BIOMECHANICS

Introduction
Biomechanics is the study of the mechanics of a part or function
of a living body and of the forces exerted by muscles and external
loading on the skeletal structure.

Objectives:
§  a description of the composition and structure of the main tissues
found in mammals
§  the relations between composition, structure and biomechanical
properties are presented for bone, cartilage, skin, tendons and
ligaments, muscles, and blood vessels and arteries
§  some aspects of joint biomechanics
Skeletal System
The skeletal system is made up of bones and the average adult
skeleton contains 206 bones:
§  Varies somewhat from person to person
§  Decreases with age (fusion)

Skeletal system provides several functions:

§  Protection and support
§  Helps with movement
§  Produces red blood cells (marrow)
§  Mineral storage
Bones
Bones are specialized connective tissues (mineralized) and make
up ~ 18% of body mass and have a density of ~ 1.9 g/cm3.

Bones are generally classified according to their shape

§  Long bones (femur, humerus)
§  Short bones (ankle, wrist)
§  Flat bones (sternum, skull, shoulder blade)
§  Irregular-shaped bones (vertebral column, pelvis, knee-cap)
BONE BIOMECHANICS
Bone Composition
Bone is made up of:
§  a mineral or inorganic phase (60–70% of the tissue),
§  water (5–10%), and
§  An organic matrix that makes up the remainder.

Approximately
§  90% of the organic matrix is collagen and
§  10% noncollagenous proteins.

Bone strength is given mainly by its mineral phase made of impure

hydroxyapatite crystals (Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2) with carbonate ions.
§  The small crystals are in the shape of needles, plates and rods
located within and between collagen fibers.
§  The plate-like crystals have dimensions of 20–80 nm long and 2–5
nm thick.
Bone Composition
Bone contains four types of cells:
§  osteoprogenitor cells,
§  osteoblasts,
§  osteocytes, and
§  osteoclasts,
of which osteocytes are the most abundant.
Bone Composition
§  Bone contains a small number of mesenchymal cells called
osteoprogenitor cells that have the ability to proliferate and
differentiate into osteoblasts.
§  The bone matrix is produced by the osteoblasts that differentiate
into osteocytes when surrounded by bone matrix.
§  Osteocytes are mature bone cells with extensive cell processes
that project through the canaliculi. Through a network of cells, they
establish contact and communication between adjacent osteocytes
and the central canals of osteons via gap junctions. In addition to
the gap junctions, the interstitial fluid that surrounds the osteocytes
and their processes provides an additional route for the diffusion of
nutrients and waste products.
§  This information network is also linked to osteoclasts activity that
are giant cells with 50 or more nuclei, and have the function of
removing bone matrix.
Bone Composition
Bone can be viewed as a composite material made of solid and
liquid phases.

The solid phase is represented by the mineral phase whereas the

liquid phase is represented by the interstitial fluid.

The solid phase is made up of collagen type I produced by

osteoblast bone cells. Apart from collagen type I, osteoblast
produces a variety of noncollagenous proteins, including
§  osteocalcin,
§  osteopontin,
§  osteonectin, and
§  proteoglycans;
§  regulatory factors, such as cytokines, growth factors, and
prostaglandins; and neutral proteases, alkaline phosphatase, and
other enzymes that degrade the extracellular matrix and prepare it
for calcification.
Bone collagen is constructed in the form of a triple helix of two identical α1(I) chains
and one unique α2 chain stabilized by hydrogen bonding between hydroxyproline and
other charged residues. This configuration gives a fairly rigid linear molecule 300
nm long. Each molecule is aligned with the next in a parallel fashion in a quarter-
staggered array to produce a collagen fibril. The collagen fibrils are then grouped in
bundles to form the collagen fiber.
Collagen triple helices spontaneously form nanoscale bundles of protein, which act as
a template for the crystallization of hydroxyapatite nanocrystals. The collagen matrix
is also recognized by undifferentiated bone-marrow stem cells, which become bone-
forming osteoblasts after signals from bone-specific proteins in the matrix. (Note that
this figure shows the dimensional, not sequential, principles of bone construction.)
Schematic illustration of bone dominantly composed of apatite crystal and Type I
collagen at some scale levels. The c-axis of biological apatite (BAp) is aligned in a
direction similar to that of collagen fiber. BAp crystallizes in the hexagonal-base
structure with a high anisotropic ion arrangement.
Bone Structure
There are two types of bone:

§  Trabecular (spongy or cancellous)

•  Ends of long bones, interiors of others
•  Porous and made of tiny struts (trabeculae)
§  Cortical (dense or compact)
•  Forms the shaft and outer covering of almost all bones
•  Dense structure made up of stacked layers (lamellae)
 Trabecular bone is found
in the epiphysis and
metaphysis of long bones
and inside flat or small
bones.

A femur (thigh) bone.

 Cortical and Cancellous Bone
Trabecular bone has an
extensive network of small and
interconnected plates and rods of
individual trabeculae oriented
according to the external loading.
Structure of osseous tissue.
Cortical bone consists of
layers with vascular
channels surrounded by
lamellar bone. This
arrangement is called the
osteon or Haversian
system. The central
canal of an osteon
contains cells, vessels,
nerves and the canals
connecting osteons are
called Volkmann’s
canals.
Cortical and Cancellous Bone
Bone Physical Properties
One of the fundamental difference between cortical and trabecular
bone is its apparent porosity.

Apparent porosity is the ratio of the mass bone tissue in a

specimen to the bulk volume of the specimen.

§  Typical apparent density for cortical bone and trabecular bone are
1.85 g/cm3 and 0.30 g/cm3, respectively, with a much higher
variability and standard deviation for trabecular bone.
Bone Physical Properties
Physical properties vary from one bone to another depending on
various parameters such as
§  apparent density,
§  ash density (total mineral content divided by bulk volume),
§  histology (number of osteons, primary versus secondary bone),
§  collagen composition and content,
§  orientation of the collagen fibers and mineral,
§  composition of the cement lines,
§  bonding between the mineral and collagen phases, and
§  accumulation of microcracks in the bone matrix and around
osteons.
Bone Physical Properties
Bone mineral content is the ratio between the mineral weight and
the dry weight of the bone sample.
§  The bone sample is burnt to determine its mineral content or the
ash fraction.

Water content is also important in the mechanical properties of

cortical bone.
§  Wet bone, as found in situ, is less stiff, less strong, and less brittle
than fully dried bone.
Biomechanical Properties of Bone
§  Bone has a major advantage over engineering structural
materials in that it is self-repairing and can alter its properties
and geometry in response to changes in mechanical and
metabolic demand.
§  Bone properties also change from species to species. Bone
physical properties differ from one person to another but also
within one individual from one location to another.
§  Due to its different apparent porosity, mechanical properties
of trabecular bone and cortical bone are clearly different.
Cortical Bone
Cortical bone accounts for approximately 80% of the skeletal
mass.
Cortical bone and relatively stiff trabecular bone have Young’s
moduli of about 17 GPa and 1 GPa, respectively (it also depends
on the specie and on the type of bone). Thus, most metals used in
orthopedic applications are an order of magnitude stiffer than
cortical bone.
Human cortical bone is usually considered to be transversely
isotropic with mechanical properties substantially different in the
longitudinal direction (parallel to the axis of the osteons) than in the
radial or circumferential directions but it has similar properties in
the radial and circumferential directions.
§  The modulus of cortical bone in the longitudinal direction is
approximately 1.5 times its modulus in the transverse direction.
 Cortical Bone

Cortical bone has a higher strength in compression than in tension, and is

stronger in the longitudinal direction than in the transverse direction. For
longitudinal loading, cortical bone is a tough material because it can absorb
substantial energy before fracture.
Furthermore, cortical bone can be classified as a relatively ductile material
for longitudinal loading since its ultimate strain for longitudinal loading is
substantially larger than its yield strain. However, it is relatively brittle for
transverse loading.
Cortical Bone

At very high strain rates representing high-impact trauma, cortical bone

becomes more brittle. Thus, cortical bone exhibits a ductile to brittle
transition as the strain rate increases. The three characteristic stages of
creep behavior as described in many conventional engineering materials is
also observed in cortical bone.
Trabecular Bone
Trabecular bone under compression has similar characteristics to
porous foam materials such as wood.
§  In the first stage, bone deforms in the linear elastic region, in which
individual trabeculae bend and compress as the bulk tissue is
compressed.
§  In the second stage, some trabeculae fail or buckle without
increase of loading. As more and more trabeculae fail, the strain
increases until broken trabeculae begin to fill the pores, causing the
specimen to stiffen. Thus, trabecular bone has a unique ability to
resist a large compressive load for a minimal mass. This energy
absorption allows compressive strains of over 50%. As in fiber-
reinforced concrete, the tensile behavior of trabecular bone is
poorer.
Cortical Bone

Example of typical compressive stress-strain behaviors of trabecular and

cortical bone for different apparent densities.
Bone Remodeling
Bone is a living tissue and is constantly remodeled by two different
types of cells:
§  Osteoclasts (bone-resorbing cells)
§  Osteoblasts (bone-forming cells)

Bone remodeling occurs:

§  During growth
§  To repair accumulated micro-damage
§  Regulate calcium availability
Bone Remodeling

Average skeleton is totally remodeled every 10-20 years.

Imbalance in the remodeling cycle (resorption vs. deposition)

normally happens with age and a large imbalance results in a
disorder called osteoporosis (weak, brittle bones).

Osteoporotic bones are more susceptible to fracture.

There are times when our bones do not repair themselves or

remodel effectively. If you:
§  have a disease that effects bone physiology, such as osteoporosis,
§  or are involved in trauma, fracturing a bone,
§  or have an operation i.e. spinal fusion, where new bone is required,
then your bones may need additional help to repair themselves.
Diseased bone

Spinal fusion
Fracture
Fracture
Bone can normally heal itself
after a fracture but in extreme
cases interventions are required
(fracture fixation plates and
screws).
Joints
Bones are connected to one another by different types of joints:
§  Fibrous
•  Bound tightly together by fibrous connective tissue
•  Rigid to slightly movable
•  Suture joints of the skull
§  Cartilaginous
•  Bound together by a layer of cartilage (firm, resilient, non-vascularized
tissue)
•  Limited motion (twisting and compression)
•  Vertebral column (disc between vertebrae) and attachments of ribs to
the sternum
§  Synovial
•  Most complex joints
•  Allow a large degree of relative motion between articulating bones
•  Articulating bones lined with a lined with a layer of cartilage and
separated by a thin layer of lubricating fluid (synovial fluid)
•  Surrounded by a fibrous capsule (synovial capsule)
•  Hip, knee, elbow, ankle, etc.
Synovial Joints
Six different types of synovial joints,
each of which are classified by the
type(s) of motion they permit:
§  Pivot(1 DoF)
§  Ball and Socket (3 DoF)
§  Hinge (1 DoF)
§  Ellipsoid (2-3 DoF)
§  Saddle (2 DoF)
§  Gliding (1 DoF)
Total Joint Replacements
Artificial joints have been developed to replace damaged (trauma)
or diseased (osteoarthritis) joints in which the cartilage layer(s) that
line the ends of the articulating bones has been destroyed.

Resurfacing technique (metal and plastic) and almost all joints

have available replacements with the most common being the hip
and knee