Managing Water—From Waste to Resource

Richard Arnold
New Mexico State University
Agricultural Research Center
Farmington, New Mexico, USA
David B. Burnett
Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas, USA
In mature fields, water is often perceived as a necessary evil. While water often
drives primary production and assists in secondary recovery, excess produced water
represents a significant liability and cost to the oil and gas producer. Today, improved
water-management techniques are minimizing the amount of water brought to surface
and transforming excess water from waste into resource.

Jon Elphick
Cambridge, England

Thomas J. Feeley, III

US Department of Energy
National Energy Technology Laboratory
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA

Michel Galbrun
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Mike Hightower
Sandia National Laboratories
Albuquerque, New Mexico

Zhizhuang Jiang
ConocoPhillips Inc.
Shekou, China

Moin Khan
Houston, Texas

Matt Lavery
Public Service Company of New Mexico
(PNM)
Albuquerque, New Mexico

Fred Luffey
ChevronTexaco
Bakersfield, California, USA

Paul Verbeek
Shell International Exploration and Production
The Hague, The Netherlands

26 Oilfield Review
Most mature oil fields have one thing in common:
produced water, and lots of it. Globally, at least
Water is treated
three barrels of water are generated with every prior to reinjection
Oil and water or disposal.
barrel of oil. Although exact numbers are difficult are separated.
to obtain, data compiled in 1999 indicate that
more than 210 million barrels [33.4 million m3] of
water were being produced by the exploration
and production (E&P) industry each day. 1 In
the USA, produced water comprises 98% of all
waste generated by the E&P industry—on
average 10 bbl [1.6 m3] of water are produced
with every barrel of oil in that country.2
Even with the best field-management
Water drives the
techniques, water production may eventually production of oil.

wate r
A portion of
increase to the point that it represents more W the produced

O i l a n d w at e r
a te

a nd
than 90% of liquid volume brought to the sur- r water is
reinjected for

Oil
face. Surface-handling systems become waterflooding.
overloaded, impacting efficiency and productiv-
ity. Eventually, the cost of dealing with produced
water precludes field profitability.
Modern field-evaluation techniques com-
bined with management of the water cycle can
improve field economics, productivity and hydro-
carbon recovery factor (right). A holistic
approach to water management in a mature oil
field includes reservoir analysis, assessment of
production and injection wells, evaluation of
flooding or sweeping techniques, surface-sys-
tems analysis, and implementation of a plan to
> The role of water in the oil-production process. Oil-bearing sands are swept
best use excess produced water.
by water, displacing oil and generating oil flow. However, water becomes a
Like oil and gas, fresh water is a limited problem when the amount of oil produced to the surface decreases and surface
resource. Once referred to as the Great American water-treatment systems become overloaded. As more water is generated at
Desert, today the western USA is becoming even the surface than is required for reinjection, treatment and disposal of this
drier, yet it is supporting increased water excess produced water add to oil-production costs.
demands for agriculture, industry and personal
consumption (below right). Moreover, the
population in the western United States is
AH
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to the research H
staff and oil company partners working with Richard Arnold, A H
H
New Mexico State University, Farmington, New Mexico,
USA; Michael DiFilippo, Berkeley, California, USA; Francois AH
Groff, Houston, Texas; Greg Hardy, ChevronTexaco, H AH
Bakersfield, California; Amy Miller, PNM, Albuquerque, New
Mexico; Sun Jian Ming, Shekou, China; and Wynand Hooger-
brugge, Gatwick, England.
H
adnVISION, arcVISION, CHFR (Cased Hole Formation
Resistivity), ELANPlus, INFORM (Integrated Forward
AH
Modeling), NODAL, OFM, PowerDrive, PowerPulse and
WaterCASE are marks of Schlumberger. TORR and RPA
are marks of EARTH (Canada) Corporation. Solar Dew is a
H
trademark of Solar Dew B.V.
1. Veil JA, Puder M, Elcock D and Redweik R Jr: “A White Drought Intensity
Paper Describing Produced Water from Production of
Crude Oil, Natural Gas, and Coal Bed Methane,” Abnormally Dry Drought Impact Types
http://www.ead.anl.gov/pub/dsp_detail.cfm? Drought–Moderate
PrintVersion=true&PubID=1715 (accessed April 16, 2004). Delineates dominant impacts
Drought–Severe A = Agricultural (crops, pastures, grasslands)
2. Khatib Z and Verbeek P: “Water to Value–Produced
Water Management for Sustainable Field Development of
Drought–Extreme H = Hydrological (water)
Mature and Green Fields,” paper SPE 73853, presented at Drought–Exceptional
the SPE International Conference on Health, Safety and > Drier times ahead for some regions of the USA. Much of the western USA is experiencing extreme
Environment in Oil and Gas Exploration and Production,
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, March 20–22, 2002. drought conditions (dark orange). Associated hydrological impact, or water shortages, are indicated
in most drought areas (H). The US Drought Monitor is a partnership between the National Drought
Mitigation Center (NDMC), United States Department of Agriculture, and National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration. (Map courtesy of NDMC and University of Nebraska at Lincoln, USA.)

Summer 2004 27
 10 times greater than it was 100 years ago.3 A
100
partial answer to the looming shortfall of fresh
water in the USA and elsewhere may be found in
the reuse of produced water.
Movable oil produced, %
90
Modern techniques for mature-field evalua-
tion, remediation and management offer
80 potential solutions for both the E&P industry and
areas of the world where access to water is
70 increasingly limited. In this article, we discuss
the problem of produced water from two different
perspectives. First we explore examples showing
60 how operators are managing water in mature
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Pore volumes of water injected fields. Then we see how E&P companies,
researchers and governmental agencies are focus-
> Use of water to promote oil recovery. In management of a mature oil field, ing on alternative uses for excess produced water.
the proportion of movable oil produced is often a function of water throughput.
Thus, the oil recovery factor depends on the volume of water injected into the
Managing the Water System
system. Injection rates for optimal production efficiency vary and must be
adjusted on a case-by-case basis. Virtually every oil reservoir is swept by water from
either natural aquifer pressure or waterflooding.
Eventually, water production is inevitable. Water
movement promotes oil displacement and affects
vertical and areal sweep, thereby determining a
field’s oil recovery factor (above left). Although
water is often seen as a problem, good water is
critical to the oil-production process.4 Bad water,
Treatment to remove
solids and other contaminants on the other hand, is water that brings little value
such as hydrogen sulfide to the production operation, although it may find
Gas its way to reuse outside the E&P environment at
Reuse or
Water waste disposal
Separation Oil
treatment
some future time.
Water
Water injection The first step in water management is assess-
system ing and diagnosing the water system. Because of
Facilities Optimization the complexity of the system, defining the prob-
• Separation lem is often the most difficult part of the process
• Water treatment (left).5 Today, engineers and geoscientists apply
• Gas handling
Producer Performance a multistep process supported by a sophisticated
• Shut off unwanted water array of techniques and tools to diagnose water-
• Improve production profile Environment
related problems. The process often begins with
• Optimize lift • Water-quality monitoring
and control gathering reservoir, production-history and sur-
Aquifer
• Discharge face-facility information (next page, top). Using
Injector Performance previously acquired data, engineers evaluate the
• Water quality current production system to identify economic
Reservoir Management
• Injection mechanism
Oil • Areal and vertical sweep bottlenecks and to gain an initial understanding
• Injection profile
• Voidage replacement of the water-flow mechanisms in the reservoir,
wells and surface system.
Water
Next, engineers and specialists from opera-
tor and service companies work together to
determine whether any new data are required to
> The complexity of the mature-field water system. Water is an integral and often necessary part of properly assess the production system. For
the production process. During production, oil is swept from the reservoir and replaced by natural or
example, flow tests of production and injection
injected water. The process is seldom uniform. Formation heterogeneity may lead to premature
breakthrough and downhole water problems. Production and injection wells are monitored and wells, downhole fluid-flow profiles, wireline and
managed to minimize the water/oil ratio, maximize vertical sweep efficiency and optimize oil crosswell surveys, and time-lapse seismic
production. Surface systems may be complex and must be designed to manage and treat the water acquisition are capable of defining oil and
volumes entering and exiting the production system. The quality of water discharged to the
water movements within the reservoir (see
environment, disposed by conventional methods or diverted for resuse in reservoir flooding and
alternative applications, is monitored and controlled. “Time Will Tell: New Insights from Time-Lapse

28 Oilfield Review
Seismic Data,” page 6). Data from crosswell Input Process Results
electromagnetic evaluation are sometimes
used to provide reservoir water saturation levels.
Flow dynamics in the downhole and surface sys-
System assessment
tems can be evaluated with multiphase
Identifies economic
flowmeters, helping to fully characterize the Water breakthrough map
bottlenecks and
water system. Reservoir and facilities
opportunities
Reservoir compartmentalization, water diagnosis
breakthrough, sweep efficiency and voidage Defines flow mechanics
and identifies target
replacement are defined using tools such as wells for intervention
OFM well and reservoir analysis software.6 OFM Well diagnosis
4D seismic
software displays production history along with Identifies types of
other well and reservoir data. Careful data water problems
analysis often reveals a wealth of hidden infor- Solution identification
mation. Schlumberger uses a set of specifically Defines all feasible solutions
designed OFM templates for water analysis, and expected results
Logs
allowing rapid reservoir evaluation and diagno- Solution selection
based on risk economics
sis of flow patterns and well problems.7 The OFM
techniques range from simple breakthrough Optimal solutions defined
time maps to production diagnostic plots and Develop detailed design,
heterogeneity plots that display problematic then execute and evaluate
wells at a glance.8 Production data analysis Outcome
Once water problems are identified, tools
such as the WaterCASE software for analyzing
produced water helps engineers perform further
analysis and propose possible solutions (see
Risk economics decision tree
“Problem Types and Solutions,” page 30).
A case-based reasoning engine powers the > A systematic process for water management. Production-system
WaterCASE software, helping engineers solve assessment considers the entire water and production cycle to identify
economic bottlenecks. Subsequent analysis focuses on the most critical
intricate water problems by linking identified problems. Only after completing the reservoir and facilities analysis can
problems with historically successful solutions. engineers diagnose wells to determine specific problem types. Then, all
The system examines information from all feasible solutions are identified. Expected results are determined using
NODAL production system analysis or simulation. Risk and economics are
sources including production history, reservoir
evaluated to arrive at an optimal solution. The last step is critical: proper
descriptions and logging results, but makes design must be followed by proper execution and evaluation to validate the
allowances for missing data. This important applied solution.
aspect allows engineers to perform water-system
analysis with only existing and sometimes
incomplete datasets. Solutions and methodolo-
Key Performance Indicators Bottlenecks
gies proposed by the WaterCASE software can
help optimize all elements of the water cycle. Reduce water-handling cost Water-handling cost per bbl
Once each element of the downhole and sur- Reduce environmental impact Water-production rate
face system has been thoroughly analyzed, key
Increase oil productivity Oil-production rate
performance indicators (KPI), help identify
Increase reserves Sweep efficiency
bottlenecks and rank potential opportunities by
financial impact (right).
> Limitations to performance. Key performance indicators and the bottlenecks,
Water-management solutions ultimately or limitations, in the production system are linked and must be defined prior to
focus on the economics and direct cost of implementing an overall water-management program.
managing water. Costs related to surface han-
dling and disposal vary greatly, but estimates 3. Burnett DB and Veil JA: “Decision and Risk Analysis 6. Voidage occurs as the result of production of oil from
ranging from US$ 0.10 to US$ 2.00 per barrel are Study of the Injection of Desalination By-Products into the reservoir. As oil is removed, it is often replaced by
Oil- and Gas-Producing Zones,” paper SPE 86526, water. Voidage-replacement calculations are used to
not uncommon. Taking a nominal water-disposal presented at the SPE International Symposium and ensure that sufficient water is injected to maintain
cost of US$ 0.50/bbl, the E&P industry expendi- Exhibition on Formation Damage Control, Lafayette, reservoir pressure.
Louisiana, USA, February 18–20, 2004. 7. OFM templates contain predefined calculations, maps,
ture to manage 210 million barrels of water
4. Good water is defined as that produced below the eco- crossplots and trend plots designed specifically to assist
daily would be on the order of $38.3 billion nomic limit of the water/oil ratio (WOR). Conversely, bad in water analysis at the reservoir and well level.
per year. water is water produced above the economic limit of WOR. 8. Chan KS: “Water Control Diagnostic Plots,” paper
5. For more on water-control problems and solutions: SPE 30775, presented at the SPE Annual Technical
(continued on page 32) Bailey B, Crabtree M, Tyrie J, Elphick J, Kuchuk F, Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, Texas, USA,
Romano C and Roodhart L: “Water Control,” Oilfield October 22–25, 1995.
Review 12, no. 1 (Spring 2000): 30–51.

Summer 2004 29
 Problem Types and Solutions
Ten specific types of water problems are shown
by degree of complexity. Elevated water cut may
result from one or more problem type. Already
available information should first be used to
diagnose excess produced-water problems.
Solving less complex problems first can
reduce risk and decrease the time required
for payout.
Simple
1. Tubing, casing or packer leak
2. Flow behind casing
3. Oil/water contact moving up
4. High-permeability layer without crossflow
5. Fissures between injector and producer
6. Fissures or fractures from a water layer
7. Coning or cusping
8. Poor areal sweep
9. Gravity-segregated layer
10. High-permeability layer with crossflow
Complex
30
1. Tubing, casing or packer leak (1) Tubing, casing or packer leak. Produc-
tion logs such as temperature and spinner
may be sufficient to diagnose these problems.
Solutions typically include squeezing shutoff
fluids and mechanical shutoff.
Oil (2) Flow behind casing. Failed primary
cementing or creation of a void space due to
sand production may allow water to flow
behind casing in the annulus. Temperature
Water
or oxygen-activation logs can detect water
flow behind casing. Shutoff fluids may provide
a solution.
(3) Oil/water contact (OWC) moving up.
Typically, this is associated with limited verti-
cal permeability, usually less than 1 mD. With
2. Flow behind casing higher vertical permeabilities, coning (7) is
more likely. In vertical wells, the problem may
be solved by mechanically isolating the lower
part of the wellbore. In horizontal wells, there
is no near-wellbore solution, and sidetracking
Oil the well may be required.
(4) High-permeability layer without cross-
flow. A shale barrier above and below the
layer is usually the cause of this condition.
Water
The absence of crossflow makes this problem
easy to solve by applying rigid shutoff fluids or
mechanical shutoff either in the injector or in
the producer.
(5) Fissures between injector and producer.
Water can rapidly break through to production
3. Oil/water contact moving up wells in naturally fissured formations. Pressure-
transient testing and interwell tracers can
confirm the problem. Applying a shutoff fluid
at the water injector may be effective without
adversely affecting the fissures that contribute
to oil production.
Oil (6) Fissures or fractures from a water layer
(2D coning). Water is produced from an
underlying water zone through natural fis-
Water
sures. A similar problem results when hydraulic
Water
fractures penetrate vertically into a water
layer. The application of shutoff fluids may be
effective for this problem.
Oilfield Review
 4. High-permeability layer without crossflow (7) Coning or cusping. Production draws 7. Coning or cusping
water upward toward the wellbore. A layer of
Injector Producer
gel placed above the cone may be effective in
slowing the coning process. However, to be
effective, a gel-placement radius of at least 50
feet [15 m] is typically required, often limiting
the economic viability of the treatment. As an Gel layer
alternative to gel placement, a new lateral
borehole may be located near the top of the
formation, increasing the distance from the
5. Fissures between injector and producer OWC and decreasing the drawdown, both
of which reduce the coning effect. A dual- Water
drain production technique may also be an
effective treatment.1
Producer (8) Poor areal sweep. This problem is often
associated with poor areal permeability het- 8. Poor areal sweep
erogeneity or anisotropy; it is particularly
severe in depositions with sand channels. One Aquifer

Injector solution is to divert injected water away from

the already swept pore space. Another way to
access unswept oil is by adding lateral bore-
holes to existing wells, or by infill drilling.
(9) Gravity-segregated layer. In thick reser-
voir layers with good vertical permeability,
water, either from an aquifer or a waterflood,
6. Fissures or fractures from a water layer is segregated by gravity and sweeps only the
lower part of the formation. Shutting off lower
perforations in injection or production wells
often has only marginal effect; ultimately,
gravity segregation dominates. If this occurs,
production wells will experience coning. Gel 9. Gravity-segregated layer
treatments are unlikely to provide lasting
Oil Injector Producer
results. Additional lateral drainholes may be
effective in accessing the unswept oil. Foamed
viscous-flood fluids, gas injection or alternat-
ing between the two may also improve vertical
Water sweep efficiency. Water
(10) High-permeability layer with crossflow.
In contrast to the case without crossflow (4),
the presence of crossflow precludes solutions
that modify production or injection profiles 10. High-permeability layer with crossflow
only near a wellbore. Deep-penetrating gel
may provide a partial solution. Injector Producer

1. A dual drain involves perforating above and below the

oil/water contact. Then, both oil and water zones are
produced through separate completions at the same
flowing pressure. High volumes of water are pro-
duced, although the produced oil often contains very
little water.
Water

Summer 2004 31
 In mature fields, profitability is based on the
economic limit of the water/oil ratio (bottom
left). Producing a well with a water cut above
the economic limit generates negative cash flow.
If water-treatment costs increase, then the eco-
nomic water-cut limit decreases. To maintain
profitability, a well may have to be abandoned
and reserves lost.
Reducing water-management cost and
improving production in mature fields are not
always straightforward. Balancing the complete
production system—injector wells, production
wells and the water-management system—is
essential to maximizing field performance.
Water at the Surface
Surface-system assessment is a critical step in
the water-management process. Assets must be
viewed as a complete system; identifying
reservoir-related opportunities without simulta-
neously determining potential bottlenecks in
surface-handling capacity could be fruitless.
The efficiency of a mature-field system is
often related to its capacity to deal with pro-
duced water. The initial surface design often
fails to account for escalating water cut with
time. As a field matures, water cut increases and
its surface-handling system becomes overloaded.
Whether in separation, transmission or disposal,
a high water rate reduces oil-handling capacity
and threatens the economic viability of the field.
Restrictions, or bottlenecks, in the surface
systems are often complex and expensive to
rectify. In the late 1990s, Petrobras engineers
predicted that oil production from the southern
area of the Campos basin, offshore Brazil,
would exhibit a significant increase in water cut
during the next decade. Solving the looming
water-handing problem presented significant
technical challenges, but the economics of the
Campos basin demanded an early solution to
the problem.
The 90-km [56-mile], 24-in. export pipeline
had been designed to flow 180,000 bbl
[28,600 m3] of crude oil daily from the central
production platform to a shore-based refinery.
Offshore water-management facilities at the
central and satellite production platforms were
limited. As water cut approached 45%, oil-
production targets and quality through the
pipeline could not be sustained. As an interim
measure, Petrobras began supplementing the
export pipeline with shuttle tankers, transport-
ing the water-laden oil to shore.
Petrobras and Schlumberger engineers
evaluated options for reducing water production,
the choices being downhole intervention,
improving surface-management systems, or
both. Ultimately the decision was made to
increase the capacity of surface-handling facili-
ties. This avoided the pipeline bottleneck by
separating water from oil offshore.
Working in conjunction with Schlumberger,
the Sedco 135D semisubmersible drilling rig was
converted to a floating dewatering facility
(below). Connected to the central production
platform, the facility can process 169,000 B/D
[27,000 m3/d] of high water-cut crude.
Water-laden crude is processed to remove
water from oil and to reduce the oil concentra-
tion in the produced water below 20 parts per
million (ppm). First, a degasser removes dis-
solved gases and stabilizes the crude oil. Then,
an electrostatic coalescer reduces the basic
sediment and water (BS&W) content of the oil
phase to less than 1%, and it reduces the oil con-
tent of the water phase to less than 1,000 ppm.
This produced water enters a water surge drum
and then a hydrocyclone, further reducing oil
content to less than 40 ppm. Lastly, a sparger,
which is an induced-gas flotation device,
reduces oil content to less than 20 ppm.9
Dewatering efforts in the Campos basin
resulted in an immediate 60,000-B/D
[9,530-m3/d] increase in capacity of oil trans-
ported to shore through the export pipeline. As
engineers and operators optimized the water-
removal system on the 135D, oil production
increased by 20,000 B/D [3,180 m3/d].
Optimizing oil removal from produced water
has two primary effects: more oil is recovered,
and a cleaner produced water is delivered for
disposal or reuse.
Improvements in Water-Treatment Technology
A new process for produced water cleanup is
now being field-tested with promising results.
The light water treatment unit (LWTU) uses coa-
lescing and separation techniques to reduce the
amount of oil-in-water to levels below 20 ppm at
flow rates up to 3,000 B/D [477 m3/d].
The LWTU is based on the TORR Total Oil
Recovery and Remediation technology devel-
oped by EARTH (Canada), a process in which
oil-laden water flows through a succession of
coalescing beds loaded with RPA (reusable
petroleum absorbent) material (next page, top
right).10 The dispersed oil droplets, varying in

WORe = Vo/Cw
= US$ 20/bbl oil/US$ 0.7/bbl water
= 28.6 bbl water/bbl oil.

Water cut = WOR/(1+WOR)

= 28.6/(1+28.6)
= 96.6% at economic limit.

> Economic limit. The water cut at the economic

limit can be determined from Vo, the value of a
barrel of oil after tax and lifting cost, excluding
water handling, and Cw, the cost to manage the
produced water. In this case, the values are
assumed to be US$ 20/bbl of oil for Vo and
US$ 0.7/bbl of water for Cw. Using these values,
the economic limit of the water/oil ratio, WORe,
is 28.6, and for water cut it is 96.6%.
> Dewatering offshore. The Sedco 135D semisubmersible dewatering facility
can process up to 169,000 B/D [27,000 m3/d] of produced liquids. Oil volumes
of up to 107,000 B/D [17,000 m3/d] are processed, reducing the basic sediment
and water (BS&W) concentration below 0.6%. Associated produced-water
volumes of up to 63,000 B/D [10,000 m3/d] are treated, reducing total oil and
grease (TOG) content of discharged water below 20 ppm.

32 Oilfield Review
 Oil out

Prefiltered
oil-water Treated water
mix input out < 20 ppm oil
Large
coalesced
oil droplets

Tank RPA Tank RPA Tank

> A much clearer picture. Tiny dispersed oil
droplets cause the inlet water turbidity, or
cloudiness, seen in the bottle labeled INLET.
After passing through only one coalescing bed,
a significant portion of the oil is removed, as
indicated by the clarity of the fluid in the bottle
labeled BED 1.
5,000-B/D LWTU
section 1 bed 1 section 2 bed 2 section 3
> Deoiling through a coalescing process. Mixtures of up to 3% oil in water
enter the light water treatment unit (LWTU). The solution passes through
RPA Bed 1, where tiny droplets of oil are stripped from the flow by the RPA
(reusable petroleum absorbent). Once the RPA bed is loaded with oil,
continuing fluid flow through the bed forces oil droplets out of the bed and
into Tank 2. The coalesced oil droplets are large and float to the surface,
where oil collects and is removed. Successive sets of beds continue the
process, ultimately reducing oil content to less than 20 ppm.

size down to 2 microns, adhere to the surface of

the oleophilic RPA material where the droplets
coalesce and fill void areas.
As flow continues, the RPA beds become
sequentially saturated with oil. The continuing
flow of fluid through the beds begins to strip the
coalesced oil from the saturated RPA surfaces in
large droplets, several millimeters in diameter.
The system forms a steady-state equilibrium in
each bed between the emulsion coalescing on 25,000-B/D LWTU
the saturated RPA surface and the flow stripping
large oil droplets into the next tank section.
The behavior of the larger oil droplets is
governed by Stokes law: the larger the oil-
droplet diameter, the greater the tendency for
the oil to separate and float. The larger oil
droplets aggregate at the upper interbed space,
where they form a free-oil layer that is bled from
the LWTU vessel (above left). Several RPA beds
are spaced along the length of the unit; each
successive bed intercepts increasingly smaller
oil droplets not removed in earlier stages of
the process.
In August 2002, engineers field-tested a
750-B/D [120-m3/d] pilot unit on a production > Light water treatment unit (LWTU). Field tests were recently conducted in
the North Sea with this LWTU capable of treating 5,000 B/D [795 m3/d] (top).
lease in West Texas, USA. Production water fed
The 24-ft [7.3-m] long unit weighs 15 tons [13.6 metric tons] when dry. A
from a field oil and gas separator delivered larger unit has been built for deployment in July of 2004 in the Campos basin,
33,500 bbl [5,320 m3] of water to the LWTU. At offshore Brazil, on the Sedco 135D dewatering unit (bottom). The larger unit
an average flow rate of 670 B/D [107 m3/d], oil is capable of processing 25,000 B/D [3,970 m3/d]; it is 34 ft [10 m] long and
weighs about 32 tons [29 metric tons].
concentration was reduced from 300 to 10 ppm.
More recently, a test conducted in the
North Sea with a larger prototype unit reduced 9. Induced-gas flotation is a process in which specifically 10. Le Foll P, Khan M, Akkawi EI and Parent J-P: “Field Trials
oil from 200 to 300 ppm at the inlet to an aver- sized gas bubbles are evenly dispersed throughout the for a Novel Water Deoiling Process for the Upstream
produced water. These gas bubbles interact with Oil and Gas Industry,” paper SPE 86672, presented at
age of 19 ppm at the discharge (right). entrained oil and suspended solids causing them to the 7th SPE International Conference on Health, Safety
Technicians processed a total of 600 bbl [95 m3] separate and accumulate at the surface for removal. and Environment in Oil and Gas Exploration and Produc-
tion, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, March 29–31, 2004.

Summer 2004 33
of oil-water mixture at a rate of 3,000 B/D. In
July of 2004, a 25,000-B/D [3,970-m3/d] unit is
scheduled for installation on the Sedco 135D
crude-dewatering installation.
Water at the Wellbore
While new water-treatment technologies, such
as the LWTU, help operators deal with water at
the surface, engineers are using novel logging
techniques to look behind casing, identifying
sources of water and bypassed reserves.11
In mature oil fields located offshore in the
South China Sea about 130 km [78 miles] south-
east of Hong Kong, the China National Offshore
Oil Corporation and its partners are using log-
ging behind casing technology to minimize
produced water and improve oil recovery.
Discovered in 1984 and commercial since
1994, wells in the area produce from 44 stacked
reservoir sands in the middle Miocene XH for-
mation.12 The permeability in the sandstones
typically exceeds 1 darcy, and the reservoir has a
strong aquifer waterdrive. Despite 10 years of
production, aquifer pressure has dropped by
only a few psi. This has provided excellent
production pressure support, but permeability
heterogeneity has led to early water break-
through in many of the wells.
The average water cut in the field has risen
to 84%. Total liquid-production volume is
550,000 B/D [87,400 m3/d], close to the maximum
surface-handling capacity. Electrical submersible
pumps (ESPs) assist in production lifting opera-
tions, but the high water cut makes this more
difficult. Most of the available platform well slots
have been used, so infill drilling cannot be used
to improve oil recovery. Lower than expected oil-
production rates have led engineers to focus on a
water-management solution.
Reservoir, drilling and service-company engi-
neers began the process of field and systems
evaluation to formulate a water-management
plan. Weighing the economics of several
approaches, engineers chose downhole interven-
tion to improve hydrocarbon recovery.
Reservoir evaluation and modeling studies
based on seismic data, log evaluation and
production history helped identify remaining
reserves in the field. Engineers established the
repeatability of the CHFR Cased Hole Formation
Resistivity tool and correlated it to the original
openhole resistivity logs (above right).
Resistivity data from behind the casing, pro-
cessed with ELANPlus advanced multimineral
log analysis software, established promising oil-
bearing zones. By comparing original log data
with new data from the CHFR logs, engineers
34
Water
Oil
Water from Cased Hole Log
0.5 3
m /m 3
0 Calcite
Depletion Orthoclase
Depletion
Moved Hydrocarbon Quartz
CHFR Water Saturation
1 m3/m3 0 Water Bound Water
Gamma Ray
0 API 200 Water Saturation Oil Illite
Measured Permeability Openhole Water Saturation ELAN Fluid Analysis Volumetric Analysis
Depth, m
10,000 mD 0.1 1 m3/m3 0 1 m3/m3 0 1 vol/vol 0
X090
X100
> Cased-hole log data showing oil in place. CHFR Cased Hole Formation Resistivity data identified a
significant amount of bypassed pay behind casing. The green shaded areas in Tracks 3 and 4 indicate
oil in place. Light and dark blue shading in Tracks 2 and 3 shows a minimal level of water in the upper
reservoir area, indicating only minor depletion.
observed little resistivity change since produc- Initial production after sidetracking was
tion began and determined that the XH1 sand 3,500 B/D [556 m3/d] with only 2% water cut.
still contained recoverable oil. Once stabilized, production doubled to
Well X13, a wellbore penetrating the 7,000 B/D [1,112 m 3 /d] while maintaining
XH1 sand, was chosen for intervention. Using a low water cut.
combination of real-time directional drilling tools, Following the successful X13 water-
drillers sidetracked the well, traversing the XH1 management intervention, several other wells
sand along a 300-m [984-ft] borehole at about a were sidetracked with similar success. Overall,
90-degree deviation, 3 m [10 ft] from the top of the sidetracked wells have helped achieve a 28%
the sand. The combination of INFORM increase in field oil output while reducing water
Integrated Forward Modeling software, production by more than 17,000 B/D [2,700 m3/d].
arcVISION Array Resistivity Compensated tool, The operator avoided major expenditures for a
adnVISION Aximuthal Density Neutron tool, facilities upgrade, and continues to enjoy reduced
PowerDrive rotary steerable system and costs associated with produced water handling.
PowerPulse MWD telemetry system helped
drillers place the borehole within a 1-m [3-ft] win- From Waste to Resource
dow across 98% of the borehole path (next page). Despite advances made by operators and service
The X13 sidetrack was completed using companies in surface and downhole water
61⁄2-in. expandable screens. An ESP was placed at management, produced water remains a neces-
the bottom of the 31⁄2-in. upper completion to sary, if burdensome, by-product of oil and gas
assist with lift. Prior to intervention, the production.13 In mature fields around the world,
X13 well was producing more than 90% water. operators dispose of 30% to 40% of produced
Oilfield Review
water. As demand for usable water increases in
some areas, engineers and scientists look for
ways to convert this economic liability into a
viable resource.
The path from waste to resource often
depends on water chemistry and contaminant
level. Produced-water quality varies with geol-
ogy, geography, production techniques and the
type of hydrocarbons being produced. The water
may contain dispersed oil, light hydrocarbons,
metals, salts and a wide variety of other organic
and inorganic materials.
As with produced water, about 97% of Earth’s
water is salty.14 Only 3% of available water is
fresh—2% is locked in Earth’s polar ice caps,
leaving only 1% for consumption by plant and
200
160
Gamma Ray
animal life. Although water is a renewable
resource, in some areas, agricultural demand,
population growth and climate changes have
resulted in fresh water being consumed faster
than the resource can recover.
The World Health Organization and other
agencies suggest that severe regional water
shortages affect over 400 million people today
and may affect 4 billion by 2050. In 1995, the
United States Geological Survey reported that 17
western states support 10 times more people
than they did 100 years ago. Over the next
50 years, demand for fresh water in the USA is
expected to increase 100%, potentially out-
stripping groundwater supply in some areas.15
arcVISION Gamma Ray
Modeled Gamma Ray
arcVISION Resistivity 34-in.
Modeled 34-in. Resistivity
adnVISION Bottom Quadrant Density
Modeled Bottom Quadrant Density
adnVISION Neutron Porosity
Modeled Neutron Porosity
Trajectory
Agricultural usage accounts for at least two-
thirds of global water consumption. Shortages of
water for irrigation are either already occurring
or projected to occur in major grain-growing
regions of the world.16
Of the more than 210 million bbl of water
produced daily from oil and gas operations,
30% to 40% is considered waste and disposed of.
With treatment, these 73.5 million barrels
[11.7 million m3] of water have the potential to
play a key role in relieving demand on natural
freshwater systems.
The substantial availability of produced water,
along with a need for less costly alternatives to
disposal, leads researchers to study the reuse of
produced water for irrigation, industrial use and
other applications. With proper treatment, pro-
duced water may find many uses while relieving
pressure on the Earth’s freshwater supply.
From Well to Rangeland
Approximately 47% of the Earth’s terrestrial sur-
face comprises rangelands. Left in its natural
state, indigenous rangeland vegetation, primarily
grasses, manages itself through natural pro-
cesses. Human movement into these delicately

120
balanced ecosystems has left its mark. Among
80 other things, overgrazing, recreation and
40
0 mechanical manipulation of marginal soils
have led to desertification, a process whereby
1,000
Resistivity

biosystems decline in the absence of significant

100
climatic changes.17
10 Although considerable time may be required,
2.95 desertification often naturally reverses in the
2.75 absence of commercial livestock operations.
Density

2.55
2.35 With much of the world’s rangelands in decline,
2.15
1.95 scientists are exploring methods to assist the
0.45 natural revitalization process.
0.33
Neutron

0.21 41.34 11. Many of the basics of water treatment were discussed in
0.09
63.72 Bailey et al, reference 5.
-0.03
66.76 12. Luo D, Jiang Z, Gutierrez J, Schwab K and Spotkaeff M:
-0.15
68.73 “Optimizing Oil Recovery of XJG Fields in South China
X925 70.90 Sea,” paper SPE 84861, presented at the SPE Interna-
74.79
Gamma Ray, API

tional Improved Oil Recovery Conference in Asia Pacific,

81.21
X930 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, October 20–21, 2003.
95.96
107.78 13. For more on produced water as a by-product of hydro-
carbon production: Veil et al, reference 1.
TVD, m

123.28
X935
132.09 14. http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/waterdistribution.html
140.16 (accessed May 21, 2004).
X940 146.16 15. Burnett and Veil, reference 3.
153.78
16. The United Nations: “World Water Development Report–
160.07
Executive Summary,” http://www.unu.edu/wwf/watercd/
X945
50 150 250 350 450 550
files/pdf/Ex_Summary.pdf (accessed June 20, 2004).
Drift along the section, m 17. Burnett D and Fox WE: “Produced Water: An Oasis for
Arid and Semi-Arid Range Restoration,”
> Directional drilling along the reservoir cap. Measurements-while-drilling (MWD) and logging- http://www.gwpc.org/Meetings/PW2002/
while-drilling (LWD) tools enabled engineers to place the borehole within meters of the reservoir cap, Papers-Abstracts.htm (accessed May 26, 2004).
maximizing oil contact and minimizing water production. Drillers encountered a fault at around
360-meters [1,180-ft] horizontal displacement causing the borehole to briefly intersect the shale
section above (dark brown). The LWD response to the shale is clearly seen in the gamma ray,
resistivity and density data (top three tracks).

Summer 2004 35
 > Grass survival in a harsh environment. Planted in mid-2002, Hy-Crest crested wheatgrass shows promise after a year’s growth
in the arid climate. Cages (center) are placed over sections of grass to isolate the new growth and allow scientists to
differentiate grazing damage from other causes of grass loss.
> Water treatment in the field. The Texas A&M mobile water-treatment unit is
designed to evaluate treatment methods for oilfield brine. Produced water is
conditioned, or pretreated, prior to reverse osmosis filtration. Intake capacity
is approximately 15 gallons per minute (gal/min) [57 L/min]. Depending on the
characteristics of the brine and the type of filters used, freshwater output
ranges from 1 to 5 gal/min [4 to 19 L/min].
36
Climate research studies conducted by the
University of Arizona, Tucson, USA, indicate that
the state of New Mexico, located in the south-
western USA, will continue to be drier over the
next 30 to 40 years.18 Today, researchers, oil and
gas operators and government officials are tak-
ing steps to prepare for the drier times ahead.
At New Mexico State University (NMSU),
scientists are exploring revegetation of pipeline
right-of-ways and wellsites using selected
grasses irrigated by water produced from local
coalbed methane (CBM) wells.
Working in conjunction with several E&P
companies and the US Bureau of Land
Management, researchers at NMSU selected six
sites for experiments to identify varieties of
grass capable of sustained growth in the arid
New Mexico climate. These grasses would be
supported only by limited natural rainfall and
irrigation with CBM-produced water.
Oilfield Review
 Control plots of rangeland grass were estab-
lished during April and October 2002 using
16 varieties of native and nonnative grasses with
only natural rainfall. After 12 to 15 months of
growth, grass stands were evaluated for estab-
lishment, or survival. Several varieties showed
promise (previous page, top).
In late summer of 2003, Phase 2 of the pro-
ject began with an identical set of grasses
planted at each site. During a 4- to 6-week
period after planting, two of the new test sites
were irrigated with CBM-produced water (bot-
tom left). Quantities varied from 26,880 gal
[102 m3] to 50,000 gal [189 m3] in three or four
applications (left). Although final reports will
not be prepared by NMSU until later in the year,
several species of rangeland grass showed
adaptation to CBM-produced-water irrigation.19
At Texas A&M University, College Station,
Texas, USA, a team of engineers and rangeland,
soils, wildlife and irrigation specialists is taking
the produced-water rangeland irrigation process
one step further. Working with the Texas Water
Research Institute (TWRI), engineers have built
a prototype mobile produced-water treatment
unit. Water can be treated on site to remove con-
taminants and dissolved salts prior to rangeland
irrigation (previous page, bottom).20
The process of converting produced water to
irrigation quality may require several steps.
First, the produced-water feed stream is sub-
jected to pretreatment filtration to remove sand
and larger particulates. Hydrocyclones and
microfiltration units separate the majority of the
dispersed oil from the produced water. Then,
organoclay adsorbents remove the remaining
oil.21 The essentially oil-free produced water is

18. Ni F, Cavazos T, Hughes MK, Comrie AC and Funkhouser G:

“Cool-Season Precipitation in the Southwestern USA
Since AD 1000: Comparison of Linear and Nonlinear
Techniques for Reconstruction,” International Journal of
Climatology, 22, no.13 (November 15, 2002): 1622–1645.
> Watering with CBM-produced water. A 400-bbl [64-m3] tank holds produced water for irrigation 19. http://www.all-llc.com/CBM/pdf/CBMBU/
(top). Grass plots received irrigation from this tank in August 2003 (bottom). CBM%20BU%20Screen_Chapter%206%20Case%20
Studies.pdf (accessed May 5, 2004).
20. Burnett and Fox, reference 17.
21. Organoclay, also known as organopolysilicate, is typi-
cally a kaolin or montmorillonite clay. Organic structures
are chemically bonded to the clay surface to facilitate
Produced-Water Chemistry Analysis binding, or adsorption, of organic radicals.
Wellsite Date pH Total dissolved Sodium Electrical
solids, meq/L absorption ratio conductivity, dS/m
Site 1 9/17/03 8.0 10,682 122.4 17.4
9/19/03 8.5 5,440 71.1 16.1
Site 2 8/12/03 8.3 4,190 51.4 11.1
8/20/03 8.4 6,980 105.2 17.6
9/16/03 8.1 8,126 100.8 13.6
> CBM-produced-water chemistry. During the irrigation cycle, samples of
produced water were taken at Sites 1 and 2 for analysis. Although most other
properties are relatively stable, variability in total dissolved solids (TDS) is
seen in Column 4.

Summer 2004 37
 then passed through a reverse osmosis (RO)
To disposal well filtration unit, reducing total dissolved solids
RO effluent
(TDS) below 500 ppm (left). The rejected brine
Backwash waters
stream from the RO process is disposed of by
Brine conventional methods such as injection into
Water
RO membranes waste-disposal wells.
The water-treatment technology being devel-
Pump oped by Texas A&M may provide operators with
a cost-effective alternative to disposing of pro-
Agricultural-quality water duced water. Researchers estimate that more
Sludge from pretreatment than one-third of the produced water in Texas
has TDS less than 20,000 ppm, a level suitable
for RO desalination and freshwater recovery.
> Removing salts and contaminants. During reverse osmosis (RO), prefiltered
Field tests indicate that mobile unit water-
produced water is forced by pressure to pass from an area of high-salt and
contaminant concentration to areas of low concentration. Because the processing cost is approximately US$ 0.80 per
process is osmotic and the RO membrane has no true pores, most barrel of produced water, a rate often half that
contaminants cannot pass through the membrane. of conventional regional-disposal practices.
Scientists are investigating alternative tech-
niques for effluent disposal that might further
reduce desalination cost.
Increasing numbers of operators are
expected to apply water-reuse technology in the
coming years. TWRI estimates that by the year
2020, more than 10% of the water used in Texas
will come from recycled sources, representing a
savings of as much as 40 million gallons per day
[151,000 m3/d] in fresh water.22
Oil and gas operators, local communities and
the environment benefit from the conversion of
an oilfield waste to a rangeland resource. Signifi-
cant quantities of agricultural-quality water can
be generated, helping to reclaim rangelands,
supporting environmental initiatives and
conserving freshwater resources while simulta-
neously helping operators manage production
and disposal costs more effectively.

Sustaining Agriculture
As some parts of the world experience drier con-
ditions, farmers must work harder to produce
ample food to support growing populations.
Today, modern land-management techniques
coupled with irrigation produce ample food sup-
> Salt-tolerant reeds in the desert. As part of the produced water-treatment process, halophyte reeds plies. However, one cost of food production is
and other salt-tolerant vegetation are grown in the desert of Oman. The plant growth provides a consumption of vast amounts of fresh water.
natural filtration process that removes metals and other organic materials from water. Alternative sources of water are needed both to
conserve potable water and to supply the
growing demands of agricultural irrigation.
The San Joaquin Valley in California, USA,
home to the giant Kern River oil field, has one of
22. Burnett D, Fox WE and Theodori GL: “Overview of Texas 24. Brost DF: “Water Quality Monitoring at the Kern River the largest produced-water reuse projects. Each
A&M’s Program for the Beneficial Use of Oil Field Pro- Field,” http://www.gwpc.org/Meetings/PW2002/Papers/
duced Water,” http://www.gwpc.org/Meetings/PW2002/ Dale_Brost_PWC2002.pdf (accessed June 12, 2004). day, ChevronTexaco produces 100,000 bbl
Papers/David_Burnett_PWC2002.pdf (accessed 25. Verbeek P, Straccia J, Zwijnenberg H, Potter M and [15,900 m 3 ] of oil along with 860,000 bbl
May 26, 2004). Beek A: “Solar Dew®-The Prospect of Fresh Water in
23. Cogeneration is the simultaneous production of electric- the Desert,” paper SPE 78551, presented at the 10th [136,700 m3] of water from this mature field—a
ity and heat using a single fuel such as natural gas. The Abu Dhabi International Petroleum Exhibition and 90% water cut. Of this water, 79,000 bbl
heat produced from the electricity generating process is Conference, Abu Dhabi, UAE, October 13–16, 2002.
captured and utilized to produce steam. In the Kern River [12,600 m3] are reused for waterflooding and
field, injecting steam into oil-bearing reservoir rock
enhances oil production.

38 Oilfield Review

> Produced-water transformation. On a daily basis, more than 436,000 bbl [69,300 m3] of water are
produced in excess of that needed for field management or power production. This treated produced
water is received by the Cawelo Water District in holding ponds (top), then distributed through canals
and pipelines for irrigation (bottom).
other in-field operations; 345,000 bbl
[54,800 m3] are treated and supplied to several
electric power cogeneration facilities; and
436,000 bbl [69,300 m3] are sent to the Cawelo
Water District.23
Summer 2004
Treatment of produced water is often
required prior to agricultural use. However,
water from the Kern River field is of high quality
and contains minimal dissolved solids and met-
als. The very low amounts of hydrocarbon
present are removed prior to use. ChevronTexaco
maintains an intensive water-monitoring pro-
gram to assure the quality of its produced water.24
In the absence of irrigation, the San Joaquin
Valley might be a desolate, barren environment.
Today, the Valley produces a variety of crops
including grapes, citrus fruits, almonds and pis-
tachios. To supplement freshwater supplies and
maintain 46,000 acres [18,600 hectares] of
fertile, irrigated farmland, the Cawelo Water
District manages produced-water storage and
transmission facilities, distributing more than
400,000 bbl [63,600 m 3] of irrigation-quality
produced water daily (left).
Watering the Desert
In the deserts of Oman, fresh water is a rare
commodity. Efforts by Petroleum Development
Oman (PDO) focus on converting produced
water into a usable resource through a combina-
tion of biotreatment and biosaline agriculture.
Mature oil fields produce large volumes of
water. For example, PDO produces more than
200,000 m3 [53 million US gal] of water daily
from the Nimr oil field in southern Oman. At
costs as high as US$ 15.00/m3 [US$ 2.40/bbl], the
produced water is reinjected as waste into a
deep aquifer.25
PDO’s Greening the Desert project began in
the late 1990s. Experiments in south Oman
tested converting produced water into a usable
resource in a desert environment at a cost lower
than that of disposal. Ideally, access to this fresh
water could convert a dry, inhospitable environ-
ment into one of economic prosperity through
agriculture and other associated benefits. By
selecting special salt-tolerant crops and trees
for produced-water irrigation, growth can be
sustained even in desert environments.
Typical separation techniques remove oil dis-
persed in water to a concentration below
200 ppm. After primary oil-water separation, the
effluent has salinity that is only 25% that of sea-
water. This water irrigates a lined-bed planted
with halophytes, reed-type plants that grow well
in saline environments (previous page, bottom).
Farming operations have demonstrated that
natural processes in the reed beds degrade
residual oil, while the halophytes cleanse the
water of heavy metals. With most of the contami-
nants removed, only dissolved salts preclude the
water’s use for conventional agriculture and
other applications.
39

> Field trials of the Solar Dew process. The three 100-m [328-ft] long collectors (right) produce
between 0.8 and 1.5 m3 [211 and 396 gal] of fresh water per day.
Removing dissolved salts by common tech-
niques, such as RO, is not always cost-efficient.
A novel polymer engineered by Akzo Nobel
allowed Solar Dew B.V., working with Shell and
PDO, to develop an alternative membrane-based
water-purification concept. By taking advantage
of the arid climate and abundant sunlight, the
mostly oil-free produced water is passed through
special polymer tubes made by Solar Dew.
Energy from the sun heats the water inside the
tubes. Water molecules migrate to the outside of
the semipermeable polymer tube, leaving salts
and impurities concentrated within.
The purified water evaporates, then
condenses, on the underside of a rigid plate
covering the apparatus and is channeled to and
captured in holding tanks. Unlike more conven-
tional techniques, the process requires no
pressure or external energy other than that sup-
plied by the sun (above left).
The novel produced-water treatment pro-
cesses being developed by PDO exploit available
and renewable resources to produce usable
water from waste, potentially leading the way to
greener environments, habitability and
improved economic sustainability for many arid
oil-producing regions of the world.
40
Sandia National Laboratories in the USA is
one group working on the next generation of
desalination technology. The laboratory serves
as an engineering and research center for the
US Department of Energy (DOE). Over 8,000 sci-
entists and support personnel staff Sandia
Laboratories, headquartered in Albuquerque,
New Mexico.
In the past several years, Sandia has used its
expertise to support federal produced-water
reuse initiatives. In 2002, Sandia, working with
various federal agencies, developing a National
Desalination and Water Purification Technology
Roadmap.26 The roadmap outlines the water sup-
ply challenges facing the USA and suggests areas
of research and development that may lead to
technological solutions. The roadmap defines
critical objectives and metrics for technological
changes required before desalination and water-
reuse technologies can become affordable and
widely used. The treatment and utilization of
both traditional and CBM-produced waters are
specifically identified and addressed in the
roadmap because they have the potential to at
least partially address water-supply challenges
in many areas of the United States.
> Capturing ions with surface-modified zeolite
material. The molecular model shows the matrix
structure of a modified zeolite. The mesh-like
material can be engineered to form a selective ion
filter. Charge sites are designed for ion exchange
with specific cations and anions common to
produced water. Passing through a series of
zeolite filters, brackish fluids are deionized.
Key to this research is an ion-sequestration
process. Natural zeolite materials are modified
to create a matrix capable of capturing specific
cations and anions (above right). In initial test-
ing with brackish produced water containing
10,000 ppm TDS, surface-modified zeolite
materials sequestered a wide range of cations
and anions including sodium, calcium, chlorine,
carbonate and sulfate, reducing the TDS to
2,000 ppm.
In most desalination processes, salts and
other contaminants are removed and become
concentrated in a waste material. Because of its
unique structure, spent zeolite material may be
usable as construction material or in roadbeds,
thus turning another waste product into a
resource. Sandia is currently conducting scale-
up engineering and materials processing cost
studies to further evaluate the potential of this
promising material.
Researchers at Sandia continue to study
other types of desalination processes, including
direct-contact distillation, forward osmosis and
hydrate desalination techniques.
26. For more on the roadmap: http://www.usbr.gov/pmts/
water/desalroadmap.html (accessed June 22, 2004).
27. Hutson SS, Barber NL, Kenny JF, Linsey KS, Lumia DS
and Maupin MA: Estimated Use of Water in the United
States in 2000. Reston Virginia, USA: US Geological
Survey, Circular 1268 (2004).
Oilfield Review
Coal and Water Located in northwestern New Mexico, the The San Juan basin also has more than
The global community is highly reliant on electri- coal-fired Public Service Company of New 18,000 oil and gas wells, cumulatively producing
cal energy. Power plants that provide this Mexico (PNM) San Juan Generating Station more than 62,000 bbl [9,852 m3] of water daily
electricity rely on transmission lines, a fuel such (SJGS) is one of the state’s largest power gener- across a 3,200-square mile [8,287-km2] area. A
as natural gas or coal, and water for cooling. ating facilities, producing the majority of PNM’s study published in 2004 by the DOE in conjunc-
Ranked in 2000 just behind agriculture in water electricity and withdrawing a significant amount tion with PNM examined the potential use of
use, thermoelectric energy generation in the USA of fresh water from the San Juan basin produced water for cooling at the SJGS.
withdraws 195 billion gallons [738 million m3] of (bottom). While generating as much as 1,800 Engineers concluded that the natural gas
water daily from the ecosystem, most of which is megawatts of power, the facility withdraws transmission infrastructure in the form of aban-
fresh water (below).27 400,000 to 500,000 bbl [63,560 to 79,450 m3] of doned, or limited-use, pipelines is capable of
cooling water daily. All but 6% of this water delivering as much as 43,000 B/D [6,800 m3/d] of
evaporates to the environment. produced water to the power plant—8 to 11% of
the daily cooling intake at SJGS and representing
a 10- to 20-year supplemental cooling-water supply.
Although some adaptation of power plant
cooling systems may be required to use
Year 1950 1995* % change untreated conventional and CBM-produced
US population in millions 150.7 267.1 177% water, the benefits outweigh modification costs.
Freshwater withdrawals The SJGS represents only one case in which
Public supply 14 40.2 287%
governmental agencies and power generators
Irrigation 89 134.0 151% are working together to conserve a vital resource
Thermoelectric power use 40 190.0 475% by converting waste into a resource.
Other 37 43.8 118%
Total 180 408.0 227% Managing Future Resources
* Last complete data set Advances in water-management technologies
> Daily water withdrawals in the USA. From 1950 to 1995, the US population are allowing engineers to better analyze, opti-
nearly doubled. During the same time period, freshwater withdrawals from mize and manage water in the reservoir and at
the ecosystem grew at a faster rate, with withdrawals for thermoelectric the surface. At the same time, researchers
power increasing by almost fivefold. (Adapted from Hutson et al, reference 27.)
around the world are working to find alternative
uses for excess produced water.
Today, operators and services companies are
making great efforts to minimize the amount of
water produced to the surface. As regional cli-
matic paradigms shift, supply and demand may
increase the value of water produced by the E&P
industry. What was once a waste and liability
may tomorrow be a valuable resource in agricul-
ture, industrial applications and beyond. Even
though oil and water are said not to mix, the
future of each resource is becoming more
entwined. Managing our liquid resources, oil and
water alike, will play a crucial role in developing
the future. —DW

> Coal-fired power in New Mexico, USA. The San Juan Generating Station near Farmington is capable
of producing 1,800 megawatts of electrical power. Significant amounts of water are required to cool
and condense water used in the thermoelectric generating process. In the future, produced water
may supplement the daily cooling-water demand.

Summer 2004 41