PART-—I FUNDAMENTALS OF SOIL MECHANICS 1 Introduction 1.1. DEFINITION OF SOIL ‘The word ‘soil’ is derived from the latin word solium which, according to Webster’s dictionary, means the upper layer of the earth that may be dug or plowed; specifically, the loose surface material of the earth ‘in which plants grow. The above definition of soil is used in the field of agronomy where the main concern is in the use of soil for raising crops. In geology, earth’s crust is assumed to consist of unconsolidated sediments, called mantle or regolith, overlying rocks. The term ‘soil’ is used for the upper layer of mantle which can support plants. The material which is called soil by the agronomist or the geologist is known as top soil in geotechnical engineering or soil engineering. The top soil contains a large quantity of organic matter and is not suitable as a construction matcrial or as a foundation for structures. The top soil is removed from the earth's surface before the construction of structures. ‘The term ‘soil’ in soil enginecring is defined as an unconsolidated material, composed of solid particles, produced by the disintegration of rocks. The void space between the particles may contain air, water or both. ‘The solid particles may contain organic matter, The soil particles can be separated by such mechanical means as agitation in water ‘A natural aggregate of mineral particles bonded by strong and permanent cohesive forces is called ‘rock’. It is an indurated material that requires drilling, wedging or blasting for its removal from the earth’s surface. Since the terms weak and strong have different interpretations, the boundary between soil and rock is rather arbitrary. In case of a partially disintegrated rock, it is extremely difficult to locate the boundary between soil and rock. Fig, 1.1 shows a cross-section through the earth’s surface, indicating the nomenclature used in geology, at =< Siqund_surtace _Ground surface | / Top soit soil q T Mantle (regolith) . Soil Rock S NZ Rock : OK YOSK fa) Nomanclature in Geology (b) Nomenclature in Soil Engineering 1.1, Nomenclature.2 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING and in'Soil Engineering. It may be roted that the material which is called mantle (regolith) in geology is known‘as soil in Soil Engineering. 1.2. DEFINITION OF SOIL MECHANICS The term ‘soil mechanics’ was coined by Dr. Karl Terzaghi in 1925 when his book Endbaumechanic on the subject was published in German. According to Terzaghi, ‘Soil mechanics is the application of the laws ‘of mechanics and hydraulics to engineeting problems dealing with sediments and other unconsolidated accumulations of solid particles produced by the mechanical and chemical disintegration of rock, regardless ‘of whelher or not they contain an admixture of organic constituents’. Soil mechanics is, therefore, a branch ‘of mechanics which deals with the action of forces on soil and with the flow of water in soil, ‘The soil consists of discrete solid particles which are neither strongly bonded as in solids nor they are as free as particles of fluids. Consequently, the behaviour of soil is somewhat intermediate between that of a solid and a fluid. It is not, therefore, surprising that soil mechanics draws heavily from solid mechanics and fluid mechanics. As the soil is inherently a particulate system. soil mechanics is also called particulate mechanics, Rock mechanics is the science dealing with the mechanics of rocks. 13. DEFINITION OF SOIL ENGINEERING AND GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING Soil engineering in an applied science dealing with the applications of principles of soil mechanics to practical problems. It has a much wider scope ics, as it deals with all engineering Problems related with soils. It includes site investigations, design and construction of foundations, earth-retaining structures and earth structures. Geotechnical engineering is a broader term which includes soil engineering, rock mechanics and geology. ‘This term is used synonymously with soil engineering in this text. 1.4. SCOPE OF SOIL ENGINEERING Soil engineering has vast application in the construction of variovs civil engineering works. Some of the important applications are as under Load Load I-—Column Ground Level Ground Level ‘ Soil. [Footing . Soil . (a) Shallow foundation ard’ Strat (d) Pile foundation Fig. 1.2. Different types of foundations,INTRODUCTION 3 Q) Foundations—Every civil engineering structure, whether it is a building, a bridge, or a dam, is founded on or below the surface of the earth. Foundations are required to transmit the load of the structure to soil safely and efficiently. A foundation is termed shallow foundation when it transmits the load to upper strata of earth, A foundation is called deep foundation when the toad is transmitted to strata at considerable depth below the ground surface (Fig. 1.2). Pile foundation is a type of deep foundation. Foundation engineering is an important branch of soil engineering. Q) Retaining Structures—When sufficient space is not available for a mass of soil to spread and form a safe slope, a structure is required to retain the soil. An earth retaining structure is also required to keep the Retaining wall Soit Earth essure Dredge _level * Soit pressure ‘ (a) Retaining walt (b) Sheet pile Fig. 13, Retaining structures. soil at different levels on its either side. The retaining siructure may be a rigid retaining wall or a shect pile bulkhead which is relatively flexible (Fig. 1.3). Soil engineering gives the theories of earth pressure on retaining structures. ¥y of Slopes—If soil surface is not horizontal, there is a component of weight of the soil which Highway Embankment slope fa) Excavation slope ) Fig. 1.4. Slopes in (a) filling and (6) cutting. tends to move it downward and thus causes instability of slope. The slopes may be natural or man-made Fig, 1.4 shows slopes in filling and cutting. Soil engineering provides the methods for checking the stability of slopes. (4) Underground Structures—The design and construction of underground structures, such as tunnels, shafts, and conduits, requite evaluation of forces exerted by the soil on these structures, These forces are discussed in soil engineering. Fig. 1.5 shows a tunnel constructed below the ground surface and a conduit laid below the ground surface,4 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING (a) Tunnel {b) Conduit Fig. 1.5. Underground structures, (© Pavement Design—A pavement is a ard crust placed on soil (subgrade) for the Purpose of providing a smooth and strong Surfice on which vehicles can move. ‘The Pavement consists of surfacing, such as a ditumen layer, base and subbase (Fig. 1.6). The behaviour of subgrade under various conditions E of loading and environmental changes is studied Subgrade (soil) eaten ace Fig, 1.6, Pavement detail © Earth Dam—arth dams are huge structures in which soil is used as a construction material (Fig. 1.7). The earth dams are built for creating waler reservoirs, Since the failure of an earth dam may cause widespread catastrophe, extreme care is taken in ils design and construction. Tt requires a thorough knowledge of soil engineering. Surfacing U/S Slope—_-— Shell —“(p i Hinge = vious so} eee Fig. 1.7. Bath Dam, @) Miscellaneous Soil Problems—The geotechnical engineer has sometimes to tackle miscellaneous Problems related with soil, such as soil heave, soil subsidence, frost heave, shrinkage and swelling. of soils. Soil engineering provides an in-depth study of such problems. 15. ORIGIN OF SOILS Soils are formed by weathering of rocks due to mechanical disintegration or. chemical decomposition. When a rock surface gets exposed to atmosphere for an appreciable time, it disintegrates or decomposes into small particles and thus the soils are formed. Soil may be considered as an incidental material obtained from the geologic cycle which goes’ on continuously in nature. The geologic cycle consists of erosion, transportation, deposition and upheaval of soil (Fig. 1.8). Exposed rocks are eroded and degraded by various physical and chemical processes. The products of erosion are picked up me by agencies of trans- - portation, such as water and wind, and are tie carried to new locations Transportation where they are Se lish J deposited. This shifting cone ‘ioneaval of the material disturds Fig. 18. Geoldgic Cyc.INTRODUCTION 5 the equilibrium of forees on the carth and causes Tange scale earth movements and upheavals. This process results in further exposure of rocks and the geologic cycle gets repeated. If the soil stays at the place of its formation just above the parent rock, it is known as residual soil or sedentary soil, When the soil has been deposited at a place away from the place of its origin, it is called a wansported soil. The engineering properties of residual soils vary considerably from the top layer to the bottom layer. Residual soils have a gradual transition from relatively fine material near the surface to large fragments of stones at greater depth. The properties of the bottom layer resemble that of the parent rock in ‘many respects. The thickness of the residual soil formation is generally limited to a few metres. ‘The engineering properties of transported soils are entirely different from the properties of the rock at the place of deposition. Deposits of transported soils are quite thick and are usually uniform. Most of the soil deposits with which a geotechnical engineer has to deal are transported soils. 1.6. FORMATION OF SOILS As mentioned above, soils are formed by either (A) physical disintergration or (B) chemical decomposition of rocks, ical Disintegration—Physical disintegration or me following physical processes : (Q) Temperature changes—Different minerals of a rock have different coefficients of thermal expansion. Unequal expansion and contraction of these minerals occur due to femperature changes. When the stresses induced duc to such changes ace repested many times, the particles get detached from the rocks and the soils are formed. (2) Wedging action of Tee—Water in the pores and minute cracks of rocks gels frozen in very cold climates. As the volume of ice formed is more than that of water, expansion occurs. Rocks get broken into picocs when large stresses develop in the cracks due to wedging action of the ice formed, 3) Spreading of roots of plants—As the roots of trees and shrubs grow in the cracks and fissures of the rocks, forces act on the rock. The segments of the rock are forced apart and disintegration of rocks occurs. @) Abrasion—As water, wind and glaciers move over the surfuce of rock, abrasion and scouring takes place. It results in the formation of soil. In all the processes of physical disintegration, there is no change in the chemical composition. The soil formed has the properties of the parent rock. Coarse grained soils, such as gravel and sand, are formed by the process of physical disintegration. B. Chemical Decomposition—When chemical decomposition or chemical weathering of rocks takes place, original rock minerals are transformed into new minerals by chemical reactions. The soils formed do Rot have the properties of the parent rock. The following chemical processes generally occur in nature. @) Hydration—In hydration, water combines with the rock minerals and results in the formation of a new chemical compound. The chemical reaction causes a change in volume and decompasition of rock into ‘small particles, @) Carbonation—I is a type of chemical decomposition in which carbon dioxide in the atmosphere ‘combines with water to form carbonic acid. ‘The carbonic acid reacts chemically with rocks and causes their decomposition. @) Oxidation—Oxidation occurs when oxygen ions combine with minerals in rocks. Oxidation results in decomposition of rocks. Oxidation of rocks is somewhat similar to rusting of steel. (4) Solution—Some of the rock minerals form a solution with water when they get dissolved in water, ‘Chemical reaction takes place in the solution and the soils are formed. (5) Hydrolysis—it is a chemical process in which water gets dissociated into H* and OH ions. The hydrogen cations replace the metallic ions such as calcium, sodium and potassium in rock minerals and soils are formed with a new chemical decomposition. Chemical decomposition of rocks results in formation of clay minerals. These clay minerals impart plastic Properties to soils. Clayey soils are formed by chemical decomposition, i weathering of rocks occurs due to the6 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING 1.7. TRANSPORTATION OF SOILS ‘The soils formed at a place may be transported to other places be agents of transportion, such as water, wind, ice and gravity. (1) Water transported Solls— Flowing water is one of the most important agents of transportation of soils, Swift running water carries a large quantity of soil either in suspension or by rolling along the bed. Water ecodes the hills and deposits the soils in the valleys. ‘The size of the soil particles carried by water depends upon the velocity. The swift water can carry the particles of large size such as boulders and gravels. With a decrease in velocity, the coarse particles get deposited. The finer particles are carried further downstream and are deposited when the velocity reduces, A delta is formed when the velocity slows down to almost zero at the confluence with a receiving body of still water, such as a lake, a sea ot an ocean (Fig. 1.9). Still water _ Fig. 1.9, Alluvial Deposits. All type of soils carried and deposited by water are known as alluvial deposits. Deposits made in lakes are called lacustrine deposits. Such deposits are laminated or varved in layers. Marine deposits are formed when the flowing water carries soils to ocean or sca. @) Wind transported Solls—Soil particles are transported by winds. The particle size of the soil depends upon the velocity of wind. The finer particles are carried far away from the place of the formation. A dust storm gives a visual evidence of the soil particles carried by wind, Soils deposited by wind are known as aeolian deposits. Large sand dunes are formed by winds, Sand dunes oocur in arid regions and on the leeward side of sea with sandy beaches. Loess is a silt deposit made by wind. These deposits have low density and high compressibility. ‘The bearing capacity of such soils is very low. The permeability in the vertical direction js large. (3) Glacier-Deposited Soils—Glaciers are large masses of ice formed by the compaction of snow. As the Blaciers grow and move, they carry with them soils varying in size from fine grained to huge boulders. Soils get ‘mixed with the ice and are transported far away from theit original position. Drift is a general term used for the deposits made by glaciers directly or indirectly. Deposits directly made by melting of glaciers are called il, Terminal moraine Ground méraine Fig. 1.10. Glacier Depesited SoilsINTRODUCTION 7 During their advancement, glaciers transport soils. A‘ the terminus, a melting glacier drops the material in the form of ridges, known as terminal moraine (Fig. 1.10), ‘The land which was once covered by glaciers and on which till has been deposited after melting is called ground moraine. The soil carried by the melting water from the front of a glacier is termed ous-wash, Glaciofluvial deposits are formed by glaciers, The material is moved by glaciers and subsequently deposited by sireams of melting water. These deposits have stratification. Deposits of glacial till are generally well-graded and can be compacted to a high dry density. These have generally high shearing strength. (4) Gravity-deposited soils—Soils can be transported through short distances under the action of gravity. Rock fragments and soil masses collected at the foot of the cliffs or steep slopes had fallen from higher elevation under the action of the gravitational force. Colluvial soils, such as talus, have been deposited by the gravity. ‘Talus consists of irregular, coarse particles. It is a good source of broken rock pieces and coarse-grained soils for many engineering works. (6) Soils transported by combined action—Sometimes, two or more agents of transportation act jointly ‘and transport the soil. For example, a soil particle may fall undér gravity and may be carried by wind to a far off place, It might by picked up again by flowing water and deposited. A glacier may carry it still further. 1.8. MAJOR SOIL DEPOSITS OF INDIA ‘The soil deposits of India may be classified in the following five major groups : (1) Alluvial Deposits—A large part of north India is covered with alluvial deposits. The thickness of alluvium in the Indo-Gangetic and Brabmputra flood plains varies from a few metres to more than one hundred metres. Even in the peninsular India, alluvial deposits occur at some places. The distinct characteristics of alluvial deposits is the existence of alternating layers of sand, silt and clay. ‘The thickness of each Tayer depends upon the local terrain and the nature of floods in the rivers causing deposition. The deposits are generally of low density and are liable to liquefaction in earthquake-prone areas. 2) Black Cotton Soils—A large part of central India and a portion of South India is covered with black cotton soils. These Soils are residual deposits formed from basalt or trap rocks. The soils are quite suitable for growing cotton. Black cotion soils are clays of high plasticity. They contain essentially the clay mineral montmorillonite. ‘The soils have high shrinkage and swelling characteristics. The shearing strength of the soils is extremely low. ‘The Soils are highly compressible and have very low bearing capacity. It is extremely difficult to work with such soils. @) Lateritic Soils—Latcritic soils are formed by decomposition of rock, removal of bases and silica, and accumulation of iron oxide and uluminium oxide. The presence of iron oxide gives these soils the characteristic red or pink colour. These are residual soils, formed from basalt. Lateritic soils exist in the central, southern and easter India. ‘The lateritic soils are soft and can be cut with a chisel when wet. However, these harden with time. A hard crust of gravel size particles, known as laterite, exists near the ground surface. The plasticity of the lateritic soils decreases with depth as they approach the parent rock. These soils, especially those which contain iron oxide, have relatively high specific gravity. (4) Desert Soils—A large part of Rajasthan and adjoining states is covered with sand dunes. In this area, arid conditions exist, with practically little rainfall. Dune sand is uniform in gradation, The size of the particles is in the range of fine sand, The sand is non-plastic and highly pervious. As the sand is gencrally in loose condition, it requires densification 10 increase its strength. (S) Marine Deposits—Marine deposits are mainly confined along a narrow belt near the coast. In the south-west coast of India, there are thick layers of sand above deep deposits of soft marine clays. ‘The marine deposits have very low shearing strength and are highly compressible. They contain a large amount of organic matter. The marine clays are soft and highly plastic.8 ‘SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING 1.9. COMPARISON OF SOILS WITH OTHER MATERIALS Soil is a highly complex material, It differs from conventional structural materials, such as steel and concrete. (1) Steel is a manufactured material the properties of which are accurately conirolled. The properties of conerete are also controlled to some extent during its preparation. Soil is a material which has been subjected to vagaries of nature, without any control. Consequently, soil is a highly heterogeneous and unpredictable material. 2) The properties of a soil change not only from one place to the other but also at the place with depth. The properties also change with a change in the environmental, loading and drainage conditions. ‘The properties of a soil depend not only on its type but also on the conditions under which it exists G) The main engineering properiics of steel and concrete are modulus of elasticity and tensile and compressive strength. Most of the design work can be done if these properties are known or determined, However, the engineering properties of soils depend upon a number of factors and it is not possible to characterise them by two or three parameters. Elaborate testing is required to determine the characteristics of the soil before design can be done. @) Because of huge quantities of soils involved, it is not economically feasible to transport the soils from lhier places like steel or Concrete. Soils are generally used in the conditions in which they exist. (5) Whereas steel and concrete can be inspected before use, soils for foundations are at great depth and Rot open to inspection. The samples of the soil taken from the bore holes are generally disturbed and do not Tepresent the true in-situ: conditions. 1.10. LIMITATIONS OF SOIL ENGINEERING Soil engineering is not an exact science. Because of the nature and the variability of soils, sweeping assumptions ace made in the derivation of equations. The solution obtained in most cases are for an idealised, hypothetical material, which may not truly represent the actual soil. A good engineering judgment is required for the interpretation of the results. In fact, each problem in soil engineering is a unique problem because the soils at two places are seldom identical. ‘The following limitations must be kep (1) As the Soil does not possess a Ii elasticity cannot be directly applied. @) The behaviour and the strength of soils depend upon pressure, drainage, environment and many other factors. These changes must be considered when dealing with soils. (B) As the soil at every location is different, the results and experience from one project to the other should be transferred with caution. (4) Since the soils are sensitive to disturbance, the results of tests conducted on soil samples should be interpreted carefully. (5) The most of soil is underground and cannot be inspected. Adequate soil explor to determine the profile of soil strata. ; (©) The methods of construction may have to be modified as the work progresses and the properties of the soil begin to unfold. Occasional observations have to be made during and even after the completion of work to check whether the assumptions made were correct. (7) It may not be of much use to apply highly mathematical, rigorous solution to a material like soil ‘whose properties cannot be determined 10 the same accuracy. (8) The soil is a particulate material in which the particles are relatively free to move with respect to one another. The behaviour of the soil changes as the particles get shifted. (©) The soil is a multiphase system, consisting of solid, water and air phases. The behaviour of a soil ‘depends upon the relative proportion of the three phases, (10) Soil mechanics is a relatively new science. It is essential to keep abreast of the latest developments in the field, mind when tackling problems related with soils. lear OF unique stress-strain relationship, the solutions of the theory of n should be doneINTRODUCTION 9 ‘TERMINOLOGY OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOILS A geotechnical engineer should be well versed with the nomenclature and terminology of different types of soils. The following list gives the names and salient characteristics of different types of soils, arranged in alphabetical order. (i) Bentonite—t is a type of clay with a very high percentage of clay mineral montmorillonite, It is a highly plastic clay, resulting from the decomposition of voleanie ash. It is highly water absorbent and has high shrinkage and swelling characteristics. @) Black Cotton Soil—I is a residual soil containing a high percentage of the clay mineral monimorillonite. It has very low bearing capacity and high swelling and shrinkage properties. @) Boulders—Boulders are rock fragments of large size, more than 300 mm in size. (4) Caleareous soils—These soils contain a large quantity of calcium carbonate. Such soils effervesce when tested with weak hydrochloric acid. (5) Caliche—tt is a type of soil which contains gravel, sand and silt. The particles are cemented by calcium carbonate. (6) Clay—tt consists of microscopic and sub-microscopic particles derived from the chemical decomposition of rocks. It contains a large quantity of clay minerals. It can be made plastic by adjusting the water content. It exhibits considerable strength when dry. Clay is a fine-grained soil. It is a choesive soil. The particle size is tess than 0.002 mm. Organic clay contains finely divided organic matter and is usually dark grey or black in colour. It has a conspicuous odour. Organic clay is highly compressible end its strength is very high when dy. @) Cabbles—Cobbies are large size particles in the range of 80 mm to 300 mm. (8) Diatomaceous earth—Diatoms are minute unicellular marine organisms. Diatomaceous earth is a fine, light grey, soft sedimentary deposit of the silicious remains of skeletons of diatoms. (9) Dispersive clays—These are special type of clays which defloculate in still water. Such soils erode if exposed 10 low- velocity water. Susceptibility 10 dispersion depends upon the cations in the soil pore water. (10) Dune sands—These are wind-transported soils. There are composed of relatively uniform particles of fine to medium sand, (11) Expansive clays—These are prone to large volume changes as the water content is changed. ‘These soil contain the mineral montmorillonite, (12) Fills—All man-made deposits of soil and waste-materials are called fills. These are the soil embankments raised above the ground surface. Engineering properties of fills depend upon the type of soil, its water content and the degree of compaction. (13) Gravel—Gravel is a type of coarse-grained soil. ‘The particle size ranges from 4.75 mm to 80 mm. It is a cohesiontess material. (14) Hardpans—Hardpans are types of soils that offer great resistance to the penetration of drilling tools ‘during soil exploration. The soils are designated hardpans regardless of their particle size, These are generally dense, well-graded, cohesive aggregates of mineral particles. Hardpans do not disintegrate when submerged in ‘water. 5) Humus—It is a dark brown, organic amorphous earth of the topsoil. It consists of partly decomposed vegetal matter. It is not suitable for engineering works. (16) Kankar—tt is an impure form of lime stone, It contains calcium carbonate mixed with some silicious material (17) Laterites—Laterites are residual soils formed in tropical regions. Laterites are very soft when freshly cut but become hard after long exposure. Hardness is due to cementing action of iron oxide and aluminium oxide, These soils are also called lateritic soils. (18) Loam—it is a mixture of sand, silt and clay. The term is generally used in agronomy. ‘The soil is well suited to tilling operations,10 SOIL. MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING (19) Loess—It is a wind blown deposit of sill. It is generally of uniform gradation, with the particle size between 0.01 to 0.05 mm. It consists of quartz and feldspar particles, cemented with calcium carbonate or iron oxide, When wet, it becomes soft and compressible because cementing action is lost. A loess deposit has 2 loose structure with numerous root holes which produce vertical cleavage. The permeability in the vertical direction is generally much greater than that in the horizontal direction. (20) Marit is a stiff, marine calcareous clay of greenish colour. (21) Moorum—the word moorum is derived from a Tamil word, meaning powdered rock. It consists of small pieces of disintegrated rock or shale, with or without boulders. (22) Muck—tt denotes a mixture of fine soil particles and highly decomposed organic matter. It is black in colour and of extremely soft consistency. It cannot be used for engineering works. The organic matter is in an advanced stage of decomposition. (23) Peat—tt is an organic soil having fibrous aggregates of macroscopic and microscopic particles. It is formed from vegetal matter under conditions of excess moisture, such as in swamps. It is highly compressible and not suitable for foundations. (24) Sand—it is a coarse-grained soil, having particle size between 0.075 mm to 4.75 mm. The particles are visible to naked eye. The soil is cohesionless and pervious. (25) Silt—it is a fine-grained soil, with particle size between 0.002 mm and 0.075 mm. The particles are not visible to naked eyes. Inorganic silt consists of bulky, equidimensional grains of quartz. Tt has little or no plasticity, and is cohesionless. Organic silt contains an admixture of organic matter. It is « plastic soil and is cohesive. 26) Till is an unstratified deposit formed by melting of a glacier. The deposit consists of particles of different sizes, ranging from boulders to clay. The soil is generally well-graded. It can be easily densified by compaction. Till is also known as boulder-clay. 27) ‘Top solls—Top soils are surface soils that support plants. They contain a large quantity of organic matter and are not suitable for foundations. (28) Tuff—t is a fine-grained soil composed of very smalll particles ejected from volcanoes during its explosion and deposited by wind or water. (29) Tundra—tt is a mat of peat and shrubby vegelation that covers clayey subsoil in arctic regions. The deeper layers are permanently frozen and are called permafrost. The surface deposit is the active layer which alternately freezes and thaws. (30) Varved clays—These are sedimentary deposits consisting of alternate thin layers of silt and clay, ‘The thickness of each layer seldom exceeds 1 cm. ‘These clays are the resulls of deposition in lakes during periods of alternately high and low waters. [Note. For glossary of technical terms, see APPENDIX A]. 1.12, COHESIVE AND COHESIONLESS SOILS Soils in which the adsorbed water and particle altraction act such that it deforms plastically at varying ‘water contents ace known as cohesive soils or clays. This cohesive property is due to presence of clay minerals in soils. Therefore, the term cohesive soil is used synonymously for clayey soils. ‘The soils composed of bulky grains are cohesionless regardless of the fineness of the particles. The rock flour is cohesionless even when it has the particle size smaller than 2p size. Non-plastic silts and coarse- grained soils are cohesionless. [Note. 1 = 1 micron = 10° m = 10° mm]. Many soils are mixiure of bulky grains and clay minerals and exhibit some degree of plasticity with varying water content. Such soils are termed cohesive if the plasticity effect is significant; otherwise, cohesionless. Obviously, there is no sharp dividing line between cohesionless and cohesive soils. However, it is ‘Sometimes convenient to divide the soil into above two groups.INTRODUCTION a ‘The term cohesive-soil is used for clays and plastic silt, and the term cohesionless-soil, for non-plastic silts, sands and gravel. 1.13, BRIEF HISTORY OF SOIL ENGINEERING ‘According to the author, the history of soil engineering can be divided into three periods, as described below: (1) Ancient to Medieval period—Man’s first contact with soil was when he placed his foot on the earth. Tn ancient times, soil was used as a construction material for building huge carth mounds for religious purposes, burial places and dwellings. Caves were built in soif to live in. Excellent pavements were constructed in Egypt and India much before the Christian era. Some earth dams have been storing water in India for more than 2000 years. Remnants of various underground water structures, such as aqueducts, tunnels and large drains, found in the excavation at the sites of early civilisation at Mohenjodaro and Harrappa in the Indian subcontinent indicate the use of soil as foundation and ‘construction material. Egyptian used caissons for deep foundations even 2000 B.C. Hanging garden at Babylon (Iraq) was also built during that period. ‘The city of Babylon was built on fills above the adjoining flood plains. During Roman times, heavy structures, such as bridges, aqueducts, harbours and buildings, were built. Some of these works are in existence even today. After the collapse of the Roman Empire, the construction activities declined. However, some heavy city walls and forts were built from the strategic considerations. Cathedrals, castles and campaniles (bell towers) were also constructed, The famous tower of Pisa, known as the leaning tower of Pisa, was also built. The tower has leaned on one side because of the differential settlement of its base. ‘The famous Rialto Bridge was constructed in Venice (Italy) in the seventeenth century. Leonardo da Vinci constructed a number of structures in France during the same period. The famous London Bridge in England was also built. The mausoleum Taj Mahal at Agra (India) was constructed by the emperor Shah Jehan to commemorate his favourite wife Mumtaz Mahal. It is built on masonry cylindrical wells sunk into the soil at close intervals. It is certain that early builders, while constructing such huge structures, encountered and successfully lackied many challenging problems. However, no record in available about the methods adopted. No scientific study seems to have been made, The builders were guided by the knowledge and experience passed down from generation to generation, @) Period of Early Developments—Ihe eighteenth century can be considered as the real beginning of soil engineering when early developments in soil engineering took place. In 1773, a French engineer Coulomb gave a theory of earth pressure on retaining walls. The theory is used by the geotechnical engineers even today (chapter 19). Coulomb also introduced the concept that the shearing resistance of soil consists of two components, namely, the cobesion component and the friction component (chapter 13). Culmann gave a general graphical solution for the earth pressure in 1866. Rankine, in 1857, published a theory on carth pressure considering the plastic equilibrium of the earth mass. In 1874, Rehbann gave a graphical method for computation of earth pressure based on Coulomb’s theory. Darcy gave the law of the permeability of soils in 1856, Darcy's law is used for the computation of seepage through soils (chapters 8 and 9). In the same year, Stokes gave the law for the velocity of fall of Solid particles through fluids. The law is used for determining the particle size, as discussed in chapter 3. ‘O-Mohr gave the rupture theory for soils in 1871. He also gave a graphical method of representation of stresses, popularly known 2s Mobr’s circle. It is extremely useful for determination of stresses on inclined planes (chapter 13). Boussinesq, in 1885, gave the theory of stress distribution in a semi-infinite, homogeneous, isotropic, elastic medium due to an externally applied load. The theory is used for determination of stresses in soils due to loads, as discussed in chapter 11. a In 1908, Marston gave the theory for the load carried by underground conduits (chapter 22). Aiterberg, in 1911, suggested some simple tests for characterizing consistency of cohesive soils. The