermost layer of earth surface
by digging manually. (2 to 6 meters ). They may lined
with stone, brick or concrete pipes to prevent cave
in.(steining).

• Wall above ground level is built to prevent surface

water entering into well. ( nearby septic tank pollutes
the water ). Quality is better than river water gets
polluted only due to the presence of septic tank or
effluent tank, leakage in drain pipes, gutters etc.

• USE : Individual and small villages.

 DEEP WELLS
• Passes through top pervious layer then
through impervious strata lying beneath and
into next pervious strata from where water is
taken. Water travels from outcrop ( where
aquifer is exposed to atmosphere—AQUIFER-
PERVIOUS LAYER ) to the site of deep well
from where water is taken out for use.

• An aquifer is a geologic layer of porous and

permeable material such as sand and gravel,
limestone, or sandstone, through which
water flows and is stored.
•
• Since water is available at a greater depth
embedded in lower aquifers---it is always
available under pressure, hence known as
PRESSURE WELLS.
 ARTESIAN WELL
• An artesian aquifer is a confined aquifer containing
groundwater that will flow upwards through a well without
the need for pumping. Water may even spurt out of the
ground if the natural pressure is high enough. An aquifer
provides the water for an artesian well. Porous stone of the
aquifer is confined between impermeable rocks or clay. This
keeps the pressure high, so when the water finds an outlet, it
overcomes gravity and goes up instead of down.
• ARTESIAN WELLS : It derives its name from the fact that first
such well was sunk in the province of Artois in France. One
of the earliest well was sunk in England at London in 1844. It
was meant for supplying water to fountain in Trafalgar
Square. Its depth is about 118 meters.
• Perpendicular bore into a strata producing constant supply of
water rising spontaneously to surface. It is based on the
principle of Hydraulics ---that water tends to remain at the
same level. Water comes with great force under pressure
through opening--- where hydraulic gradient line is above the
GROUND LEVEL and aquifer is enclosed between TWO
impervious layers. Quality of water is very good
• ----very difficult to find such situation, hence not for public
water supply schemes.
ARTESIAN WELLS
ARTESIAN WELL---A SKETCH
ARTESIAN WELL AT THE MESSEL PIT

An artesian aquifer
is a confined aquifer
containing
groundwater under
positive pressure.
This causes the
water level in the well
to rise to a point
where hydrostatic
equilibrium has been
reached. This type of
well is called an
artesian well.
ARTESIAN WELL FROZEN OVER

• You can’t flow when you’re frozen

 URBAN WATER SUPPLY---BY MUNICIPAL AUTHORITIES
The water supply in most Indian cities is only available for a
few hours per day,
pressure is irregular, and the water is of questionable quality.
Table 3 summarizes some key
indicators of irregularity and poor performance of municipal
water suppliers in the largest
Indian cities. No major Indian city has a 24 hour supply of
water, with 4 to 5 hours of supply per day being the norm.
3 Improved sources are household connections, public
standpipes, protected wells, rainwater collection,
boreholes, and protected springs. ‘Not improved’ sources
include unprotected wells and springs, vendor
provided water and tanker truck water Households with water
tanks install booster pumps on
the main water line itself and pump water directly to water
tanks. This increases the risks of
contamination of the general water supply and reduces the
pressure in the network for other
users, leading them also to install motors on the main line
 INDIVIDUAL HOUSEHOLD CONNECTION
OPTION 1
An individual household connection
from municipal authorities to a
piped utility network supply is the
target water supply option for
urban consumers, providing the
most convenient and least costly
way for a household to purchase
water. Delivering the physical
connection requires flexible design
of the distribution network in
informal housing areas, support to
households through reduced
connection costs. In some locations
householders are required to
display land title documents in order
to establish a connection, making
this a difficult option to implement
in low-income areas built on
contested land . The ideal is for
householders to benefit from a 24/7
pressurised supply.
 INDIVIDUAL HOUSEHOLD CONNECTION
Option two: Metered connection

With a metered connection the utility charges the household for

the volume of water used, allowing for fairer billing and more
accurate records of usage across the network when compared
to flat-rate charges. Where the meters are accurate and well
maintained the customer pays for the amount of water they
have used and the utility has a reliable means of securing
payment for the water consumed. Other important points
include:

Meters need to be read regularly so that credible bills are

issued that encourage prompt payment, and the utility needs to
consider how best to deliver the bill to the customer and
facilitate payment. A billing system which alerts managers to
unusual consumption patterns
is required to protect customers against service pipe leakage
and/or meter reader ‘mistakes’.
 BORE WELLS AND TUBE WELLS
• India being an agrarian(rural/agriculture) country, our farmers
depend mainly on groundwater for irrigation. With increasing
population, lesser land holdings and urbanisation, deeper bore wells
are dug for groundwater abstraction.
• bore wells & tubewells, are very similar. Both are basically vertical
drilled wells, bored into an underground aquifer ( Aquifers are
underground layers of porous and permeable rock capable of storing groundwater and
transmitting it to wells and springs.)
in the earths surface, to extract water for various purposes.
• The difference in the two lies in the type of casing used, the depth
of this casing and the type of soil where they are drilled. Casing to
support the external surfaces of the borehole against collapse may
be needed at certain depths, and usually is made up of PVC pipes.
Electrical pumps are usually used to pump out the water from the
bore wells, though the government is now giving subsidy for solar
pumps. This convenience of pumps may increase the depletion of
the groundwater at an increased pace.
• A bore well is drilled with casing pipe put only up to the soil-rock
boundary and this is done normally for shallow depths in hard rock
or in crystalline rock. But in a tube well, the casing pipes are put up
to the bottom of the bore wells, with perforation in the pipes in
some level.
 BORE WELLS
DRIVEN WELLS : Specially designed well point is driven
repeatedly by hammer blows---lengths of pipes are added as
per need---useful in unconsolidated soil.
TUBE WELLS (BORE WELLS): ----------Students to collect data
General information : For houses 4 ½” dia. Irrigation 6” dia.
Average depth----200’-0”
Sizes------4 ½”, 6”, 8” and even 10”. ---50’ more depth after
getting water. Initially mud comes out with force --- then fresh
water----rocky strata ---better water
CASING WITH PERFORATIONS only at water bearing strata.
Casings are inserted and secured with couplings. LOG is
maintained to know strata of earth, water table etc. (at
various stages depths are recorded ). Solid casing is done
where in loose soil is ecoutered.
ROTARY DRIVEN WELLS : (in Gujarat) –400’ to 500’ –Bore pipes
with perforations---mud slurry is pumped into it---which via
perforations get attached to side walls ( even small size gravels
are used )----to stop caving in---then pipes are inserted
Bore wells draw water from confined aquifers.
 BORE WELLS
• Excessive drilling of bore wells has led to exploitation of
groundwater at higher rates than the rate of water recharge
and caused depletion of the groundwater levels.

• To monitor this many states have come up with laws & a

statutory authority to regulate and keep tabs on the
groundwater utilisation. Some states have implemented
groundwater legislation acts which prevent drilling of bore
wells without the permission of Government Bodies in water
scarce regions.

• However, some states allow drilling only for drinking water

without the need for obtaining permission.

• Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) has come with reports

on the groundwater status in the country. Uncontrolled use of
bore well technology leads to exploitation of groundwater at
higher rates than the rate of water recharge, which may
cause drastic depletion of groundwater.
 BORE WELL POINT IDENTIFICATION

• Bore well point selection is the very first process

required in construction of a bore well.

• people pronounce this process in various ways

such as Bore well point marking, Bore well point
identification, Bore well point selection, Bore
well point detection, water dowsing, water
witching, hydro-geologist survey, geologist
survey, scientific survey, coconut bore well point
marking and many other pseudo(fictitious)
names.

• But bore well point identification is widely

divided into two major methods which are
differentiated as pseudoscientific method and
scientific method.
 SCIENTIFIC bore well POINT SURVEY.
• Scientific bore well point identifications are most of the time
carried out by professional geologists or geo-scientists. (charge in-
between Rs. 3000/- to Rs. 6000 per point service based on the work
load, traveling destinations, No. of points to be marked and
reporting tasks). Types of scientific bore well point identification

• VARIUOS TYPES

Very low frequency sounding

Electromagnetic induction survey Vertical Electrical Sounding

 PSEUDOSCIENTIFIC METHOD OF BOREWLL POINT
IDENTIFICATION
• Detecting a point based on ancient
practices and beliefs without any kind
of relationship or evidences of science
is called pseudoscientific bore well
point exploration. But there are
chances of both success and failure in
pseudoscientific surveys. There are
many methods followed as per
pseudoscience based on their beliefs,
any professional practicing these
services are addressed as water
diviner or water dowser and charge in
between Rs500/- to Rs 1500/- based on
the site location and dimension.
 L-RODS WATER DOWSING METHOD
Many dowsers today use a pair of simple L-shaped
metal(copper) rods. One rod is held in each hand,
with the short arm of the L held upright, and the
long arm pointing forward. When groundwater is
found, the rods cross over one another making
an X over the found point.

The L-shaped rods are held tight erect by the

person and the diviner starts walking around the
field from various directions. The water diviner can
notice fluctuation in the copper rods while they are
crossing the target (electromagnetic force present
in the earth automatically tends the copper rods
)and points are marked.

Bore well India Foundation appoints dowsers only

who are having the highest success ratio. Charges
for L-Rod dowsing: A reputed dowsing professional
based on their experience and success ratio charge
in between Rs 1000/- to Rs 3000/-
 coconut dowsing
•Predicting a station(bore well point) based on the
movement of coconut is termed as coconut dowsing.
•The method of Coconut Dowsing is one of the
ancient method of finding the underground water
used for bore well drilling or digging a well for water.

•The coconut dowsing professional walks around the

land holding the coconut as shown in the figure.
When the coconut dowsing person reaches the
target the coconut automatically raises to vertical
position. Shaking the coconut again the same
process is followed in the opposite direction. After
multiple measurements, if the same fluctuation
occurs at the same point the target is selected for
bore well point.

•Holding a coconut facing downwards and

concentrating while walking as that coconut lifts the
pointer part towards the sky and proves, where ever
the north and south poles attract with each other
indicating the Electro Magnetic Force and finds the
Under Ground Water.
 WATER DOWSING

• “Water dowsing” refers in general to the practice of using a forked

stick, rod, pendulum, or similar device to locate underground water
and has been a subject of discussion and controversy for hundreds
of years.

• Although tools and methods vary widely, most dowsers (also called
diviners or water witches) probably still use the traditional forked
stick, which come from a variety of trees. Other dowsers may use
keys, wire coat hangers, pliers, wire rods, pendulums, or various
kinds of elaborate boxes and electrical instruments.
• In the classic method of using a forked stick, one fork is held in
each hand with the palms upward. The bottom or butt end of the “Y”
is pointed skyward at an angle of about 45 degrees. The dowser
then walks back and forth over the area to be tested. When she/he
passes over a source of water, the butt end of the stick is supposed
to rotate or be attracted downward.

• Water dowsers practice mainly in rural or suburban communities

where residents are uncertain as to how to locate the best and
cheapest supply of groundwater. Because the drilling and
development of a well often costs more, homeowners are
understandably reluctant to gamble on a dry hole and turn to the
water dowser for advice.
 bore well DRILLING
• Bore hole drilling where a
shaft of required
measurement is drilled in
the ground for the
required depth to tap the
available groundwater for
the purpose of drinking
or other usages based on
the quality of water.

• bore well INDIA

FOUNDATION IS
CAPABLE OF DRILLING
bore wellS BASED ON
THE SITE
REQUIREMENTS AS PER
DIMENSION 41/2 INCH, 6
INCH, 61/2 INCH, 8 INCH,
10 INCH, 12 INCH bore
well THROUGH OUT
INDIA
• SURFACE DRILLING: Surface drilling methods
are adopted in areas where the drilling
location is vacant and has enough space for
the drilling rig to set the point. There are
various diameters of drilling bits used in
surface drilling based on the usage of the
bore well.

• As per current market situation high power

rigs are equipped with a facility to drill bore
wells up to 1500 feet. Domestic/ home
purpose – 4.5 inch,6 inch,6.5 inch bore well
drilling. Agriculture purpose – 6.5 inch, 8
inch, 10 inch, 12 inch bore well drilling
Industrial purpose – 6.5 inch, 8 inch, 10 inch,
12 inch bore well drilling
• drilling rig is been set exactly in the point
marked by a water diviner, hydro geologist,
groundwater locator or a bore well point
identification expert. Once the drilling rig is
set in the point the 6.5 inch bore well
drilling bit is set with the hydraulic hammer
which gives pressure for the bits and is
forced into the earth surface with the
power produced from the high pressure
compressor to blast the hole from the
surface of the earth until the hard rock
formation is hit. Once the hard rock
formation encounters the complete set of
drilling rods along with the hammer
• and 6.5 inch bit is removed to the surface and casing
pipes made of MS iron or PVC of required grade and
thickness of 6 inch diameter is been installed into the
borehole which works as a wall for the borehole
avoiding the soil to fall into the well. After inserting the
casing pipes 6 inch bit is been set with the hammer to
drill the rock and is again driven into the bore hole and
the rock is been drilled with a pressure of 450 to 500
psi based on the geological formation of the area.
Normally drilling rods of measurement 20 feet each are
been set for each and every 20 feet to drill all the way
from the surface to the required target.
• When the drilling is in progress the driller or the drilling
supervisor carefully watches the changes in formation
for each and every foot. Usually the rock color and
formation changes step by step in certain cases we
also find the same rock throughout. The supervisor
keeps an eye if there is some issues of silt or boulders
during drilling, if silt or boulders occur during drilling
special pipes called slotted or screener pipes need to
be installed throughout the bore well.
• Once the water encounters from the bore well, it would
be visibly running out from the drilled hole,
approximately drilling supervisors can estimate the
amount of yield from the bore well. In case the water is
sufficient the drilling process can be stopped if not it
can be continued until the drilling reaches the next
source.

• If the amount of water is high in the bore well, the bore

well drilling cannot be processed further. After drilling
process is been completed it is advised by the senior
geologists to process a complete bore well camera
scanning proof, to visualize the number of fractures,
number of dry and yielding sources, in case there are
issues like air gaps, minor silt or boulders, so that the
issues can be resolved in prior to installation of pump.
 RIVERS AS SOURCES OF WATER-IN INDIA

• Rivers have been the lifelines of growth and culture.

Major river systems in the north are the perennial
Himalayan rivers – Ganga, Yamuna, Indus and
Brahmaputra. The south has the non-perennial but rain
fed Krishna, Godavari, and Cauvery while central India
has the Narmada, Mahanadi and Tapti.

• The Ganges-Brahmaputra and the Indus systems are

the largest as they drain almost half of the country
carrying more than 40% of the utilisable surface water
from the Himalayan watershed to the ocean. Over 70%
of India’s rivers drain into the Bay of Bengal, mostly as
part of the Ganges-Brahmaputra system. The Arabian
Sea receives 20% of the total drainage from the Indus
and other rivers. The remaining 10% drains into interior
basins and natural lakes.
 RIVERSIN INDIA
• Rivers have been the lifelines of growth and
culture. Major river systems in the north are the
perennial Himalayan rivers – Ganga, Yamuna,
Indus and Brahmaputra. The south has the non-
perennial but rain fed Krishna, Godavari, and
Cauvery while central India has the Narmada,
Mahanadi and Tapti.
• The Ganges-Brahmaputra and the Indus systems
are the largest as they drain almost half of the
country carrying more than 40% of the utilisable
surface water from the Himalayan watershed to
the ocean. Over 70% of India’s rivers drain into
the Bay of Bengal, mostly as part of the Ganges-
Brahmaputra system. The Arabian Sea receives
20% of the total drainage from the Indus and
other rivers. The remaining 10% drains into
interior basins and natural lakes.
• Flow in India’s rivers is strongly influenced by monsoon
resulting in an annual peak in most rivers. The northern
rivers with sources in the Himalayas see an additional peak
during the spring snowmelt.
• Because of this, water levels increase and flooding is a
common phenomenon that also leads to yearly calamity in
states like Bihar and Assam. During the dry season, the flow
diminishes in most large rivers and even disappears entirely
in smaller tributaries and streams. Due to low rains, and dry
rivers, drought is another common calamity across vast
areas, especially the Deccan trap.
• Hence, some parts of India suffer from flood and some parts
from drought. Apart from the floods and droughts, most
Indian rivers are cesspools of waste dumped from various
urban and industrial centers. In 1995, the Central Pollution
Control Board identified severely polluted stretches on 18
major rivers in India. The pattern of destruction is similar for
any river - industrial and domestic pollution, jagged
urbanization and encroachment, agricultural fertilizer and
pesticide runoffs, erosion and silting, over withdrawal of
water, and inconsiderate religious practices. All 44 rivers in
Kerala face extinction through deforestation, sand mining,
riverbank brick making and pollution.
• The rivers are the sources of drinking water for urban and rural
areas, raw water for industries, and irrigation. The demand for water
is ever increasing leading to over-extraction. This abstraction of
water in excess from the river lessens the flow in it. It is very
important to maintain the flow as it helps in diluting and carrying
the sewage and pollutants away.
• Irrigation canals and industrial units extract huge volumes of water,
and in return, discharge agricultural runoff waste and poisonous
effluents. Many rivers suffer from silt deposition in its bed —
reducing flow, and disturbing the ecosystem. Deforestation near the
source of the rivers, is leading to soil erosion, landslide, floods, silt
formation and sedimentation in rivers. In Indian rivers, siltation rate
is among the highest in the world. It has been estimated that about
135 thousand million metric tonnes of sediment load and 32
thousand million tonnes of soluble matter enter into ocean through
various rivers.
• To regulate the flow in these rivers and store water and divert water
for irrigation, and generate power, a number of large dams and
barrages have been built on many rivers. However, these measures
have been detrimental to the flow of water resulting in silt
deposition. With the storage of water, the natural flow in rivers is
obstructed affecting the ecosystems.
 LAKES
• Apart from rivers, India is house to some
of the most beautiful lakes of the world,
some natural, others artificial.
• In India, lakes serve as source of water
for drinking, agriculture, and even
industries. It acts as sewage absorbers,
flood cushions and recharge zones for
groundwater aquifers. It is an ecosystem
where a variety of birds and animals
breed.
• Lake tourism is an immensely profiting
sector. In India, there are urban and
rural lakes along with natural water
bodies.
• Slowly, many of these prized possessions have vanished or
are vanishing. Reasons: draining of lake water for real
estates in cities and cultivable and factory land in villages;
dumping of effluents — both domestic and industrial;
agricultural runoff; encroachments, and general neglect.
• Earlier the farmers would take away the lake silt to their
fields to fertilize the soil, but now with the usage of chemical
fertilizers, the use of silt has stopped, leading to silt
accumulation. In many lakes, uncontrolled tourism has
resulted in spoiling the quality of water.
• The coastal lakes have been seriously affected due to an
imbalance in salinity levels. This is attributed to lack of
balance between fresh water from the inland catchment of
the lake and entry of seawater into the lake at the mouth of
the estuary.
• Or idols’ immersion in lakes during religious festivals in many
cities like Bangalore, Bombay and Bhopal, leading to
discharge of dyes and paints. Water shortages in lakes,
which sources of replenishment are seriously impaired due
to encroachment and loss of catchments, have resulted in
bird sanctuaries and fisheries getting seriously affected.
 WHICH IS THE OLDEST DAM?

• Kallanai DamKallanai Dam, also known as

Grand Anicut, is the fourth oldest dam in the
world. It still serves the people of Tamilnadu,
India. The dam was constructed by King
Karikala Chola of the Chola Dynasty in the
2nd century AD. The dam is located on the
River Kaveri, approximately 20km from the
city of Tiruchirapalli.

• Biggest desalination plant in the world is in

Riyadh, Saudi Arabia capable of serving
approximately 3.5 billion people in the city. .
• The plant has a capacity to produce 228
million imperial gallons per day / 728 million
litres per day.
 CONCLUSION
• The urgency to conserve the water resources is
enormous as the pressures are three fold. Firstly, water
is becoming scarce both in terms of quality and
quantity leading to a supply side shortage.
• Secondly, on the demand side, the requirement is
increasing by leaps and bounds as India’s population,
food demands, industrial requirements increase with
development and economic activities lurching ahead.
• Thirdly, the loss or dwindling of these aquatic
ecosystems will ultimately result in dry river and
lakebeds, and parched aquifers. To allay such
scenarios, various efforts have been undertaken
through the aegis of various government departments
both at the centre and the states to conserve, revive,
control and manage these aquatic systems. Apart from
the government, NGOs and communities themselves are
making active efforts to conserve water resources.
GOOD MORNING
 QUANTITY OF WATER-

ASSESSMENT OF REQUIREMENT FOR DIFFERENT

USES,

It depends upon RATE OF DEMAND and POPULATION to

be served.

RATE OF DEMAND:

Standard of living and culture plays an important role. In

order to calculate approx. quantity of water required for
various purposes it is divided into five groups.

DOMESTIC PURPOSE.
PUBLIC PURPOSE.
INDUSTRIAL USE.
COMERCIAL
LOSS AND WASTE.
1. DOMESTIC PURPOSE : LDH (litre per day per head)

Drinking : High degree of pure water is

required for consumption since it
helps in blood formation and
2L/D/H assimilation etc. Human body
contains approx. 70 % of water
Cooking : Depends on socio-economic
condition of family and the society in
2L/D/H general.

Bathing(hot water) : Depends on habit of people

and climatic conditions. 30 to 40 L/D/H
Tub bath ------------------------------------------60 to 80 L/D/H
Washing hands, face etc.------------------ 5 to 10 L/D/H
Household sanitary : W.C.with flushing system, Washing
of clothes, utensils floors etc.----- 50 to 60 L/D/H
Private gardens : Difficult to assess since it depends upon
individual cases
Irrigation : Dependent mostly on private wells , hence not
of importance.
Domestic animals : Cow or buffalo------- ------40 L/NO/D
Dog---------------------------- 10 L/NO/D
Horse------------------------------50 L/NO/D
Sheep------------------------------ 5 L/NO/D
Mule-------------------------------30 L/NO/D
Domestic car : Depends on no. of cars relation to
population—0.30/L/H (not per car)

Hence for Domestic Purpose 40 to 50 % of total water required

per capita per day

2. CIVIC PURPOSE
Road washing : Water sprinklers are used to keep the road
clean (Singapore). But in
5 L/H/D India shop owners do so on their own

SANITATION : To clean public sanitary blocks, markets, liquid

2 to 3 L/D/H waste from houses etc.

ORNAMENTAL: Fountains, lakes, ponds etc.---not considered for

Indian conditions wherein drinking water itself
is a problem.
Fire demand : Factories, warehouses, big hotels etc. due to
1L/H/D short circuit or any other reason.
---
3. INDUSTRIAL PURPOSE

Factories : Depends on nature of products, size of factory etc.

Aluminium -----------------1350 L/Kg./D

Butter---------------------------11 L/Kg./D
Coal mining------------------- 4 L/Kg./D
Chese---------------------------20 L/Kg./D
Glass----------------------------70 L/Kg./D
Oil refineries-------------------10 L/Kg./D
Paper factory------------------160 L/Kg./D
Steel-----------------------------46 L/Kg./D
Sugar---------------------------- 9 L/Kg./D
P.V.C.pipes-------------------200 L/Kg./D
Hence for Industrial Purpose 20 to 25 % of total water required
per capita per day.

Power stations—Railway stations to make their own

arrangements since they require large quantity of water.
4. BUSINESS OR COMMERCIAL PURPOSE

large quantity of water required for dairies,

hotels, laundries, garages, restaurants, stables
etc. to maintain hygienic conditions and keep
city clean--------15 to 25 L/H/D

5 LOSS AND WASTE

It is rather unaccounted. Careles use of water,

leakage in mains and valves, unauthorized
connections etc. 30 to 40 % of total water
required per capita per day.
 QUANTITY OF WATER AS PER NBC—NATIONAL
BUILDING CODE
• WATER SUPPLY REQUIREMETS FOR RESIDENCES

• FOR DOMESTIC NEEDS OF URBAN COMMUITIES

A minimum of 70 t0 100 litres per head per day

• MIIMUM WATER SUPPLY REQUIREMETS FOR RESIDENCES

FOR BOTH DOMESTIC AD ON DOMESTIC NEEDS
lphd
water supply through standpost without flushing ---- 40
And house service connection—for 20000 population- 70-100
For population 20000 to 100000+flushing system ---100-150
For population above 100000+flushing system --------150---200
For LIG and EWS ----------------------------------------------------------135

NOTE : OUT OF 150-200 LITRES PER HEAD PER DAY, 45 LITRES

PER HEAD PER DAY MAY BE TAKE FOR FLUSHING
REQUIREMENTS AND REMAINING FOR OTHER DOMESTIC
PURPOSE.
WATER REQUIREMENTS FOR BUILDINGS OTHER THAN RESIDECES.
AS PER NBC.

FACTORIES-----------with bath rooms------------------------------------------ 45 L/H/D

without bath rooms---------------------------- 35 L/H/D
HOSPITALS -including laundry---per bed ---up to 100 beds -- 340 L/B/D
--above 100 beds------ -------- 450 L/B/D
NURSES HOMES , MEDICAL QUARTERS.
HOSTELS, BOARDING SCHOOLS ETC. -----------------------------------135 L/H/D
HOSTELS----------------------------------------per bed--------- ------------------180 L/B/D
RESTAURANTS-------------------------------per seat----- --- ------------------70 L/S/D
CINEMA, CONCERT HALLS ------------------------ ----- ------------15 L/H/D
SCHOOLS, OFFICES --------------------------------------------- ---------------45 L/H/D

NOTE : FOR CALCULATING WATER DEMAND FOR VISITORS A

CONSUMPTION OF 15 BLITRES PER HEAD PER DAY MAY BE TAKEN
 QUALITY OF WATER

Water should be fit for drinking (potable or wholesome). The presence

of minerals assist in assimilation of food

DOMESTIC USE : Fresh, clear, odourless, colourless and tasty. Free

from harmful bactaria, should not cause corrosion to pipes and fittings.

CIVIC USE : Dissolved and suspended impurities may be permitted.----

cleaning of sewers and roads ( Ex :Singapore )

TRADE AND BUSINESS : Laundry---hardness not permitted since it

results in more consumption of soap.

COMMERCIAL OR INDUSTRIAL : Chemically pure water otherwise it

affects the result of final product.

The rain as it drops absorbs dust and gases from atmosphere, also
comes in contact with organic matter on the surface of the earth.

Impurities present are divided in three parts : I. Physical. II. Chemical

and III. Bacteriological. Hence, tests.
 I. PHYSICAL TEST :
• COLOUR : It spoils clothes and affects various Industrial
processes------ colour test is carried out by TINTOMETER. It
has eye piece with two holes. Slide of standard coloured
water is seen through one hole and slide of water to be
tested in the other hole. It is measured by an arbitrary scale.

• The unit of colour on cobalt scale (Nickel) is the colour

produced by one milligram (mg) of platinum cobalt in a liter
of distilled water ( cobalt scale should not exceed 20 for
public water supply). preferably less than 10. The different
slides with standard colours are kept in labs ----compare the
same and arrive at the value.

• TASTE AND ODOUR : This test is carried out by inhaling

through osmoscope having two tubes..---water to be tested is
mixed with odour free water----the taste and odour of water
may be tested by threshold number. I.e. the mixture at which
the odour becomes detectable is determined. It should not be
more than 3.

• Any public water supply scheme should not contain

objectionable taste and odour which is expressed as fishy,
grassy, moldy ( soft earth ) sweetish----taste is expressed as
brackish, saline, sultry etc.
 PHYSICAL TEST (CONTD).
• TEMPERATURE : Multiplication of bactaria takes more rapidly
in high temp. than lower temperature. Hence, water should
be collected cooled and then tested----potable water should
have 10 Deg. C.----temp---25 Deg. C. is harmful or
objectionable.

• TURBIDITY : The colloidal matter present in the water

imparts turbidity to water which is due to clay and silt
particles , discharge from Industrial waste, presence of
micro organism etc.
• It is expressed as p.p.m. = --i.e. Parts of suspended matter
Per Million parts of water= Mg./ liter

• Jackson turbidimeter ----- above 100 p.p.m.----stand and

candle--- above that water is filled in tube---till candle ceases
to be seen.

• Baylis turbidimeter -------less than 5 p..p.m.—two tubes---one

with standard turbidity---other with turbidity to be tested—
blue light is lit---clour observed---standard turbidity tubes are
replaced till the blue tinge is approximates with water to be
tested.
 II CHEMICAL TEST
CHLORIDES : ( Sodium chloride or salt )—excess presence of
sodium chloride---indicates pollution of water due to sewage,
minerals etc. –desirable level for potable water ---200 p.p.m.
max.—600 p.p.m.

DISSOLVED GASES : Because of atmosphere and ground

contact---usual gases are Nitrogen, Methane, Hydrogen
sulphide, CO2 and O2.
Nitrogen---not important, Methane---for its explosive property,
Hydrogen sulphide—for odour even in small quantity---CO2 for
biological action---cases of corrosion .

HARDNESS : -------soap destroying power

Temporary hardness : ( Carbonate hardness )---due to presence

of bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium -----removed by
simply boiling or adding lime to the water.
Permanent hardness : (Non-carbonate hardness )---due to the
presence of sulphates, chlorires, nitrates of calcium and
magnesium. Excess hardness causes more consumption of
soap, affects dying system, scales on boilers, corrosion and
incrustation of pipes.
 CHEMICAL TEST (CONTD).
It is measured by soap solution test. Difference bet. Soap solution and leather
formation indicate the hardness. Water having hardness of 5 degrees is
reasonably soft water and a very soft water is tasteless , hence for potable
water hardness should preferable be between 5 to 8 degrees.

Extremely soft----1 degree Soft----3 degrees

Moderately soft------------------------------------- 6 degrees
Hard--9 degrees Extremely hard---15 degrees Too hard to care---17 d.

HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATION (PH VALUE)

Alkalinity or acidity is measured in terms of its PH value or H—ion
concentration. H2O consists of H—ions combined with OH ----ions.

ACIDIC ----------------------------------------when + vely charged H----ions are in excess

than – vely charged OH –ions.

ALKALINE----------------------------------- when - vely charged H----ions are in excess

than + vely charged OH –ions.
For neutral water above concentration must be equal.
• III BACTERIALOGICAL TESTS :
• Detected by circumstantial evidence or chemical reactions . Growth ---by cell
division. They may be harmful (pathogenic bacteria) or harmless (non
pathogenic bacteria).
 QUALITY OF WATER FOR DIFFERENT USE:
Concrete product : same as drinking---clean free from excess sulphites
and chlorides which delay the setting and solidity of concrete.
Artificial silk : clear, bright, soft---small quantity of saline allowed
Laundries: free from iron and soft. Ice : same as drinking water.
Dairies: free from bacteria, excessive hard water allowed.
Paper: free from colour, iron and manganese.
Photographic films: colorless, free from iron, zinc and manganese.
SWIMMING POOLS: Natural bathing pools : river, ponds etc.-------local
authorities to keep it clean ( H.D.M.C. or P.W.D.).
Partly natural and partly artificial bathing pools : advantage of tide at
sea side----treatment plant. It may be polluted by sewage.----even river
side----with filtration.
Artificial bathing pools : private clubs, public bodies, corporation etc.
sources—well, tube well—public water supply system.
These are kept clean by :
a. cleaning and refilling at one or two days interval.
b. adding disinfectants such as chlorine compound.
c. continuous circulation of water through purification plant and back
to bathing pool. Infected water causes infection to ear, eyes, skin,
throat, respiratory system etc.
 TREATMENT OF WATER FOR DIFFERET USES

• AERATION :
a. To add oxygen to water ( underground water does not
contain much of O2 )
b. Expulsion of CO2, hydrogen sulphide and other
volatile substances--- causing taste and odour.
c. To precipitate impurities like iron and manganese
(bitter taste)

• SEDIMENTATION TANKS ---with or without coagulants.

• FILTRATION
• DISINFECTION
• WATER SOFTENING ---------THEN CONVEYANCE AND
DISTRIBUTION
AERATION

High iron and manganese content in water impart

a bitter taste to water, discolor rice cooked in it
and give brownish - black stains to clothes
washed. Aeration is widely used for the treatment
of this kind of waters.

CASCADE FOUNTAINS
FOUNTAINS AERATE THE LAKES.

Aeration is a water
treatment process in During aeration,
which water is brought oxygen converts
into intimate contact the dissolved
with air. ferrous and
manganese
compounds into
insoluble ferric
and magnetic
hydroxides. These
can be removed
by sedimentation
or filtration.
 FOUNTAINS AERATE THE LAKES.

SURFACE AERATORS
BUBBLE AERATORS
SEDIMAENTAION TANKS
PURPOSE : “
Sedimentation tanks are
designed to give complete
rest to the flowing
water—or make it flow at
a low velocity.”
The heavier organic impurities
settle at the bottom and lighter ones
float on the surface which are
removed accordingly. These tanks
remove 60% of suspended matter
and 75% of bacterial load from the
water.
Some times “COAGULANTS ” are
added ( which make suspended
matter heavy ) in case of rapid sand
filters before water is brought to
sedimentation tanks for effective
working. Sedimentation tanks are
located before FILTRATION PLANTS.
 SEDIMETAION TANK
/CLARIFLOCCULATOR
THEORY : The particles
which are heavier than
water naturally settle down
due to force of gravity. The
phenomena of settling
down of organic and
inorganic suspended solids
at the bottom of
sedimentation tanks is
known as HYDRAULIC
SUBSIDENCE.
 COAGULATION OF WATER
The water contains :
• 1. fine particles of clay, silt and organic matter
resulting in turbidity.
• 2. Colloidal mater and dissolved organic
material resulting in clour.
• Since these are very fine particles it is rather
difficult to detain them in sedimentation tanks.
To make these particles settle down certain
chemicals are used which are known as
COAGULANTS. ( when turbidity is 40 p.p.m.
should be brought down to 10 to 25 p.p.m.) It is
a process by which impure water is prepared
for purification by filtration plants. These are
available in powder as well as in liquid form.
 PRINCIPLES OF COAGULATION

• FLOC FORMATION : When coagulants are

dissolved in water they produce thick
gelatinous precipitate known as “ FLOC ”
which has the property of arresting the
suspended impurities during its downward
travel. Process of floc formation is known
as “ FLOCCULATION ”.
• As floc descends, it absorbs and catches
impurities present in water increasing its
size.
• ELECTRIC CHARGES : The ions of floc are
found to possess + ve electric charge
which attract – vely charged particles of
clay and cause the removal of such
particles.
 THEORY OF COAGULATION

The particles which are heavier

than water naturally settle down
due to force of gravity. The
phenomena of settling down due
of organic and inorganic
suspended solids at the bottom of
sedimentation tanks is known as
HYDRAULIC SUBSIDENCE.
 USUAL COAGULANTS

1.ALUMINIUM SULPHATE : (alum ) – It comes

in the form of flakes or solid lumps. Very
effective and commonly used through out the
world. Reduces TASTE, ODOUR AND
TURBIDITY. It is quite cheap, produces
crystal clear water. Floc formation is tough
and is better than the other coagulants.
2. CHLORINATED COPPERAS : (ferric
sulphate + ferric chloride)-- Effective in
removing COLOUR of water.
3. FERROUS SULPHATE AND LIME : Floc is
quite heavy and sinks rapidly.
 COAGULANTS (CONTD.)
• 4. MAGNESIUM CARBONATE : It removes
COLOUR AND TURBIDITY and in addition it
removes IRON AND MANGANESE completely.
Floc formed is quite heavy and sinks rapidly.
• 5. POLY-ELECTROLYTES : Only cationic poly-
electrolytes are used independently as
coagulants abroad. The others can be used
along with alum or other coagulants—still in
pilot stage but may replace alum in future.
• 6. SODIUM ALUMINATE : Removes
CARBONATE
( temp. harness ) and NON-CORBONATE
(permanent hardness) from water. Very costly,
can not be used on large scale.----( for boilers )
FILTRATION OF WATER
 FILTRATION OF WATER
•Filtration is effected by passing water through thick layer
of sand. Due to 1.straining and sedimentation 2.
Biological metabolism and 3. Electrolytic charges water
gets purified.
•Suspended particles and impurities are arrested due to
STRAINING.
•Due to bacteria and colloidal matter gelatinous film is
formed around sand particles which in turn arrest
impurities and suspended particles.
•It is observed that sand grains of filter media are charged
with electricity of some polarity. As such when particles
containing electricity of opposite polarity come into
contact with such sand grains, they neutralize each other
altering the chemical characteristics of water.
SAND : Filter media of sand must be clean, free from clay,
vegetable matter, organic impurities
UNDERDRAINAGE SYSTEM
 TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION
• A distinguishing feature of slow sand filters is the
presence of a thin layer, which forms on the
surface of the sand bed and includes a large
variety of biologically active microorganisms. It
comprises approximately 1.2 m depth of fine sand
supported on two or three gravel layers. It is a very
effective technique for purifying water. It will
remove practically all of the turbidity from the
water as well as most of the pathogens without the
addition of chemicals. The effective size of the
sand used in slow sand filters is about 0.2 mm. In
contrast, the range of effective size for the rapid
sand filters described in the preceding section is
0.35 mm to 1.0 mm.
SLOW SAND FILTER
Slow sand filters
are not
backwashed; they
are maintained by
having the top layer
of sand scraped off
when flow is
eventually
obstructed by
biological growth.
 SLOW SAND FILTER
• Unlike other filters, slow sand filters also remove a great deal
of turbidity from water using biological action. A layer of dirt,
debris, and microorganisms builds up on the top of the
sand. This dirty skin breaks down organic particles in the
water biologically, and is also very effective in straining out
even very small inorganic particles from water.

Maintenance of a slow sand filter consists of raking the sand

periodically and cleaning the filter by removing the top two
inches of sand from the filter surface. After a few cleanings,
new sand must be added to replace the removed sand.
 SLOW SAND FILTER
• Cleaning the filter removes the dirty skin layer, without which the filter
does not produce potable water. After a cleaning the filter must be
operated for two weeks, with the filtered water sent to waste, to allow
the dirty skin layer to rebuild. As a result, a treatment plant must have
two slow sand filters for continuous operation.

Slow sand filters are very reliable filters which do not usually require
coagulation before filtration. However, water passes through the slow
sand filter very slowly, and the rate is slowed yet further by the dirty skin
layer. As a result, large land areas must be devoted to filters when slow
sand filters are part of a treatment plant. Only a few slow sand filters are
operating in the United States although this type of filter is more widely
used in Europe.
SLOW SAND FILTER
The slow sand filter is
the oldest type of
large-scale filter. In the
slow sand filter, water
passes first through
about 36 inches of
sand, then through a
layer of gravel, before
entering the
underdrain. The sand
removes particles from
the water through
adsorption and
straining.
 ADVANTAGES OF S.S.F.
• As they require little or no mechanical power,
chemicals or replaceable parts, and require
minimal operator training and only periodic
maintenance, they are often an appropriate
technology for poor and isolated areas.
• Slow sand filters are recognized by the World
Health Organization , United Nations and the
United States Environmental Protection
Agency as being superior technology for the
treatment of surface water sources. According
to the World Health Organization, "Under
suitable circumstances, slow sand filtration
may be not only the cheapest and simplest but
also the most efficient method of water
treatment."
 RAPID SAND FILTERS

• The rapid sand filter differs from the

slow sand filter in a variety of ways,
the most important of which are the
much greater filtration rate and the
ability to clean automatically using
backwashing. The mechanism of
particle removal also differs in the
two types of filters - rapid sand
filters do not use biological filtration
and depend primarily on adsorption
and some straining.
SLOW SAND FILTER
 RAPID SAND FILTERS
• Water moves vertically through sand which often
has a layer of activated carbon above the sand. The
top layer removes organic compounds, which
contribute to taste and odour. Most particles pass
through surface layers but are trapped in pore
spaces or adhere to sand particles. Effective
filtration extends into the depth of the filter. This
property of the filter is key to its operation: if the
top layer of sand were to block all the particles, the
filter would quickly clog.
RAPID SAND FILTERS
The filter is contained within a
filter box, usually made of
concrete. Inside the filter box
are layers of filter media (sand,
anthracite, etc.) and
gravel. Below the gravel, a
network of pipes makes up the
underdrain which collects the
filtered water and evenly
distributes the backwash water.
Backwash troughs help
distribute the influent water
and are also used in
backwashing
 RAPID SAND FILTRATION
Rapid sand filtration is contrasted to slow sand
filtration by increased flow rate, method of
cleaning the filter bed. A rapid sand filter can
operate up to 40 times faster than a slow sand
filter. Rapid sand filters are cleaned often,
usually daily, by reversing the flow of water
through the entire filter bed, referred to as
backwashing. Slow sand filters are cleaned less
frequently by removal of the top layer of
media.
Rapid sand filtration is the flow of water
through a bed of granular media. The
purpose of this filtration is to remove
any particulate matter left over after
flocculation and settling. It operates
based on two principles, mechanical
straining and physical adsorption. Sand
filtration is a "physical-chemical process
for separating suspended and colloidal
impurities from water by passage
through a bed of granular material.
Water fills the pores of the filter
medium, and the impurities are
adsorbed on the surface of the grains or
trapped in the openings." The key to this
process is the relative grain size of the
filter medium.
 RAPID SAND FILTRATION
• Operation of a rapid sand filter during
filtration is similar to operation of a slow sand
filter. The influent flows down through the
sand and support gravel and is captured by
the underdrain. However, the influent water
in a rapid sand filter is already relatively clear
due to coagulation and sedimentation, so
rapid sand filters operate much more quickly
than slow sand filters.
SCHEMATIC OF FILTER BED.
 PRESSURE SAND FILTER
• Sand filtration is frequently used and very robust method
to remove suspended solids from water. The filtration
medium consists of a multiple layer of sand with a variety
in size and specific gravity. (available both hand operated or
fully automatically).
Raw water pump is used for generating necessary
operating pressure in the pressure sand filter. Raw water is
passed through Multigrade Sand Filter at a pressure of 3.5
kg / cm2 to reduce the suspended solids present in the raw
water.
• The filter will effectively remove up to 30 – 50 micron of
the suspended solids to less then 5 ppm. The filter will have
to be washed with raw water for 20 to 30 minutes daily.
PRESSURE SAND FILTERS
Some water treatment plants
employ pressure filters. These work
on the same principle as rapid
gravity filters, differing in that the
filter medium is enclosed in a steel
vessel and the water is forced
through it under pressure.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF PRESSURE FILTERS

• Raw water flows down wards through the filter bed and as the
suspended matter- which has usually been treated by addition of a
coagulant like alum- is retained on the sand surface and between the
sand grains immediately below the surface.

• The filter is now taken out of service and cleaning of the filter is
effected by flow reversal. To assist in cleaning the bed, the backwash
operation is often preceded by air agitation through the under drain
system. The process of air scouring agitates the sand with a scrubbing
action, which loosens the intercepted particles. The filter is now
ready to be put back into service.
 PRESSURE SAND FILTER
• Highly recommended for the removal of
suspended solids & undissolved impurities like
dust particles & heavy metals etc. reduces
turbidity. Sand filters are used for water
purification. There are three main types; slow
sand filters, rapid (gravity) sand filters and
pressure sand filters. All three methods are
used extensively in the water industry
throughout the world.
 PRESSURE SAND FILTER
• pressure sand filter consists of a pressure vessel-this
could be either vertical or horizontal-graded silica
quartz sand supported pebbles and gravels, a top
distributor to distribute the incoming water
uniformly throughout the cross section of the filter,
and an under drain system to collect filtered water.
One of the unique features of sand is that it helps
filter water that passes through it.
 PRESSURE SAND FILTER
• The Pressure sand filter is now taken out of
service and cleaning of the filter is effected by
flow reversal. To assist in cleaning the bed, the
backwash operation is often preceded by air
agitation through the under drain system. The
process of air scouring agitates the sand with
a scrubbing action, which loosens the
intercepted particles. The filter is now ready
to be put back into service.
SWIMMING POOL FILTRATION PLANT
Pumps
Filters
Heaters
Pool lights &
lighting systems
Automatic pool &
spa control
systems
Automatic pool
cleaners
Spa accessories
Maintenance
products
Municipal Water and Wastewater treatment
Magic!!!
Magic!!!
Magic?

Not really
• We never stop to think about how
we get water in our taps – where
it comes from, the distance it
travels, how it is purified to make
it fit for use. We also never give a
thought to the wastewater that
we generate, once it goes down
our drains and flushes.
I come from a RIVER in your state
I come from a LAKE or a RESERVOIR
Magic? close to your city
• Municipal water supply for most
cities comes from rivers or lakes.
For the larger cities, deep bore wells
may be dug into river beds and the
water can be drawn from these
underground aquifers when the river
/ lake source is insufficient (during
summer). Water treatment is
required for surface water sources
such as rivers and lakes.
Groundwater is relatively cleaner
and does not require the entire
treatment process.
I come from deep UNDER THE GROUND.
In the river bed and other places,
there are borewells through which
I come out during the
summer months
• Some coastal cities have started
looking at seawater distillation for
getting drinking water. This
process uses a lot of energy and
is not very common. Desalination
of seawater involves a whole
different.
 I come from the lake….
but what follows is not my story,
because I go through a different
path before I reach you.
A big pipe sucked us in
Along the way, there was a mesh
We could go through but 3 friends of
ours (pebble, stick and leaf) couldn’t make it.
A pump pushed us a long distance until
we reached this big factory like place
called ‘Water treatment plant’

Along the way, there was a mesh.

We could go through but 3 friends of
A pipe
ours (pebble, stick and leaf) sucked
couldn’t us init.
make
There were boards all around which said
‘Restricted Area’.
I wonder why. Do you know?
 Flocculation
From a dark gloomy pipe where we were really rushed,
we reached a BIG tank.
When we were resting, something called
Aluminium Sulphate (let’s call him ALUM ) and some of
his friends joined us.
Flocculation

Alum and his friends are very sticky and

my pals ‘Dirt’ from the river, who managed
to pass the mesh earlier on, got really
attracted to them.
Flocculation

Alum and friends, along with ‘Dirt’ stuck

together. We called them ‘FLOC’
• Flocculation is a process of
removing any turbidity or colour in
the water so that it is clear and
colourless. This is done by causing
a precipitat to form in the water
which can be removed using simple
physical methods. Ferric Chloride or
Aluminium sulphate is added to the
water along with a polymer that acts
as a catalyst. A very small quantity
of the polymer is required. These
form sticky particles called ‘floc’
which attract colloidal and other
particles suspended in water.
• Initially the precipitate forms as
very small particles but as the water
is gently stirred, the ‘floc’ particles
along with the suspended colloidal
particles stick together to form
bigger particles - this process is
called flocculation or coagulation.
The combined weight of the dirt and
the alum (floc) become heavy
enough to sink to the bottom during
sedimentation.
 Sedimentation
We were then pushed into another tank. Ah! Rest at last.
This was called the sedimentation tank. Hey! the flocs are sinking.
The big ones are going down first.
Our friend ‘Dirt’ has gone down too with his ‘floc’
We were in this tank for about 2 hours and by then all the flocs had
sunk down below and formed mass called ‘sludge’
• During the flocculation process,
colloidal particles that are very
difficult to settle by gravity can be
removed. The positive and negative
ions coalesce and the chemicals
hasten this process. The colloidal
particles also carry bacteria. The
churning process helps to spread
the chemicals across the
flocculation tank.
•
Rapid sand filtration
We then passed quickly through another tank with a layer of sand and gravel

Little flocs and some dirt that did not get into flocs, got trapped in the sand
• : In municipalities and small
towns slow sand filters are used.
In some cases, the water may be
passed through activated carbon
filters that remove odd odours and
tastes.
DISINFECTION------Chlorination

A small amount of chlorine was then added to our tank, which killed pathogenic
bacteria, protozoa, viruses, helminths and other micro organisms.

http://www.cpcb.nic.in/oldwebsite/New%20Item/status-WTP-In-India/Chapter1%20.rtf
will give you some more information on municipal water treatment systems in India
We then travelled a large distance

through pipes

Photo by C C Krause; Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/charleskrause/3185090628/

 to large tanks within your city

Photo by John Brian Silverio; Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/psilver/2280385292

And from there to overhead tanks

Photo by BockBilbo; source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/bockbilbo/247405160/

We got to your house this morning and here
we come…….. Out of your tap
Waste water treatment
Our story doesn’t end here

Once you wash your hands with us or flush

us down the toilet, we go down through the
drains of your house, and through bigger
drains under your city and reach a waste
water treatment plant.
This is what we look like when we reach the
wastewater treatment plant

We’re full of poop, soap, oil,

grease, soil, garbage,
chemicals….all kinds of stuff

Photo by flippy rice; Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/flippy/110659044/

Sedimentation
• All the solid stuff is separated out

• We then go to sedimentation tanks where the sludge settles down and oil and grease float on top.

• Both these are removed

Photo by Benjamin Pender; Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/benpender/2432095138/

• The sewage is then allowed to stay
in sedimentation tanks. Oil and
grease that float above are removed,
as is the sludge that settles in the
bottom. This is called primary
treatment of wastewater. Sludge
treatment is a major issue and lesser
the sludge, easier it is to manage
sewage. Sewage sludge can occupy
large areas of land. It therefore
needs to be dried and compacted or
it can be anaerobically digested to
release methane.
• The sewage is then allowed to stay
in sedimentation tanks. Oil and
grease that float above are removed,
as is the sludge that settles in the
bottom. This is called primary
treatment of wastewater. Sludge
treatment is a major issue and lesser
the sludge, easier it is to manage
sewage. Sewage sludge can occupy
large areas of land. It therefore
needs to be dried and compacted or
it can be anaerobically digested to
release methane.
• Water exiting the flocculation basin may enter the sedimentation
tank, also called a clarifier or settling tank. It is a large tank with
slow flow, allowing floc to sink to the bottom. The sedimentation
tank is best located close to the flocculation tank so the transit
between does not permit settlement or floc break up.
Sedimentation tanks can be rectangular, where water flows from
end to end, or circular where flow is from the centre outward.
Tube settlers are much faster. Sedimentation tank outflow is
typically over a weir so only a thin top layer - furthest from the
sediment - exits. The amount of floc that sinks is dependent on
the time the water spends in the tank and the depth of the tank.
The typical clarifier retention time is 2 – 2.5 hours. A deep tank
will allow more floc to settle out than a shallow tank. This is
because large particles settle faster than smaller ones, so large
particles bump into and integrate smaller particles as they settle.
In effect, large particles sweep vertically though the tank and
clean out smaller particles on their way to the bottom.
As particles settle to the bottom of the basin a layer of sludge is
formed on the floor of the tank. This layer of sludge must be
removed and treated. The amount of sludge that is generated is
significant, often 3%-5% of the total volume of water that is
treated. The cost of treating and disposing of the sludge can be a
significant part of the operating cost of a water treatment plant.
The tank may be equipped with mechanical cleaning devices that
continually clean the bottom of the tank or with hopper bottoms
which can open out.
Trickling Filter
• We trickle on to a bed of rocks and gravel on which a
layer of microbes are present.

• Bacteria, protozoa and fungi on this bed

eat up the organic matter in the sewage

Photo by Naturenet; Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/naturenet/199836849/

• The rotating arms slowly pour the
wastewater onto a bed of stones
and gravel on which
microorganisms grow as a film.
The stones and gravel provide a
substrate for growth of the micro
organisms. These organisms
digest the organic matter in the
sewage as it trickles through the
bed.
• At the first stage is a grit filter
that removes large solid material
that comes into the sewage
system
Aeration
Air is pumped through us in aeration tanks
We may go through another round of the trickling filter
Sometimes we go through a tertiary treatment system
where chemicals are added to purify us
Then we rejoin a stream
• The process of aeration enhances
bacterial growth that can digest the
organic matter in the wastewater. Most
municipalities release treated water after
secondary treatment (aeration and
trickling filter). In some cities like
Bangalore, tertiary treatment systems
are also present in some wastewater
treatment plants. In tertiary treatment,
chemicals are added to further improve
the quality of water to drinking water
standards. This water is usually supplied
to nearby industries for use in their
processes.
 A recap – water treatment

Water from rivers / lakes Primary Filters

(to remove Flocculation tank
large matter)

Sedimentation
tank

To tanks in the city Rapid / slow

Chlorination
sand filtration
•House water connection
•Materials for service pipes
•Domestic underground
storage tank
•Water piping system in
buildings
•Water meter
HOUSE WATER CONNECTION
 HOUSE WATER
CONNECTION

• Service Pipe: Service Pipe is a

galvanized iron pipe of
• size less than 50 mm diameter. The
service pipe
which supplies water to the building
through the
municipal main is thus connected to
the main
through the goose neck and ferrule.
stop Cock: The Stop Cock is provided before
the
water enters the water meter in the house. It
is
housed in a suitable masonry chamber with a
removable cover, and is fixed in the street
close to
the boundary wall in an accessible position.

Water Meter: It is also installed in a suitable

chamber with cover. It measures the quantity
of water used by the consumer.
Goose Neck: Goose Neck is a small
sized
curved pipe made of a flexible
material
(usually lead) and is about 750 mm in
length. It is forming a flexible
connection
between the water main and the
service pipe
• Ferrule: A ferrule is a right angled sleeve
made of brass or gun metal, and is

joined to a hole drilled in water main, to

which it is screwed down with a plug. Its
size usually varies between 10 to 50 mm
diameter.
HOUSE WATER
CONNECTION
HOUSE WATER CONNECTION
 MATERIALS FOR SERVICE PIPES

Copper Pipes or Brass Pipes: This is non-corrosive

with most waters. It is used extensively in better
grade houses and where ground water is highly
corrosive to steel pipe. It has considerable strength,
reasonable ductility, and is obtainable in long lengths.
There are two types of copper water service pipes:
Heavy gauge
Light gauge
Galvanized Iron Pipes: These are used where water
is suitable. Galvanized iron or steel tubes corrode
more readily in soft and acid waters and are not
so easily manipulated as copper. They are stronger
and can be used in hard water area.
MATERIALS FOR SERVICE PIPES
Lead Pipe: They are highly resistance to corrosion and
highly
flexible. It has high hydraulic coefficient of flow. Lead
has
cumulative poisoning effect, specially when it goes into
solution. Due to this it is not preferred.
Polythene Tube: These are being used internally and
externally for cold water service pipes only. These pipes
are non corrosive, light in weight, can be installed by
ordinary tools and do not require threading. These pipes
are lower in cost.
MATERIALS FOR SERVICE PIPES
MATERIALS FOR SERVICE PIPES
DOMESTIC UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANK

Underground tanks
These tanks are made up of R.C.C or
Brick masonry, and have to be
structurally designed safe to withstand
earth pressure. The tank is to be filled
from the municipal supply inlet, and is
covered from the top to avoid any
contamination. The top cover may be
provided with a manhole for inspection
and cleaning purposes. Suitable pump is
installed to lift the water from this tank
and up to the overhead tank.
 UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANK
Care should be taken to construct an
underground tank so that:
•It is water tight and does not leak when empty.
•It is not located in low lying areas, which may
permit entry of surface water from the top.
•It should prevent ingress of subsoil water into
the tank through leakage.
•It should not be located near sewers, septic
tanks, soak pits, oil tanks, or underground
car
parking areas, to avoid seepage of surface
waters.
•The overflow water level in the tank should be
above the surrounding ground level, to
prevent
the surface water from entering the tank
through overflows.
•The masonry or R.C.C. retaining walls of the
tank should be structurally safe to withstand
the earth pressure from behind, when the tank
is empty.
•The masonry or R.C.C. retaining walls of the
tank should be structurally safe to withstand
the earth pressure from behind, when the tank
is empty.
 WATER METERS

• Water Meter: It
measures and records
the
• quantity of water
consumed in the house.
• The domestic type
water meter generally
• employed for houses is
fitted into the
• service pipe with
unions, which enables
• the meter to be
changed where
necessary.
CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER METER
It should accurately measure and
register both
small and large flows.
It should be easy to maintain and
repair.
It should have good capacity with
reasonable
head loss.
It should be durable.
It should be rugged.
It should prevent back flow passing
through it
d h ld t b li bl t l i
WATER METERS
and should not be liable to clogging.
It should have low cost.
 TYPES OF WATER METERS
INFERENTIAL: It measures the velocity of flow
across a
cross section whose area is known. They are used
only for
high flows. Common examples of this type of
meters are
the rotary and the turbine meters.
DISPLACEMENT: These meters are primarily used
for
relatively low flows, as for the residential
buildings. In this
meter, the quantity of water actually passing
through it is
measured by filling and emptying the chamber of
known
capacity.
DISC METERS: It consist of a disc of hard rubber
placed
inside a chamber which is provided with inlets and
outlets.
The water entering the chamber oscillates the
disc about
its center with a spiral motion. The oscillations
imparted
by one complete filling and emptying are recorded
by the
disc meter in terms of volume of water.
 WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS TO
BUILDINGS :

USEFUL TERMINOLOGIES :

BACK FLOW---- The flow of water or other liquids, mixtures or substances

into distributing pipes of a potable water from any other source than its
intended source.

BRANCH----------Any part of the piping system other than a main.

CROSS- CONNECTION : Any physical connection or arrangement bet. two

separate piping systems, one of which contains potable water and the other
water of unknown source or which is not safe.

COMMUNICATION PIPE : The part of service pipe , extending from the water
main up to including stopcock, which is under control of local authority.

CONSUMER’S PIPE : The portion of service pipe used for supply of water and
which is not the property of local authority.
DIRECT TAP: A tap which is connected to a supply pipe and subject
to pressure from the water main.

DOWNTAKE TAP : A tap which is connected to a pipe which is not

subjected to pressure from the water main.

FITTINGS : Coupling, flange, branch, bend, tees, elbows, unions,

waste with plug, P or S trap with vent, stop ferrule, stop tap, bib
tap, pillar tap, globe tap, ball valve, cistern, storage tank, baths,
water closets, boiler, geyser, pumping set with motor and
accessories, meter, hydrant, valve and any other article used in
connection with water supply, drainage and sanitation.

FLOAT OPERATED VALVE: Ball valves or ball taps operated by

means of a float.

FLUSHING CISTERN : For flushing a W.C., urinal or a drain.

SERVICE PIPE : Pipe used for conveying water from a water main to
any building and is subject to water pressure from such main.
DIRECT TAP: A tap which is connected to a supply pipe and subject to
pressure from the water main.

DOWNTAKE TAP : A tap which is connected to a pipe which is not

subjected to pressure from the water main.

FITTINGS : Coupling, flange, branch, bend, tees, elbows, unions, waste with
plug, P or S trap with vent, stop ferrule, stop tap, bib tap, pillar tap, globe
tap, ball valve, cistern, storage tank, baths, water closets, boiler, geyser,
pumping set with motor and accessories, meter, hydrant, valve and any
other article used in connection with water supply, drainage and sanitation.

FLOAT OPERATED VALVE: Ball valves or ball taps operated by means of a

float.

FLUSHING CISTERN : For flushing a W.C., urinal or a drain.

SERVICE PIPE : Pipe used for conveying water from a water main to any
building and is subject to water pressure from such main.
STOP COCK : Valve fixed by the local authority at the end of
communication pipe which controls the supply from mains.

SUPPLY PIPE : The pipe which extends from the stop cock up to
the ball cock of the storage tank, if any and consumer’s pipe
subject to water pressure from the mains.

WARNING PIPE : An overflow pipe

WASH OUT VALVE : A device located at the bottom of the tank

for the purpose of draining of water from the tank

WATER MAIN : A water supply pipe for public use which vests
with local authority
WATER PIPING SYSTEMS
IN BUILDINGS
PIPING SYSTEM USING OVERHEAD TANKS

•When supply of water is intermittent and

residual pressure is low, water is pumped to
over-head tanks and then supplied to
distribution pipes at required pressure by
gravity.
•In this system, water pressure in the mains
is sufficient to reach 3-4 floors, but for a
limited period.
•To meet the water requirement during non
supply hours, water is stored in the
overhead
tank, which is filled directly from mains.
•Supply to kitchens is taken from the main,
while supply to taps for bathing and
flushing
is taken from the overhead tank.
•In this case the drinking water has to be
stored by the consumer.
 PIPING SYSTEM USING
UNDERGROUND AND OVERHEAD
TANKS
•When supply is intermittent and residual
pressure is low then a ground level
storage tank and an overhead storage
tank are built to supply water.
•The water is pumped to the overhead
tank. Water from the overhead tank is
then drawn by down take pipes and then
into the distribution pipes for fixtures.
•Direct supply connections can be taken
to lower floors for drinking purposes. For
rest of the needs, the water is supplied
from overhead tank.
•Tall buildings depend only on water
pumped from underground and overhead
tank for the purpose of drinking also.
 PUMPED SYSTEMS
•Water is distributed by an
automatic pumping system
directly
to the supply point.
•The pressure in the system is
boosted by pumping sets that
pump
water from the underground tank.
•It eliminates need for OHT and
can
be used in existing buildings
where
OHT cannot be constructed or for
low buildings when the tanks
placed on the roof cannot
generate
enough pressure.
•This system is able to supply
water
at a much higher pressure than is
possible from local overhead
tanks.
 a. CONTINUOUS RUNNING
SYSTEMS:a. CONTINUO
These systems supply
water directly
to the where the
demand of water is
constant and matches
with pump
capacity.
E.g. Air conditioning
cooling towers,
steam boilers and
industrial
processes having
uniform water
demand.
 HOT WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM
DOMESTIC HOT WATER
APPLIANCES:
1.HAMAM
2.ELECTRICAL GEYSERS
(Hot Water Heaters)
3.GAS GEYSERS ( Use of
LPG)
Traditional Hamam:
Hamam is a traditional
displacement type hot
water heater, which
consists of a copper
sheet,
chimney and a grating.
It uses solid fuels like
coal, wood, etc.
ELECTRICAL GEYSERS (Hot Water Heaters)
Instantaneous Geysers
Storage type Geysers
Instantaneous Geysers – These are designed for direct
connection to water
taps and electric heating is switched on after flow of water is
established.
This requires heating element bound round a pipe, which heats
the water to a
specified temperature matching the rate of flow.
The heating element has to be of much higher capacity
(wattage)
Storage Geysers- They are usually of pressure type, which are
connected
with assured water supply from a cold OHT and never to the
direct main water
supply.
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM OF WATER :

“ Water is distributed to consumers in three different

methods depending upon the topography of the area ”

GRAVITY SYSTEM : It is possible only when the source of

water supply is at a higher level than the distribution
area. It is the most reliable method but in case of fire
pumps may be used to develop greater pressures.
GRAVITY AND PUMPING SYSTEM : (dual system) –In this
system, water is pumped and stored in an elevated
distribution reservoir. In case of fire pumps can be used
to develop greater pressures after closing the inlet valve
of elevated reservoir. This is also called “direct—
indirect” system, since when the demand rate exceeds
the rate of pumping, the flow into distribution system is
both from pumping station as well as elevated reservoir.
PUMPING SYSTEM : Water is directly pumped into mains.
In case of fire, greater pressure can be developed by
using higher capacity pumps.
SERVICE RESERVOIRS ( DISTRIBUTION RESEVOIRS) :

These are provided to meet fluctuating demand of water to maintain

constant pressure in mains and for emergencies such as break down of
pumps, heavy fire demand, interruption in power supply etc.

1. SURFACE RESERVOIR : (GOUND OR NON-ELEVATED RESERVOIR )

Built out of brick or stone masonry ---constructed at ground level----

with water proofing material---to store water. Usually it has two
compartments connected by control valves. By keeping one in
operation other compartment could be cleaned or repaired. Wash out
pipes are provided at the bottom to clean the silt. Overflow pipe ends
are fixed with wire gauge cover of 1.5 mm mesh while M.H. openings is
fitted with mosquito proof C.I. cover.

2. ELEVATED RESERVOIR : These are over head tanks built in r.c.c. or

steel in any shape above G.L. for distribution of water to areas which
are not controlled by gravity system. These are designed to hold about
1/3 rd quantity of average daily requirement. (since building a tank to
full requirements is virtually impossible). Depth varies from 3 to 5
meters for small reservoirs and 5 to 10 meters for bigger reservoirs.
They are provided with inlet, outlet, overflow and wash out pipes with
ladder to reach to top and inspect the reservoir with the help of M.H.
opening. Ventilations are provided at top for free circulation of air and
the indicator to know the water level.
3. STAND PIPES : It is a vertical cylindrical
tank resting just above the G.L. to develop
the necessary pressure. Dia. Varies from
10 to 15 meters whereas ht. varies from
15 to 30 meters. They are usually made of
steel though it can be built in r.c.c. but to
a max. ht of 17 meters. They are usually
located on a hill / high ground to make full
use of its capacity. Fire protection is done
just by using fire engines. Like in elevated
reservoirs , same arrangements and
facilities are provided for stand pipes.
PUMPS : ------------------------------------------- “ WATER
SUPPLY SYSTEM ”

“ It is a mechanical device by which water is caused

to flow at increased pressure”.

Raw water for treatment ---i.e. lower level to higher

position of treatment plant.
Treatment plant to storage reservoir.
From sump to overhead water tank.
Pump water directly into distribution system.
TYPES :

AIR LIFT PUMPS : In this compressed air is used to lift the

water. When compressed air enters Compressed air is released
through an air diffuser located at the bottom of eductor pipe.
The air rises in eductor pipe forming a mixture of air and water.
Since this mixture has low specific gravity, the pressure in the
educator pipe becomes less than in the casing pipe. This
difference of pressure causes water to rise in the educted pipe
and come out with pressure.
USE : Deep wells up to 60 meters.-------water containing mud,
debris, silt, acidic or alkaline water will not harm the system.

CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS : “When vessel containing liquid is

rotated about a point, centrifugal force causes liquid to rise. ”---
two types--- volute type and turbine type.

In volute type, the propeller discharges water into

gradually expanding spiral chamber whereas in turbine type, a
fixed diffusion ring is inserted bet. the impeller and
casing and water is led into casing through ring opening..
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS TO BUILDINGS :

USEFUL TERMINOLOGIES :

BACK FLOW---- The flow of water or other liquids, mixtures or

substances into distributing pipes of a potable water from any other
source than its intended source.

BRANCH----------Any part of the piping system other than a main.

CROSS- CONNECTION : Any physical connection or arrangement bet.

two separate piping systems, one of which contains potable water and
the other water of unknown source or which is not safe.

COMMUNICATION PIPE : The part of service pipe , extending from the

water main up to including stopcock, which is under control of local
authority.

CONSUMER’S PIPE : The portion of service pipe used for supply of

water and which is not the property of local authority.

DIRECT TAP: A tap which is connected to a supply pipe and subject to

pressure from the water main.
DOWNTAKE TAP : A tap which is connected to a pipe which is not
subjected to pressure from the water main.

FITTINGS : Coupling, flange, branch, bend, tees, elbows, unions, waste

with plug, P or S trap with vent, stop ferrule, stop tap, bib tap, pillar
tap, globe tap, ball valve, cistern, storage tank, baths, water closets,
boiler, geyser, pumping set with motor and accessories, meter,
hydrant, valve and any other article used in connection with water
supply, drainage and sanitation.

FLOAT OPERATED VALVE: Ball valves or ball taps operated by means of

a float.

FLUSHING CISTERN : For flushing a W.C., urinal or a drain.

SERVICE PIPE : Pipe used for conveying water from a water main to
any building and is subject to water pressure from such main.
STOP COCK : Valve fixed by the local authority at the end of
communication pipe which controls the supply from mains.

SUPPLY PIPE : The pipe which extends from the stop cock up to the
ball cock of the storage tank, if any and consumer’s pipe subject to
water pressure from the mains.

WARNING PIPE : An overflow pipe

WASH OUT VALVE : A device located at the bottom of the tank for the
purpose of draining of water from the tank

WATER MAIN : A water supply pipe for public use which vests with
local authority
• A hydropneumatic tank contains pressurized air
and water. It does not have a bladder and air is in
direct contact with the water. The compressed air
acts as a cushion exerting or absorbing pressure.
... Well pumps and booster pumps work with
pressure tanks to maintain a consistent pressure
range in the system.
• A hydropneumatic tank contains pressurized air
and water. It does not have a bladder and air is in
direct contact with the water. The compressed air
acts as a cushion exerting or absorbing pressure.
... Prevents a pump from starting up every time
there is a minor call for water from the
distribution system.
• If you want to ensure that you can control the pressure and supply of
water from your plumbing system within your home or building, a hydro
pneumatic system will be required. In some older plumbing systems, the
distribution of water from the storage tank is done by an over head tank
which uses gravity to send water to the various taps and outlets. With a
pneumatic system, there is no need for an overhead tank as these
systems include a pump that sends water directly to where it needs to
be.
• There are several advantages of a hydro pneumatic system as
follows:Their presence ensures that no heavy overhead water tanks are
required on the top of buildings.Specific hydro pneumatic system design
can provide water at certain pressures unlike a regular water supply
system.Energy consumption of these systems is less than that of a
traditional system.There is only one downfall to the hydro pneumatic
system and this is if there is no power, there will be no access to water
as the pump will not be able to work. It is often advised that backup
power is considered when installing one of these systems. It is important
to ensure that only a professional plumber or water system supplier
handles the installation of your hydro pneumatic system.
• DISIFECTION OF WATER ( STERRLISATION)
•
• SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY------QUANTITY-----QUALITY-----
SEDIMENTATION TANK-----COAGULATION------FILTRATION------
DISINFECTION------WATER SOFTENING----CONVEYANCE.
•
• “ To remove bacteria which might have escaped through filter
media /plant and to prevent contamination of water during its
transit from treatment plant to consumers.”
•
• Chlorine is an ideal material for treating water on large scale
which is harmless.
• MINOR METHODS OF DISINFECTION:
•
• BOILING : Most effective and at 80 degree C. bacterias are killed . Boiled
water safeguards against infections by bacteria and water borne diseases,
hence consumers are advised to drink water after boiling during epidemic.
NOT USEFUL FOR MASS DISTRIBUTION.
•
• EXCESS LIME TREATMENT : Removes dissolved salts. It increases PH value
(Hydrogen-ion concentration ) killing bacteria up to 100%. PH value
(Hydrogen-ion concentration )---pure water consists H2O. i.e. H-ions
combined with OH- ions. Water becomes ACIDIC when + vely charged H-
ions are in excess than – vely charged OH-ions. -----ALKALINE –when
opposite happens. Extreme ALKALINITY or ACIDITY is detrimental to
bacteria.
•
• IODINE & BROMINE TREATMENT: Liquid or pills. Useful—for swimming
pools, troops of army etc. Residue is harmful to eyes than chlorine
residue. (swimming pools).--- attractive water colour.
• OZONE – O3 ( O2 + O) : In ozoniser equipment atmospheric air is dried and
ozone is created in dry air and then water and ozonised air is mixed in
vertical tank by injectors ( France & Russia ) . O3 is produced by passing
high tension electric current through stream of air in a closed chamber.
Bacterias are killed, colour changes, bad odour & tastes are removed,
organic matter is oxodised preventing growth of life in mains and service
reservoirs. USE: for swimming pools since water colour is attractive. ---
costly –does not remain for along in water , vanishes before reaching
consumers.
•
• POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE : Effective killer of bacteria causing cholera.
USE: village wells, ponds.
•
• SILVER TREATMENT : Water passing through silver media absorbs some of
it which disinfects the water. ( Individual—Raja maharajas)
•
• ULTRA-VIOLET RAY TREATMENT : Water passing through the quartz
bulb gets disinfected by the invisible light rays ( beyond violet
spectrum). No danger of overdose-----USE---for swimming pools.
•
• CHLORINATION : ( LARGE SCALE)
•
– 7000 mg./Litre solubility, available in gas, liquid or powder form.
– Metabolic (life growth process of living cells) activities are stopped
and bacterial purification is done within minutes.
– CHEAP, RELIABLE AND HARMLES , effect remains for a long period,
provides protection in distribution system. DOSAGE : 0.20 to 1.00
P.P.M. for 1 to 4 hours.
•
• APPLICATION :
•
• A. BLEACHING POWDER : White powder containing 30 to 35 % of chlorine (active ) which comes in
small packing. Required quantity is dissolved in water to form CONCENTRATED SOLUTION(i.e.
Hydrochloric acid) –added to water for disinfect ion. DOSAGE: 0.50 to 2.50 kg./million litre of water.
This
• Process is known as HYPO- CHLORINATION. USE- only for small installation----swimming pools—
loses strength when expose to atmosphere.
•
• B. CHLOROMINES : Chlorine + Ammonia---- 1+ 1/4 or ½----no irritation to eyes and years. Chlorine
is not stable in water but when mixed with ammonia becomes stable in water. Ammonia dissolves
quickly in water but does not diffuse easily. Ammonia may be used in the form of gas, solution.
•
• C. FREE CHLORINE GAS: It is dissolved in small quantity of water -----fed to water treatment plant
for disinfection with pressure of 7 kg /sqm.----gas is converted into liquid, stored in pressure
cylinders and supplied for use,-----occupies less space, can be stored for longer period, highly
efficient in killing bacteria.
•
• FORMS OF CHLORINATION :
•
• 1. PLAIN CHLORINATION : Raw water should be clean—emergency use. Only
chlorine is used.
• Army- for immediate use.
•
• 2. PRE CHLORINATION:Before any treatment i.e. even before prior to entering
sedimentation tank.
•
• 3. POST CHLORINATION :After treatment---before supplied to consumers--very
popular—final
• safety.
•
• 4.DOUBLE CHLORINATION : If added more than at one point, it is known as
D.C.—for highly
• contaminated raw water P.C. and D.C.
•
• 5. BREAK POINT CHLORINATION : Any chlorine that is added to water beyond required dose breaks
through the water and appears as residual chlorine and this particular stage on graph is known as
BREAK POINT. Useful for high content of organic matter---e.g. swimming pool.
•
• 6. SUPER CHLORINATION : Beyond the stage of break point----is known as S.C. It is adopted
• during epidemic or when high organic impurities are present.
•
• 7. DECHLORINATION : Removal of excess chlorine from water is known as DECHLORINATION.
• For this sodium thiosulphite, sodium bi sulphate and sulpher dioxide gas or liquid potassium
etc.
• are used.----even simple method is AERATION---or expose to sunshine.
•
• OXIDATION : Organic matter in sewage is oxidized by dissolved oxygen. Deficiency of oxygen
is adjusted by atmospheric oxygen, action of wind, aeration etc.---process continues till entire
organic matter is oxydised.---It is reduced due to liquids and gases by the action of bacteria—(self
purification) The oxidation of organic matter converts such matter into inoffensive substances.
• TYPES OF HARDNESS:
•
• TEMPORARY HARDNESS ( carbonate hardness )
• PERMANENT HARDNESS ( non-carbonate hardness )
•
• TEMPORARY HARDNESS : It is due to the presence of bicarbonates
of calcium and magnesium. It can be removed by boiling or adding
lime. The boiling of water on large scale is impractical and
uneconomical, hence adding of lime is preferred.
•
• PERMANENT HARDNESS : It is due to the presence of sulphates,
chlorides and nitrates of calcium and magnesium. It can be
removed by a. Lime soda process b. Zeolite process c.
Deminerlisation process
 – Lime soda process : Lime and sodium carbonate or soda ash are used to
remove permanent hardness from water.
•
– Zeolite process : This is also known as BASE EXCHANGE or ION-EXCHANGE
process. The zeolites are compounds of aluminium, silica and soda. It can be
obtained from nature(green in colour) or synthetically prepared. (Permutit) .
After some interval time the sodium present in zeolite is exhausted which is
regenerated by passing a solution of salt through the zeolite. This exchange is
known as the PROCESS OF REGENERATION.
•
– Deminerlisation process : Also known as deionisation process. In this
hydrogen is exchanged for metallic ions. After certain interval of time, the
hydrogen content is exhausted which is regenerated by passing a solution of
sulphuric acid or hydrochloric acid.
•
•
•
• MISCELLANEOUS METHODS OF WATER TREATMENT :
•
• I . COLOUR, ODOUR AND TASTE REMOVAL :
•
• It is found that even pure water has pale green - blue tint in large volumes. And it is rejected on
aesthetic grounds or sometimes it is unfit for manufacture of high grade paper.
•
– Aeration --- by bringing water into intimate contact with water---bacterias are killed to some extent---oxygen
is absorbed CO2 is liberated which results in less corrosion to pipes.---it also removes hudrogen sulphide and
hence the odour due to this gas is removed. ---iron and manganese are oxidized. Aeration is achieved by air
diffusion, cascades, spray nozzles or trickling beds.
– Treatment by activated carbon--- It is a form of charcoal made by heating lignite, charcoal, paper mill waste,
sawdust and similar carbonaceous materials in a closed vessel. It is then activated or oxidized by passing air
or stream which removes hydrocarbons. IT IS USED TO REMOVE COLOUR, ODOUR AND TASTE from the
water. It can be used as a filter media or applied in the form of a powder.
– Use of copper sulphate--- IT IS USED TO REMOVE COLOUR, ODOUR AND TASTE. In addition , it also controls
the growth of algae, bacteria, some aquatic weeds etc.
• II. IRON AND MANGANESE REMOVAL :
•
• It develops reddish or brownish stains on the clothes and creates
stains on fabrics used in textile industry. The deposits of iron and
manganese may take place on the distribution pipes leading to
blocking of mains, meters, pipes etc.. The water becomes
unpleasant in taste. The water develops red (presence of iron) or
brown colour (presence of manganese). The water with presence of
iron and manganese can not be used for paper making,
photographic films, ice making , etc. They can be removed by
process of aeration---coagulation---sedimentation---filtration.
Chlorination can be employed to remove iron and manganese
which also assists in bacterial purification.
•
• III. FLUORIDATION:
•
• It is found that even concentration of 1p.p.m.of fluoride in water reduces the cavities of teeth of
young children and also reduces decaying and missing teeth. Purpose of chlorination is to treat
water whereas purpose of fluoridation is aimed to improve physical comfort with respect to dental
care. It is used either solution form or powder form.
•
• The process of fluoridation is not popular as chlorination since----it is toxic to men and animal---
interferes with the working of industries----very expensive----consumption of fluoride leads to
practically all kinds of diseases mentioned in medical text books of medical science----skilled
supervision to control fluoride concentration in water.
•
• DEFLUORIDATION : Activated carbons prepared from various materials can be used-----lime soda
process of water softening also removes fluoride content.----materials such as calcium phosphate,
bone
• charcoal, synthetic tricalcium phosphate may be added.-----all these are costly methods ---more
simpler method is to add lime, bleaching powder and filter –alum are added in sequence which can
be used on mass scale.
•
• RADIOACTIVITY AND WATER SUPPLIES
•
• The substances which emit X , alpha,beta and gama rays and specia; particle beams are known as
RADIOACTIVE substances.
•
• EFFECTS OF RADIATION -- based on experiments on animals an effects of bombing on Hiroshima
and Nagasaki.
• They penetrate into tissue of a body leaving electrically charges ions. The damage by radiation may
be acute, chronic or genetic damage depending upon the quantity of radiation.
•
• SOURCES : atomic reactors ( for production of electric power—water discharged in river or sea may
become radioactive ), nuclear explosion, soils and rocks ( uranium and thorium ), u se of
radioactive substances ( in medicine, industry and research work ) waste of radioactive substances (
buried underground)etc.
•
• DISPOSAL : ---Dilution ( gaseous forms are diluted to acceptable level and discharged into the
atmosphere, liquid radioactive wastes are disposed off in rivers and oceans. Storage----in
underground tanks –till the decay and become harmless. ( 250 to 400 years) ---- Reclamation----
wastes are reclaimed or converted into useful products.
•
• REMOVAL OF RADIOACTIVITY FROM WATER :
•
• Phosphate coagulation—( removes strontium
which form insoluble phosphate)----Electro-
dialysis method ---
• Adding clay material----Distillation of water (
most effective but impractical on large scale ).
•