Evaluation and Repair of Verify if Structure

is Safe to Enter
Fire-Damaged Buildings
By Narendra K. Gosain, Ph.D., P.E., Ray F. Drexler, P.E., and Dilip Choudhuri, P.E. Perform Preliminary Site Visit
- Identify Follow-up Areas
- Note Temperature Indicators
®
A list of references is available in the online version of this article - Determine Cleaning Method

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(www.STRUCTUREmag.org). Bracketed numbers [x] within this text refer
to the appropriate reference.
Perform Detailed Evaluation
- Visual

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R einforced concrete and masonry
structures are protected from fire
by the cover that is present over the
changes and distortions occur at tempera-
tures above 800ºF [6].
The heat associated with a fire can
- Non-Destructive Testing
- Partially-Destructive Testing

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reinforcement, whereas steel structures cause many types of changes to struc- Analysis
are protected with externally applied fire- tural steel t elements such as member
righ Besides large deforma- - Compare Allowable and

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resistive materials. All three of these types p y
deformation.
o Applied Stresses
of structures must be properly evaluated Ctions, other less obvious changes can occur - Identify Extent of Repairs

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after a fire to assess the nature and extent at higher temperatures such as loss of
of the damage. normalized microstructure; stress reliev- Design Repairs
A proper assessment of the structure ing or sensitization of stainless steels; - Select Materials

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after a fire event involves both field high residual stresses; or embrittlement - Develop Details

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and laboratory work to determine the due to rapid cooling [6] associated with
Figure 1: Process Flow Chart

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extent of fire damage, in order to design fire fighting efforts.

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appropriate and cost effective repairs.

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The repair process involves (1) evaluating
This article presents an overview of Process

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the options (remove and replace, salvage/

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how to conduct a forensic evaluation
The evaluation determines the nature repair, or no action), (2) selecting the re-
of a fire damaged structure. Two case

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and extent of the fire damage and pair materials (concrete, steel, or fiber

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studies are presented of fire damage
whether repairs are required. This process reinforced polymers), and (3) detailing
evaluation and repair.
Structural Forensics

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involves (1) determining when to observe the repairs (preparation, installation,
the fire-damaged structure (both before and quality control). Figure 1 summa-
Damaging Effects of Fire

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and after cleaning), (2) how to evaluate rizes the process.
The heat associated with fires may va- the post-fire conditions (visually, non- Unless you are working with the fire
porize trapped concrete pore water. The destructively, or destructively), and (3) department to fight the fire, no one
lack of continuous voids for pressure assessing the structure to determine what, should enter the structure until it is safe
relief creates internal tensile stresses if any, repairs are required. to do so. Fire damage to the structure is
that are relieved by cracks and spalls
extending to the surface.[1] Note that Table 1: Physical Effects of Temperature on Concrete [8]
spalling may be explosive in higher Changes in Physical
strength concretes. Additionally, severe Color Appearance and Benchmark Concrete
heat may cause chemical changes that Temperature Change Temperatures Condition
lead to microcracking (visible only un-
der magnification) and loss of strength 0 to 550 °F
None Unaffected Unaffected
and integrity. (0 to 290 °C)
The effects of fire on concrete are sig- Surface crazing: 570 °F
Sound but
investigating structures and their components

nificantly influenced by coarse aggregate (300 °C); Deep cracking:

type. Siliceous aggregate concrete retains 550 to 1100 °F Pink to strength
1020 °F (550 ˚C); Popouts
approximately half its capacity at 1200°F (290 to 590 °C) red significantly
over chert or quartz aggregate:
while carbonate and lightweight aggre- reduced
1070 °F (575 °C)
gate concretes exhibit near full capacity
at 1200°F [2,3]. Spalling, exposing not more
The thermal protection of reinforcing than 25% of reinforcing bar
steel is critical; testing indicates that 1100 to 1740 °F Whitish surface: 1470 °F (800 °C); Weak and
bars heated beyond 932ºF lose significant (590 to 950 °C) Grey Powdered, light colored, friable
amounts of yield strength and ultimate dehydrated paste: 1650 °F
strength [4,5]. (575 °C)
Both typical structural steel (A36 and
A992) and high strength alloy steels retain 1740+ °F Weak and
Buff Extensive spalling
approximately 90% of their strength to (950+ °C) friable
nearly 600ºF [5]. Significant dimensional

STRUCTURE magazine 18 September 2008

not always obvious. By entering as soon as
practical, the engineer can uncover hidden
distress and observe the collateral damage to
finishes and contents. If the engineer observes
contents that are not burned beyond use, the
steel is not expected to be damaged. Collateral
damages frequently provide good indications
heat intensity map. Table 2 provides common
temperature indicators.
STAGE 2
Non-Destructive Testing – Concrete
The extent of delamination can be determined
by means of chain dragging for large horizontal
sounding for vertical and overhead surfaces.
Impulse response can be used to rapidly screen
large areas for potential damage. Impact echo
testing can also be used to determine the
depth and extent of internal fractures. Finally,
rebound hammers are frequently used to
® to
compare the surface hardness of concrete

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of maximum fire temperatures. locate potential damage.
areas such as slabs, and by means of hammer continued on next page
Evaluation

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Table 2: Physical Effects of Temperatures on Various Materials [6,7]
The three stages of evaluation are visual as-
sessment, non-destructive testing, and partially- Material Examples Condition Temperature

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destructive testing. Foam insulation; light 120 to 140 °F
Softens
shades; handles (50 to 60 °C)
STAGE 1 ght
Polystyrene

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yri Curtain hooks;
Visual Assessment – Cleaning Cop radio containers
Melts and flows 250 °F (120 °C)

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Soot hides most cracks, spalls, and distor- Bags; film Shrivels 120 °F (49 °C)
tions in the structure. The structure may be Polyethylene
cleaned by means of dry ice blasting, grit

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blasting, water blasting, or chemical washing. Bottles; buckets Softens and melts 150 °F (66 °C)

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Chemical wiping or dry ice blasting tends Melts, flows,

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to generate the least collateral damage to Vinyl-based paints Structural steel paint 250 °F (120 °C)

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bubbles, or burns

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the structure. Grit blasting tends to produce
large amounts of blasting medium. Water UHMW / HD Melts, flows,
Water and waste pipes 375 °F (190 °C)

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blasting can cause collateral damage to finished Polyethylene pipe bubbles, or burns
areas below the fire (beyond the firefighting

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Sharp edges

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water damage). Plumbing lead; flashing; 550 to 650 °F
Lead rounded or drops

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storage batteries (300 to 350 °C)
Visual Assessment – Coloration formed

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Fires consume timber based construction Plumbing fixtures;
materials from the outside in; the charred Zinc flashing; galvanized Drops formed 750 °F (400 °C)
exterior material helps protect the interior surfaces
material. The presence or absence of charred/
burned timber can help determine the fire’s Small machine parts;
temperature and duration. Aluminum brackets; toilet fixtures; Drops formed 1200 °F (650 °C)
Intense heat may cause chemical reactions cooking utensils
that form crystals or change the properties/
color of the matrix and/or aggregates in Softened or 1300 to 1400 °F
concrete [8,9]. Table 1 summarizes the changes adherent (700 to 750 °C)
Glass block; jars and
in concrete (color, surface appearance, and
Molded glass bottles; tumblers; solid Rounded 1400 °F (750 °C)
condition) by temperature and can be used
ornaments Thoroughly
to estimate the effect of the fire. Additionally, 1450 °F (800 °C)
the rapid cooling of the concrete by fire- flowed
fighting water can cause thermal cracking and Softened or 1300 to 1400 °F
superficial surface spalls. adherent (700 to 750 °C)
Proper evaluation of steels subjected to fire Window glass; plate
Sheet glass Rounded 1450 °F (800 °C)
typically requires estimating the temperature glass; reinforced glass
and duration of the fire. For clean unpainted Thoroughly
1500 °F (850 °C)
steel, a yellowish brown color indicates a flowed
temperature of 460-480ºF while a blue Silver Jewelry; tableware; coins Drops formed 1750 °F (950 °C)
color indicates a temperature of 600-640ºF,
other tempering colors are provided in the Door knobs; furniture Sharp edges
referenced API document [6]. 1650 to 1850 °F
Brass knobs; locks; lamp rounded or drops
(900 to 1000 °C)
fixtures; buckles formed
Visual Assessment – Deformation
Deformation of structural members and Sharp edges
Window frames; art
associated materials (coatings, pipes, et cetera) Bronze rounded or drops 1850 °F (1000 °C)
objects
can provide valuable information to develop a formed

STRUCTURE magazine 19 September 2008

 examination of dyed concrete thin sections
to determine aggregate and paste mineralogy
and microstructure. Petrography provides
information on cracking such as orientation
and location, changes in color, carbonation,
paste-aggregate bond, water/cement ratio,
air content, desiccation, and depth and
extent of damage. ®

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Partially-Destructive Testing – Steel

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The primary destructive tests for steel are
tensile tests to determine yield and ultimate
tensile strength. Microscopic examination of

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fracture surfaces are not commonly performed
for fire damage evaluations.
h t
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Cop Engineering Analysis
Figure 2: Slab separation and joist spalling. The assessment phase compares the findings of

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hardness numbers with approximate tensile the evaluation phase (damage plots, temperature
strengths [12]. Scaling of carbon steels typically plots, and allowable stresses based on non-

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begins above 1000ºF and can affect hardness destructive and/or destructive testing) with the
analysis findings to determine if the applied

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readings [6]. Above 1200ºF the surface will

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develop a coarse, eroded surface markedly stresses in the various elements exceed allowable

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different from mill scale [13]. levels. This then determines the extent, if any, of

z required removals, replacements, and/or repairs.

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Partially-Destructive Testing – Concrete Based on the results of the assessment, repair
materials can be selected, details developed, and
The primary destructive tests for concrete

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repairs installed.

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are compressive strength testing and petrog-

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raphy. The compressive testing gives a gen-
eral indication of whether or not the concrete Fire Damage Repairs

m
meets the design requirements. Strength tests Typically, repair materials are similar to
should be correlated with petrographic exam- the original construction materials. Timber
Figure 3: Heat damage of seats at level above fire.
inations of nearby cores. The initial heating structures may be repaired with new timbers
effects of the fire dessicate the concrete and or composites of steel and timber members,
Non-Destructive Testing– Steel may cause a moderate increase in the break- and steel structures are normally repaired
Non-destructive evaluation techniques for ing strength of cylinders. with steel. Both concrete and masonry struc-
steel structures include distortion measure- The internal condition of fire damaged tural elements are frequently repaired with
ments, plumbness or straightness checks, and concrete needs to be evaluated by petrography. fiber reinforced polymers (FRP) or externally
hardness testing. If the member distortion is This involves both macro and microscopic bonded steel members using epoxy adhesive.
minor, it is unlikely the member was exposed
to a temperature of more than 1200ºF for any SAW-CUT SLAB 3” WIDE TO
CL CL
length of time and therefore no consequential ALLOW DOWEL PLACEMENT. STEM EPOXY GROUT 10” STEM
PATCH WITH POLYMER MORTAR
metallurgical changes will occur [11]. AFTER REBAR IS INSTALLED.
#5 DOWELS 7”
AT CL OF JOIST STEM.
Measurements of distortion, such as buckling SEE PLAN FOR SPACING. EPOXY INJECT CRACK
BETWEEN STEM
of restrained plates and out-of-plumbness, 1” CLR. 1” CLR.
AND FLANGE.
2 ½”

can provide an indication of maximum temp-

erature reached.
Visual inspection of connections that are to
2 ½”

remain is critical since connections may have #3 BARS BETWEEN

6”

fractured due to the fire event [11]. Weld in-

1’ - 0”

STEM @ 15” O.C.

4”
spection techniques such as ultrasonic testing,
1’ - 0”

#3 BARS @ 15” O.C.

TYP.
DRILL HOLES THROUGH
magnetic particle testing, and dye penetrant BRIDGING FOR INSTALLATION
testing may also be useful in determining the OF BARS.
3”

integrity of welded connections.

1” CLR.

#3 STIRRUPS @6” O.C.

TYP.

Hardness testing aids in determining the 2 - #7 CONT.

NEW SHOTCRETE.
SHOTCRETE SHALL
loss of tensile strength in cold formed and 2” 5” 2” TEST 6000 PSI AT
REMOVE ALL LOOSE CONCRETE
structural carbon steels and, to a lesser PRIOR TO SHOTCRETING. 28 DAYS.
extent changes in ductility and toughness. ABRASIVE BLAST EXISTING CONC. TO ROUGHEN
DO NOT REMOVE EXISTING REBAR.
MAINTAIN REBAR IN POSITION.
ASTM A370-05, Standard Test Methods and SURFACE AND REMOVE SOOT. REMOVE ALL
DUST WITH COMPRESSED AIR.
Definitions for Mechanical Testing of Steel
Products, provides guidelines for correlating Figure 4: Repair detail for slab-joist separation.

STRUCTURE magazine 20 September 2008

Concrete structures are occasionally repaired
with shotcrete as well. Selecting the appro-
priate repair material is a critical step in the
repair process. The repair material must be
compatible with the base material, project
needs, technical resources available, financial
constraints, and multiple other project spe- ®
cific criteria.

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Case Studies

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Two case studies are presented to illustrate
various types of structural damage and
repairs worked on by the authors[10]. The

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first summarizes the assessment and repair Figure 5: Interior damage due to fire.
for arson damage to a reinforced concrete h t
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stadium structure. The second addresses the
evaluation and repair of damage to a steel Cop References

C
framed office building. 1. C
 hiang, Chih-Hung and Tsai, Cho-Liang, “Time-Temperature Analysis of Bond Strength
of a Rebar after Fire Exposure, “Cement and Concrete Research,” V. 33, No. 10, Oct. 2003
Case Study 1: Stadium Fire pp 1651-1654.

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An arson fire occurred on an elevated level
2. N
 eville, A.M., “Properties of Concrete,” 4th Edition, Pearson Education Limited. 1995,

n
of a reinforced concrete stadium structure.

i
After the fire department approved the area 844 pp.

R z
for entry, initial observations were made. The
3. A
 brams, M.S., “Compressive Strength of Concrete at Temperatures to 1600 F,” Temperature
fire severely damaged the concrete in an area

T
and Concrete, SP 25, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1971, pp. 33-

a
approximately 25 feet by 25 feet above the
58.
fire; the concrete joists were deeply spalled,

g
S
the slab separated from the joists, and severe 4. E
 dwards, William T. and Gamble, William L., “Strength of Grade 60 Reinforcing Bars

a
cracking was present (Figure 2). After Exposure to Fire Temperatures,” Concrete International, V.8, No. 10, Oct. 1986,
The fire was intense to the extent that the pp. 17-19.
seating area directly above the fire suffered
heat damage (Figure 3).
m
Destructive testing indicated that the strength
of reinforcing steel and some concrete above the
fire was compromised. Repairs were designed
5. N
 ational Codes and Standards Council of the Concrete and Masonry Industries,
“Assessing the Condition and Repair Alternatives of Fire-Exposed Concrete and Masonry
Members,” Fire Protection Planning Report, Aug. 1994, 14 pp.

to rebond the slab and joists using L-shaped 6. A

dowels to hook the slab and joist webs together.
The load carrying capacity of the effected slabs
and joists were repaired by means of encasing
external reinforcement (bars and stirrups) with
shotcrete applied to an intentionally cleaned
and roughened surface (Figure 4).
continued on next page
 merican Petroleum Institute Publication, “API RP 579 Fitness-For-Service,” 1st Edition,
January 2000.
7. E
 rlin, B; Hime, W.G.; and Kuenning, “Fire Damage to Concrete Structures,” Concrete
Construction, V. 17, No. 4, Apr. 1972, 6 pp.
8. Y
 üzer, N., Aköz, F. and Öztürk, L.D., “Compressive Strength – Color Change Relation in
Mortars at High Temperature,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 34, No. 10, Oct. 2004,
pp. 1803-1807.

9. T
 ovey, A.K., “Assessment and Repair of Fire-Damage Concrete Structures--an Update,”
Evaluation and Repair of Fire Damage to Concrete, SF-92, T.Z. Harmathy, ed., American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1986, pp. 47-62.

10. G
 osain, Narendra K., “Effects of Fire on Concrete,” Concrete International, April 2006,
pp. 67-71.

11. T
 ide, R. H. R., “Integrity of Structural Steel After Exposure to Fire,” AISC Engineering
Journal, First Quarter 1998, pp. 26-38.

12. A
 STM International Publication, “A 370-05, Standard Test Methods and Definitions
for Mechanical Testing of Steel Products,” Current edition approved May 1, 2005.

13. D
 ill, F. H., “Structural Steel After a Fire,” Proceedings of National Steel Construction
Conference, May 5-6, Denver, CO, American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago,
Figure 6: Buckled metal deck. Note separation IL 1960.
of concrete from metal deck through
exploratory opening.

STRUCTURE magazine 21 September 2008

 ®

Figure 7: Collateral damage to plastics.

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Cop

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ADVERTISEMENT - For Advertiser Information, visit www.STRUCTUREmag.org

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High Rise Fire
g a
Figure 8: Structural repairs to limit floor slab displacements.

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Case Study 2: Occupied Steel

Fire occurred in an occupied space of a The assessment concluded that the steel frame
steel framed high rise. The steel framing did not require repairs. However, to prevent
was protected by a sprayed fire resistive ma- displacements of the separated concrete slab
terial. The exposed metal deck supports a above the metal deck, structural repairs were
composite concrete floor system. (Figure 5, required (Figure 8). The repairs included
page 21). Heat from the fire caused some adding new beams to support the metal deck
buckling of the metal decks near the fire and the addition of grout to fill the voids
(Figure 6, page 21) and deformation of plas- between the concrete and metal deck.
tic magazine racks (Figure 7) in an adjacent
room not directly exposed to the fire. Conclusions
The evaluation effort included steel hard- All structures subjected to fire should be
ness readings of the structural steel framing evaluated in a systematic manner to determine
members. In addition, concrete cores were the extent, if any, of required repairs. The
extracted from the floor slab where the fire intensity and duration of the fire can be es-
occurred and in the deck directly above the timated by observing the collateral damage;
fire for compression testing. No testing was a variety of testing methods and tools are
considered necessary in the adjacent room available to evaluate the effects of the fire on
with deformed plastic due to the low tempera- both the materials and structural elements.
ture indication. Test results confirmed that These evaluations, combined with an engineer-
steel hardness
Thank wasreviewing
you for in the expected
this ad range to in-
proof for ing analysis,
the upcoming issueallow effective and
of STRUCTURE ® economical
Magazine.
To ensure
dicate minimalthat
heatthedamage
proper to
advertisement repair
for your
the steel frame. details
company to be
is run, developed
please and
print out thisinstalled
document,
Concrete fill out
cores the information
indicated below and fax
that compressive to us at: 608-524-4432.
asitneeded.▪
strengths exceeded design requirements.
Yes, the ad looks fine.
The authors are part of the Structural Diagnostics Services Group (SDSG) at Walter P Moore.
No, we require the following changes:
Narendra K. Gosain, Ph.D., P.E., is a senior principal and SDSG’s executive director. Dr.
Gosain can be reached at NGosain@walterpmoore.com. Dilip Choudhuri, P.E., is a
principal and can be reached at DChoudhuri@walterpmoore.com. Ray F. Drexler, P.E., is
a senior associate and can be reached at RDrexler@walterpmoore.com.
If we recieve no fax within 48 hours of this email, we will assume that there is no change
necessary and will run the ad as presented here. Thank you for your assistance.
STRUCTURE magazine 22 September 2008