BOOKS
The work of an influential but little-known
by Gilbert Ryle
F
P HILOSOPHICAL REMARKS ON THE OUN­
M
DATIONS OF ATHEMATICS, by Lud­
wig Wittgenstein. The Macmillan
Company ($5.75).
he late Ludwig Wittgenstein was
T a deep and influential philosopher
of science, yet outside the circle
of professional philosophers little is
known of the man and his work. This
book is the second collection of his pa­
pers to be published since his death.
The editors of S CIENTIFIC AMERICAN
have asked me to take this occasion, not
to review the book, which in any case is
too specialized for the general reader,
but briefly to describe who Wittgenstein
was and what he did.
First for the man.
He was born in 1 889 in Austria and
died in 195 1 in England. He was of
Jewish origin, though he was brought up
a Roman Catholic. He, with the rest of
his family, was intensely musical. His
father was a wealthy steel magnate. He
himself was tmined as an engineer, and
was engaged in aerodynamical re­
searches in England when in 1 9 1 1 and
1 9 1 2 he became perplexed about the
logical and philosophical foundations of
mathematics . Advised, apparently, by
the German mathematician Gottlob
Frege, he went to Cambridge to study
under the author of Principles of Mathe­
matics, Bertrand Russell.
During the First World War he
served in the Austrian army, and ended
up a prisoner-of-war in Italy. His ruck­
sack contained the manuscript of the
only book of his that was published dur­
ing his lifetime, the Tractatus logico­
philosophicus. This was published in
1922, with the German text faced by an
unreliable English translation. It con­
tains an introduction by Russell, but
Wittgenstein disapproved of this. A re­
vision of the translation should appear
fairly soon. Wittgenstein became pro­
fessor at Cambridge in 1939, succeeding
philosopher of science: Ludwig Wittgenstein
G. E . Moore, and he resigned in 1947.
He was a spellbinding and somewhat
terrifying person. He had unnervingly
piercing eyes. He never used hackneyed
expressions-not that he strove after
originality of diction, but he just could
not think in cliches. To his own regret,
he could not help dominating his asso­
ciates. He remorselessly excommuni­
cated persons of whom he disapproved.
He loathed being connected with
academic philosophers, and he avoided
academic chores. After 1929 he attend­
ed no conferences; he did no reviewing
for journals; only once did he attend a
philosophical meeting in Oxford; he was
inaccessible to visiting philosophers; he
read few, if any, of the philosophical
books and articles that came out during
his last 25 years.
He was like Socrates in rigidly sepa­
rating the philosopher from the sophist;
unlike Socrates in shunning the market
place; -like Socrates in striving to con­
vert his pupils; unlike Socrates in feeling
the need to conserve his genius by in­
sulation. He was hermit, ascetic, guru
and Fuhrer.
What of the philosopher?
He had no formal training in philoso­
phy. His ferments came from his own
insides. I do not know just what shape
his initial perplexities about mathema­
tics took. Anyhow he consulted Frege
and Russell, and studied their logico­
mathematical writings; the central prob­
lems of his Tractatus, though not the
same as theirs, were clearly reactions to
their doctrines.
Frege and Russell tried to show that
all pure mathematics derives from the
completely general truths of formal
logic, i.e., that these truths stand to
arithmetical truths as Euclid's axioms to
his theorems. But what was the point
of trying to demonstrate this continuity
between logic and arithmetic? Surely
the truths of mathematics are as well
established as anyone could demand, so
what is gained, except for tidiness, by
underpinning them with an ulterior
foundation?
At that time reflective mathemati-
© 1957 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC
cians were in trouble. Their science
seemed all limbs and no body. The very
vigor of these branches was generating
cross-purposes between them. The no­
tion of number itself seemed to take as
many shapes as there were branches of
the science of number. Mathematics felt
like a caravanserai, not a house.
Its external relations with other sci­
ences also were precarious. John Stuart
Mill had likened the truths of mathe­
matics to those of the natural sciences :
they are generalizations from experience,
susceptible of overthrow by unexpected
exceptions. It would be much more sur­
prising to find an exception to 7 + 5 12
=
than to find a black swan, but only much
more. Which is absurd. For another
thing, many thinkers, when asked, "Of
what entities is mathematics the sci­
ence?", were giving a psychological an­
swer. The physical world contains count­
less sorts of things, but it does not con­
tain numbers. There are nine planets,
and the earth has one moon. But you
cannot see 9 or 1. So, if numbers are not
physical things, what else is there for
them to be, save ideas in our minds or
thoughts or something of the sort? But
then arithmetic ought to make allow­
ances for the differences between what
goes on in lunatic and in sane minds; in
visualizers' and in nonvisualizers' minds,
and so on. Which is absurd.
Because mathematics needed, inter­
nally, coordination between its members
and, externally, autonomy from the in­
ductive sciences, especially psychology,
its affiliation to logic felt like a rescue
operation. Mathematics could be saved
from internal discord and from external
pressures by becoming part of the un­
challengeable science of logic.
But what sort of science is this?
What sort of truths are the truths of
logic? What sorts of information does
logic give us about what sorts of en­
tities? That is, I think, the central prob­
lem of Wittgenstein's Tractatus logico­
philosophicus.
The truths and falsehoods of the
natural sciences are truths and false­
hoods about what exists and happens in
251
PHILOSOPHICAL the world. Their truth or falsehood de­ the state of the weather is, but what-it­
pends upon what is the case with things is-being-represented-as-being. But what
LIBRARY BOOKS in the world. But the truths of logic give enables expressions to represent things
us no information about the world. as they are, or as they are not? What
o PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY by lV. Schroeder. Practical "Either it is raining or it is not raining" enables a complex of symbols to mean
Astronomy is not a textbook but a challenge in that every
one of its c.hapters induces the reader to do some practical
�rork. Starting with the construction of simple instruments,
exemplifies a logical truism, but it tells something vis d vis some actual mat­
!
It leads on o the prin.ciples of na,"igatlon, the determina­
us nothing about the weather. It is true ter of fact? Consider a simple map
tion of the times of eclipses and the positions of the planets
and the moon among the stars. It ends with advice on how
to construct a simple telescope' and 11sts hundreds of inter­ whatever the weather. "Socrates is mor­ representing, truly or falsely, the rela­
esting objects for obserration, providing sufficient material
.
for at least a whole year's work. VllmerOU8 grap118� chart8 tal" gives us important information or tive positions and distances of three
and ill1lstratio1l8. $6.00
misinformation about Socrates, but "If towns: A, B and C. The dot "A" is one
o GALACTIC NEBULAE AND INTERSTELLAR SPACE
by Jean Dulay. The most complete account available ot all men are mortal and Socrates is a inch higher on the page than the dot
the many di,crse phenomena, obsen'ational and theoretical.
im'oh'ed in the study at interstellar matter. Illustrated,
$15.00
man, then he is mortal" gives us an ap­ "B," and this is two inches higher than
plied logical truth, which is true whether the dot "C." This map might tell you
o AUTOMATION: ITS PURPOSE AND FUTURE by
Magnus PI ike. An exhaustive review ot the busincss. indus­
trial and social effects or the electronic revolution. $10.00
or not he is mortal. that the town A is north of B, which is
o ELECTRONIC COMPUTERS by T. E. Jval!. A non­
The truths of the natural sciences are north of C, and that B is 20 miles from
mathematical introduction to the mechanism and applica­
tion ot computers employing mlves and transistors. Both
factual truths, while those of logic are C and 10 from A. How does it do this?
digital and analogue computers are covered, the bulk ot the
book being devoted to describing their circuitry. while
purely formal. Their truth is neutral be­ By an understood code by which let­
their rapidly de,eloping applications in industry. commerce
and science are also outlined, In the final chapter, the fu­ tween the world as it is and as it might tered dots stand for towns, the top of the
ture e\'olutlon of computers is discussed. 40 draw'ing8 and
25 11/lOto8, $10,00 have been. This formal nature of logical page for north and an inch for 10 miles.
o ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM by J. Newton. A truths shows itself in another way. The It is the way in which the dots are situ­
detailed study of the phenomena and theory of electricity
and magnetism. The author deals with current electricity. truism "Either it is raining or it is not" ated on the page that says how the towns
electrostatics. magnetic properties of materials, magnetom­
etry and thermo-electricity. concluding with a survey sys­
tem ot units, electronic circuits and elementary atomic
remains true if for "raining" we substi­ are related to one another on the
!)hysics. The author is Senior Lecturer in Physics at
Northampton Polytechnic, London. h plates, 261 figures.
tute "snowing," "freezing" or anything ground. In this case the map, if true, is
$10.00
you please. For any proposition whatso­ in certain respects photographically like
IV. Amos the corresponding stretch of ground.
o TELEVISION ENGINEERING VOL. III by S.
and D, C. Birkinshaw. This work is intended to pro\'ide a ever, either it or its negative is true. The
cOIl1!)rehensire surrey of modern teledslon principles and
practice. on both the transmitting and receh'ing sides, This force of "either . . . , or not . . . " is indif­ But with a different code the same dots
is deroted main!;), to the fundamental principles of the cir­
cuits lIsed to generate such signals as sinusoidal. rectangu­ ferent to the material fillings of the might represent or misrepresent the
lar, sawtooth and parabolic wares. lUlls/rated. $15.00
clauses that it links, so long as the heights of three peaks, or the degrees be­
o THE ELECTRICAL PRODUCTION OF MUSIC by
Alan Douglas. A discussi6n of those musical instruments in clauses are the same. Hence truths of low boiling pOint of three saucepans.
which the tones are produced by electrical methods. their
attributes and physics, their existing limitations and future
research. Fully illustrated. $12.00
logic can be expressed most cleanly if Representation can, but need not, be
we algebraize away all material ele­ photographic. The notes played by the
o RADIO AIDS TO AIR NAVIGATION by J. H. H. Gro­
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capabilities and DI)eration of the different types of naviga­
ments like "Socrates," "mortal," and "it musician are not like the black marks on
tional radio equipment. including the most im!)ortant civil
systems in use in Europe and America. $6.00
is raining." This leaves, for example, his score, yet the arrangement of the
o MODERN FOUNDRY PRACTICE edited by E. D.
"For any p, either p or not-p." latter, by a complex code, may faithfully
Howard. • A practical guide for foundrymen and all inter­
ested in the trade. Each chapter Is written by a specialist.
Thus logic is unconcerned with the represent the arrangement of the former.
on such subjects as melting furnaces, molds. castings. metals
and allo;rs, core-making, etc. Illustrated. $10.00 actual truth or falSity of the factual state­ The "codes" which enable different
o THE CASTING OF STEEL hy lV. A, Newell. The pur­ ments which can be draped on its skele­ arrangements of words to represent dif­
pose of this book is to provide steel founders, designers, en­
gineers and metallurgical stUdents with a reliable and au­ tons. Nonetheless logic is essentially con­ ferent states of affairs are enormously
thoritath'e guide to all technical aspects of the production
of steel castings. Prof1t8ely illustrated. $35.00 cerned with the truth-or-falsity of these complicated, and they vary among dif­
o A HANDBOOK OF METALS by W • •4, Dawihl. An statements, since it has to work out how ferent tongues. In English, if you wish
abridged translation of "Handbuch Der Hartmetalle" deal­
ing with scientific principles of sintering and the technique the truth or falsity of one would follow, to say that Brutus killed Caesar you
of production of hard metals. llhls/raled. $10.00
if another were true or were false. That must put "Brutus" before the verb and
o HIGH-SPEED FLIGHT by E. Ower and J. L. Nayler.
This book explains the human and mechanical problems of Jack went up the hill would have to be "Caesar" after it. Not so in Latin, which
\'cry high-speed and supersonic Hight. and contains informa­
tion not hitherto released to the general public. /litts/.rated.
$10.00
true if Jack and Jill went up the hill; and achieves the same result by different
A
from the falsity of "Jack went up the word terminations. But without apply­
(jJE ����� T��� S� 'i� :���l�ti�: r �'i�:v o'r tte pr��r��
C S T

made in t h e study of plastic deformation a n d fracture b y

hill" would follow the falsity of "Jack ing some -syntactical rule or other you
26 eminent specialists. $12.00
and Jill went up the hill." cannot say anything, not even anything
o GLASS REINFORCED PLASTICS 2nd EDITION
edUed by PlIillip MQrgan. The l)redoliS edition of this
Well then, why should we not answer false. Symbol-structures can represent
book. the first to describe current practice in glass rein­
forced plastics. met with so much success that it has now the original problem by saying that the and misrepresent the structures of actual
been completely revised and brought up-to-date to keep
in line with this rapidly changing subject. $15.00 subject matter of logic consists of truths­ states of affairs because, though the rep­
o CAVITATION IN HYDRODYNAMICS. A critique of or-falsehoods, and that it has to discover resenting structure is not usually like
the progress being made in the field and detailed dlsclls­
sion of the physical aspects of cavitation phenomena. A in them their formal properties which the represented structure, they are still
symposium by 22 eminent scholars. $15.00
secure that one would be true if another structurally analogous to one another. A
o MODERN APPLIED PHOTOGRAPHY by G.A. J<mes.
A study of the manifold lIses of photography in technical were true? But then what sorts of en­ sentence has a meaning if its syntax
work in science and industry. emphasizing its value in re­
search and im'estigation as well as in simple recording.
All modern techniques are explained. Illustrated. $4.75
tities are truths-or-falsehoods, and what could be the structural analogue of an
sorts of properties are these formal actual state of affairs, even though, when
o DICTIONARY OF MATHEMATICS by U. H. Mc­
powell. A concise deftnit.h'e dictionary for students and the
general reader. Many illustrated examples. $2.75
properties? false, it actually has no such factual
When I say "It is raining," my words counterpart. Caesar did not kill Brutus,
MAIL THIS COUPON TODAY convey something to you. You under­ but "Caesar killed Brutus" makes sense,
------------------, stand them even though you do not since there is, so to speak, room in
I i\Iail to your fa\'orlte bookseller or directly to I know that it is raining. They make sense, reality, though unfilled room, for this
I PHI LO S O PH I C A L LIBRA RY, Publishers I even if it is not raining. So the actual uncommitted murder.
I �15:�East
I �tt����s$.�hecked. To expedite shipment I enclose
40lh Sireet. Desk 96. New York 16. N. Y.
I state of the weather is one thing; the Not all complexes of words or dots
I
I I truth-or-falsehood that it is raining is or gestures convey truths or falsehoods.
I r<AME............................................. I something else. In getting the meaning An unorganized jumble of words or dots
l ��R.::== .:::: ..::::..::::..:::.: =.== ..:::=
.
: ==.:::: J of my words, you are getting not what makes no sense. Even a sequence of

252

© 1957 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC

 7 new books selected for Scientific American readers
THE DAWN OF LIFE
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253

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254
words with an orthodox grammar can
make nonsense. Lewis Carroll concocted
many such sentences; for example, "The
Cheshire cat vanished leaving only her
grin behind her." Sometimes serious
thinkers inadvertently construct sense­
less sentences. Early geometricians seri­
ously held that Euclidean points are
round. A truth-or-falsehood, then, is an
organized complex of symbols represent­
ing, by analogy of structure, a counter­
part actual-or-possible state of affairs.
It is, for example, a sentence "in its pro­
jective relation to the world." To find
out whether it is actually true or actually
false we have to match it against its
should-be counterpart state of affairs in
the world.
Already we can see how Wittgenstein's
account of what it is to make sense, that
is, to be true-or-false, led to the famous
principle of verifiability, by which the
logical positivists ostracized as nonsensi­
cal the pronouncements of metaphysi­
cians, theologians and moralists. Obser­
vation and experiment are our ways of
matching the propositions of, say,
astronomy against the stellar facts.
Where observation and experiment are
excluded, our pretended truths-or-false­
hoods have no anchorage in facts and so
say nothing. They are nothing but dis­
guised gibberish.
What of the truths of logiC, the status
of which it had been Wittgenstein's main
task to fix? Are these also disguised gib­
berish? Or are they salved by being
classed with the most general truths of
natural science? Wittgenstein steers be­
tween this Scylla and this Charybdis.
An everyday "either-or" statement,
like "Either Jack climbed the hill or Jill
did," leaves it open which climbed the
hill; but it still rules out something that
might have been the case, namely, the
climbing of the hill by neither of them.
But if we ask of an "either-or" truism of
logiC, like " 'Either Jack climbed the hill
or he did not'; what is ruled out by this
assertion?", we see that the only thing
ruled out is Jack's neither climbing nor
not climbing the hill. And this is not
something which might have been but
just happens not to be the case. An
ordinary factual assertion gives the
"yes" or the "no" answer to a question;
it invites us to select the one and to for­
swear the other. But a truth of logic
gives us nothing forswearable to for­
swear, and so nothing selectable to se­
lect. It is factually empty, or "tauto­
logical."
It does not, however, follow that the
truths of logic are of no use simply be­
cause they are uninformative. They
serve to show up, by contrast with their
© 1957 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC
own absolute hospitality, the ways in
which ordinary statements convey, by
their relative shut-doored-ness, positive
information or misinformation.
The truths of logic, then, are not non­
sensical, though they are empty of infor­
mation or misinformation. Their busi­
ness is to show us, by evaporation of con­
tent, how om ordinary thoughts and as­
sertions are organized.
I pass over Wittgenstein's accounts of
the connections and differences between
logic and mathematics and between
logic and mechanics, important though
these are for showing up, by contrast,
the positive nature of logic. But I must
not pass over his account of the relations
between logic and philosophy. For, as
his title Tractatus logico-philosophicus
hints, his book was secondarily con­
cerned to fix the status of philosophy.
What sorts of things can philosophers
tell us-philosophers as distinct from
logicians and from scientists? Are the
truths of philosophy factual or formal
truths?
Earlier philosophers, if they tried at
all to place philosophy, had tended to
treat it either as psychology or as non­
empirical cosmology. But Russell and
others realized that philosophy was
neither a natural science nor yet a super­
natural science. Russell had emphasized
the close connection between logic and
philosophy by treating all seriously
philosophical questions as problems for
"logical analysis," as if logic supplied
the lines of latitude and longitude, while
philosophy had to fill in the geographi­
cal detail.
In partly the same way Wittgenstein,
having separated off all philosophical
from any scientific questions, describes
the positive function of philosophy as
"elucidatory." Its function is to disclose
that logical architecture of our ordinary
and scientific thoughts which our ver­
naculars conceal but which the designed
symbolism of logic would expose. But
now there breaks out a seemingly dis­
astrous difference between logic and
philosophy. The formulae of logic,
though they tell us nothing, still show
us, so to speak, at their limit the positive
force of the "ors," "ands," "ails" and so
forth on which our ordinary truths and
falsehoods are built. But philosophical
pronouncements are in a worse state,
since their elucidatory mission is to tell
us what sort of sense or nonsense be­
longs to the propositions of the sciences
and of daily life; and this is not the sort
of thing that can conceivably be told.
The meanings, that is, the truths or false­
hoods that we express, cannot then be
lifted out of their expressions. We can
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255

© 1957 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC

 talk sense, but we cannot talk sense
about the sense that we talk.
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Philosophical elucidation advances
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PLANETARY ASTRONOMY Wittgenstein left many manuscripts

which are now in process of being pub­
34 LANGUAGES BY
IN THE DEVELOPMENT
OF WESTERN THOUGHT lished. The first book to be so published "UlCJ'tt4Il.IUj
World'. Standard Conver.otional Method
was his Philosophical Investigations.
THOMAS S. KUHN
By This has the German text faced by a AT HOME - ABROAD
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Philosophical Investigations differs
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and recasting. Many of them mystify, h .
but the reader cannot get them out of

256

© 1957 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC

his head. In many stretches the Tracta­
tus presupposes familiarity with mathe­
maticallogic. The Philosophical Investi­
gations is more like a conversation. It is Engineers and Scientists:
a dialogue between the author and his
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SHO�LD YOU SWITCH J�

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Notoriously the Philosophical Investi­ I I1
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257

© 1957 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC


How m a n y of these
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN
articles do you
remember ?
• Godet's Proof, by Ernest Nagel and J ames
R. Newman ( J une, 1956 )
• Lewis Carroll : Mathem atician, by Warren
Weaver ( April, 1956 )
• In/ormation T heory and Melody, by Rich­
ard C . Pinkerton ( February, 1956 )
• T h e Monte Carlo Method, by D. D. M e ·
Cracken ( M ay, 1955 )
• Man Viewed as a Machine, by John G. Kem­
eny ( April, 1 955 )
• Game Th eory and D ecision, by Leonid H ur­
wicz ( February, 1955 )
• Linear Programming, by William Cooper
a n d Abraham C harnes ( August, 1954 )
• What is Probability ? by Rudolph Carnap
( September, 1953 )
• Logic Machines, by Martin Gardner course.
( March, 1953 )
• Input·Output Economics, by Wassily W .
Leontie£ ( O ctober, 1 951 )
• Red Dog, Blackjack, Poker, by R . Bellman
and D . Blackwell ( J anuary, 1951 )
• Symbolic Logic, by John E. Pfeiffer ( De­
cember, 1950 )
• Probability, by Warren Weaver ( Octo ber,
1950 )
• T h e Th eory of Games, by Oskar Morgen­
stern ( May, 1949 )
IF Y O U R SCORE IS O N E OR M O R E , you are
already acquainted to some extent with
what is sometimes termed modem mathemat­
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FOil T H OSE I N TERESTED in doing further
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I f you follow the Mathematical
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the complete discussion given o f
several o f t h e paradoxes recently
discussed in that column.
ON T H E OTHER H A N D, if your primary in­
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m u c h of i nterest in t h e a p plication of modern ing. A builder, for example, wants his
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258
© 1957 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC
stants were left functioning, now he
watches the functioning of the live ex­
pressions with which we say real things.
One thing that he quickly remarks is
this. Not all sayables are truths or false­
hoods. The logician attends only to as­
sertable premises and conclusions. But
not all saying is asserting. There is ques­
tioning, advising, entreating, ordering,
reassuring, rebuking, joking, warning,
commiserating, promlsmg, deploring,
praising, parodying. We talk a lot to
infants and dogs, but we do not make
statements to them.
In the Tmctatus we were told, in ef­
fect, that only those sentences made
positive sense which could be the
premises or conclusions of a bit of
natural science. In the Philosophical In­
vestigations the door is opened to any­
thing that anyone might say. We are
home, again , in the country of real dis­
The central notion of sense or mean­
ing has correspondingly thawed. In the
Tmctatus truths-or-falsehoods seemed
to be icicles of printer's ink; and their
coordination with states of affairs in the
real world resembled the congruence be­
tween the structures of two crystals. But
sentences are normally things said, not
written, by one person to another. So
now Wittgenstein constantly discusses
such questions as "How do children, in
real life, actually learn to understand this
or that expression?" and "How would we
teach a savage to count, or tell the I
time?". Talking sense and following the '
sense talked by others are things that we
have learned how to do ; so the notion of
sense comes out of the fog if we con­
stantly ask just what we must have
learned, and just how we must have
learned it in order to be able to com­
municate. M ost of Part I of the Philoso­
phical Investigations is concerned with
questions about sense, understanding,
grasping, mastering, interpreting, etc.
One device that Wittgenstein con­
stantly uses is that of exploring imagi­
nary situations in which people have to
think up and teach ways of communicat­
inarticulate assistant to pass him bricks
and slabs. How would he teach him to
distinguish between the orders "Brick"
and "Slab"? How would he teach him
to bring two or five bricks, that is, to
understand number-words? Wittgen­
stein calls these imaginary lingo-crea­
tions "language-games." This is unfor­
tunate because many readers think he
implies that talking is a sort of play­
ing. In fact the central idea behind the
label "language-game" is the notion of
rules. Learning to communicate is like
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learning to play chess or tennis in this
respect, that in both we have to master
written or unwritten rules-and there are
many different, but interlocking, sorts of
rules to be learned in both. The chess
player has had to learn what moves are
allowed, what moves in what situations
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mastered has replaced the notion of an
imposed structural congruence.
With his new notion of meaning,
Wittgenstein is in a position to say new
things about the philosopher's task of
meaning-elucidation. But in the main he
avoids trying to give any general ac­
count of what sort of task this is, or
why and when it needs to be done,
though there are passages in which he
does enigmatically give such an account.
Rather, especially in Part II of Phil­
osophical Investigations, he tries to dem­
onstrate in examples what philosophical
quandaries are like, how to get out of
them and what sideslips of thought get
us into them . He is trying to teach us
methods of operation, rather than give
us the answer to a question in an exam­
ination.
I do not think that anybody could
read the Philosophical Investigations
without feeling that its author had his
finger on the pulse of the activity of
philosophizing. We can doubt whether
his hinted diagnosis will do; not that he
has located, by touch, that peculiar and
important intellectual commotion-phil­
osophical puzzlement.

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259

© 1957 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC

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ume desoribes the prinoiples of bio-oxidation. the theory
of oxygen transfer. and the design and operation of typi­
came larger and the "picturesque eclec­ M ET A L L U R G I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
oal sewage and industrial waste treatmeni g�0 $?g �O
95 .
ticism" of Victorian architecture found T H E RMODYNAMICS
o ENGINEERING USES OF RUBBER edited by A. P.
McPherJon tend A. K. Klemin. R-e,eals why and how
rubber Is used in addition to what it is used for� and
a wide variety of expression. The con­ •
v ti ns servative tendency was reflected in semi­
shows how this information can help Bolve special prob­
lems or develop new ap lica o . Fully discusses p r od ­
uets, synthetics. compounding. properties. specifications, Se nd R e s u m e to
circular arches ; the progressive, in
l l n l
lnsveotion. structure, deSign, and applications. Inside or
C. D. M O R R I S

I FREE EXAMINATION 11
outside the lndustry. an nd sve sab e book. 1956. $ 1 2 . 50
towers. The towers, stumpy at first, soon
soared and had spires. Larg e terminal
Engi neeri n g P lace m ent

hotels were built, and vast vaulted iron

sheds. These were called "room-streets"
R E I N H OLD P U B L I S H I N G C O R P O R A T I O N
Dept. M- 1 5 5 , 4 3 0 P a r k Ave., Ne w Y o rk 2 2 , N. Y. because the glass of the vault allowed so
Please send me the l<
boo s checked above for 10 days'
much light to flood the interior "that the
FREE EXAMINATION. old distinction between a ceilinged
room and an unroofed street was dis­
NAME;
------;(';;P;;:I.=.::'.:-;PO""-In"") ------
solved." During the middle or sophisti­
cated phase of station development, be­
ADDRESS'_______________________________
tween 1 860 and 1 890, advances in rail­
SUBSIDIARY OF
road technology-bridges, tunnels, Pull­ CONTINENTAL MOTORS CORPORATION
man cars, diners, air brakes, rails with

260

© 1957 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC

a T -shaped cross section ( as opposed to I

the murderous strap-iron rails ) , higher

speeds, coal-burning locomotives-were
matched by lavishness in the station. At
Newcastle-on-Tyne the architect John
Dobson erected a grand structure with
pavilions, towers, arcades and a 600-
foot-long stone fa9ade interrupted by a
colossal pol'te-cochere. The Gare de l'Est
in Paris, designed by Fran90is Alexandre
Duquesney, had a head building con­
t.lin ing a great concourse or vestibule
hrough which passengers could move
back and forth at will from one platform
to another without interfering with train
operation and without crossing any because our work
tracks. This was a major step forward,
and the station was rightly acclaimed
stopped at the
the finest in the world. King's Cross in
London was a majestic affair with two
prototype . • •

1 05-foot-wide sheds and arched steel WE a re seeki n g p e o p l e c a p a b l e o f worki n g on

ribs. The sheds of the Gare St. Lazare advanced rese a rch w i th o u r o u tsta n d i n g staff wh i c h
were so beautiful that they became the h as deve l o p e d m a n y w i d e l y p u bl i c i z ed systems a n d
subject of numerous paintings by Monet. components i n c l u d i n g S I N S ( S h i p I n e r t i a l N aviga­
Zurich had a fine Bahnhof, as did Mu­
tion System ) a n d H I G GYRO S .
n2ch and Leipzig and Berlin. Other strik­
ing monuments rose in Turin, Rome, O U R s t a ff currently is extending t h e boundaries o f human
Genoa, Naples, Budapest. Towers began knowl edge in INERTIAL NAV I GATION - F I R E
to give way to domes. As they did so the CONTROL - M I SS I LE CONTROL & FLI GHT
fash'on in men's hats swung from stove­ C ONTROL.
pipes 10 howlers. At first U. S. stations
The M IT I N ST R U M E N TA­
were not so grand as their European TION LABORATORY with its
counterparts, but as the century drew to 750 employees is famous for OUT­
a close we began to catch up. New S TA N D I N G C O N T R I B U ­
York's first Grand Central was only the TIONS and LEADERS H I P in
beginning. The Pennsylvania Railroad the development o f high perform­
built huge sheds-in Jersey City, New ance control systems - using an
York, Philadelphia and Pittsburgh-that ultimate combination of gyroscopic
were 250 to 300 feet wide and 600 feet d ev i ces , servo- m e c h a n is m s a n d
electronic components.
long. This megalomania passed from the
sheds to the buildings. The present WORK with o u r n u c l e u s I SALARY & BEN EFITS
Grand Central Station in New York, for of acco m p l i s h e d E n g i n ee rs a n d I
Scie ntists in Adva nced Research a n d I l i beral s t a rt i n g s a l a ry , revi ews
all its leviathan dimensions, is one of the I
Develo p m e n t of
outstandingly successful stations of his­ with merit adjustments and
I N E RTIAL G U I DA N C E SYST EMS , I
tory. Its immense concourse, multiple GYROSCO P I C D E V I C ES , I p ro m o t i o n a l increases. Exce l l e n t
S E RVO-MECHAN I SMS , I
levels and ramps were brilliantly de­ ANALOG U E A N D I
p e n s i o n p l a n , free l i f e i n s u ra n c e ,
signed to handle trains and passengers DIGITAL COMPUTERS , I B l u e Cross Blue S � i e l d , 10 paid
TRANSISTO R C I RCU I T RY ,
...
efficiently. The nearby Pennsylvania I
OPTICAl INSTRUMENTATION . . . h o l i days a n d m a n y o t h e rs.
Station is even taller but perhaps not
' Iuite as opulent. Megalomania came to ENG I N EERS ­
an end about the time of the First World Electrical
War. A 20th-century style has evolved Mechanical
wh;ch has already passed through sev­ Aeronautical
eral phases characterized by "functional­ PHYS I C I STS • MATHEMATICIANS
ism," the elimination of "eclectic orna­
ment" and the free use of glass. Lately � Write: DR. C. S. DRA PER. Director
the severities of rectangle and prism

N.\ M . I . T.
have been alleviated, and the dome and

�
other curved forms have reappeared.
__ ;
Descriptions of buildings and architec­
tural criticism do not usually make easy INSTRUMENTAT ION
reading; even in this well-written book LABOR ATORY

( GRADUATE COURSES
there are sections in which the author is 68 Albany Street . Cambridge 39, Mass.
carried away by his own words. Never­
theless it is a rich and extraordinarily may be ta ken for credit whi le earning ful l pay • • .

interesting account of the buildings

26 1

© 1957 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC


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H E C
A
ISTORY OF NGLISH
L A
AW AND I TS DMINISTRATION
FHOM 1 750, by Leon Radzinowicz. The
M acmillan Company ( $45 ) . No brief
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glory of finding a good one." ) Dr. Rad­ University of Arizona graduate studies a v a i l a b l e
zinowicz, a fellow of Trinity College and u n d e r c o m p a n y fi n a n c e d evening courses.
director of the department of criminal
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has performed a heroic research. He has
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striving to establish order while preserv­
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to cultivate what might well be consid­
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of the human creature."
HE FUTUHE OF ARID LANDS, edited
T by Gilbert F. White. American As­
sociation for the Advancement of Sci­
ence ( $6.75 ) . In this symposium, based
on the International Arid Lands M eet­
ings held in New M exico in 1955, sci­
entists from 17 countries have con­
tributed their views on the state of
"man's struggle to make productive and
stable use of the world's arid lands." In
one section are discussed the variability
and predictability of water supply; in
sources; in a third, the prospects for addi­
tional water sources. E. G. Bowen's pa­
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the interesting hypotheSiS that the ar­
and its descent to the ground might turn
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tors controlling rain formation. Evident­
ly there is need for further study of
meteoric dust: it has already been
noticed that prominent meteor showers
precede by almost exactly 30 days the
world peaks in rainfall. In the final sec-
© 1957 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC
P
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tion of the book, on the adaptation of
plants and animals to arid conditions, P H Y S I C I STS
Knut Schmidt-Nielsen reports on his re­
E N G I N E E RS M A T H E M A T I C I A N S*
searches on the remarkable physiology
of the camel. This legendary creature can D eS i g n e rs
withstand an exceptional degree of de­
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against a top limit of 15 to 20 per cent
...lL .�
t- /'*. 'f;(.� t:

Important N EW Develo pments

in man and other mammals. It is quite A
' " ;:f
capable of going through the entire win­
ter without water; in fact, if a drink is

�
offered, the camel often refuses . The

create
camel does not store water in his hump,
for while the fat in the hump would
yield more than its weight in water,

PosiltotaS
the oxygen required to effect this con­
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and a consequent loss of water in the ex­
pired air greater than the gain from
oxidation of the fat. One of the factors
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AT M E L PAR
water economy is its woolly coat, by
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means of which water is retained and as
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is excluded. Another factor is that while

man maintains a temperature of 37 de­
grees centigrade regardless of the heat
( at a high cost in evaporated water ) , the
camel's temperature apparatus permits
a variation from 34' degrees C. in the
morning to 40.7 degrees in the after­
noon. Thus the camel stores heat during
the day and dissipates it in the cooler
night without undue loss of water. A
camel can drink 1 00 quarts of water in
10 minutes, but it never drinks more
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spite of dehydration, and it can eat al­
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which is made to wander or drift," em­
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float and drift with the flow of tides and
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lions of tiny animals with limited loco­
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structures and gorgeous or delicate col-

263

© 1957 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC

 oring. Alister C. Hardy, the distinguished
British marine biologist, has written this
SCH LIEREN and survey of the plankton as the first instal­
ment of a two-volume natural history of
major Southern California

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revealing many plant and animal struc­
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the movement of the waters, the sea­
sons in the sea, the baRling puzzle of the
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suggested for appropriate
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animals ( toward the surface of the sea
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as one learns from Hardy, there are
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The genus Oikopleum has developed a
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Oikopleura, a prudent creature, has a
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There are hundreds of such diversions in
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ISTAS IN ASTRONOMY, V O L . II, edited
V by Arthur Beer. Pergamon Press
($44). The imposing tribute paid to
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T H E N AT I O N A L C A S H R E G I S T E R C O M PA N Y

n�"
E LEC T R O N I C S D I V I S I O N
theories. Harold Urey contributes to this
1 401 East EI Seg u n d o B l v d .
volume an article on the origin and sig­ 1:7� Hawthorne, Cal if.
nificance of the moon's surface; Gerard

2 64

© 1957 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC

 P. Kuiper discusses the ongm of satel­
THE DEMAND AND lites; Sir E dward Appleton writes on the
ionosphere; Dirk Brouwer, on minor
SUPPLY OF planets; P. M. S. Blackett, on cosmic rays
and the sun; Robert StoneIey, on the
SCIENTIFIC thickness of the continents; Miroslav
Plavec, on meteor streams; John Jack­
PERSONNEL son, on the distances of the stars; Sydney
By DA VID M. BLANK and Chapman, on the morphology of geo­
magnetic storms ; Thomas Gold, on
GEORGE J. STIGLER cosmology; George Gamow, on the
Das the eno rmous increase in the theory of the expanding universe; Henry
n u m b e r o f engineers and scien­ Norris Russell, on eclipsing variables in
tists taken place in j us t a few complex the Clouds of M agellan; Sir Harold Spen­
i n d u s t r i e s o r throughout our i n d u s ­ cer Jones, on changes in the earth's rota­
t r i a l econ o m y ? W h a t h a s been the im­
pact of gove rnment fi n anced r e ­
tion; S. F. Singer, on research in the ATO M I CS
s e a rch ? How can we j u dge whe ther
upper atmosphere with rockets; H. C .
IN T E R N AT I O N At
the i n c r e a s e i n scientific personnel h a s
van d e Hulst, o n the zodiacal light;
k e p t pace with d e m a n d ? T h e authors R. van der Riet Woolley, on monochro­
h ave e x a m i n e d these questions in great
detail a n d h ave p roduced the fi rst
matic magnitudes; Tcheng M ao-Lin and
M. Block, on observational results on
does . . . and uses Statham
pressure transducers as part of the
book t h a t f u l ly a n alyzes the f actors variable stars with composite spectl'a; control instrumentation in the con­
i n fl uencing the d e m a n d a n d supply of Wilhelm Becker, on the Milky Way; struction of its nuclear reactors
s c i e n t i fi c pe rsonnel. The book chal­
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IRON, translated by Anneliese Griin­
United S t a t e s . 'l' e � t e d and succe s s f u l , t h e CQllipment i s p a r ­
ticular!:r a d a p t e d to the u s e of adults a t home w o r k i n g w i t h ­
haldt Sisco. The University of Chicago
o u t supervision. You can i m m e d i a t e l y i n c re a s e y o u r reading
s p e e d with them i f your reading h a b i t s a re correct b u t can Press ( $6 ) . In his introduction to tIlis
be accelerated w i t h prac t i s e .
l 'rIce o f k i t i n c l u d i n g r e a d I n g rate accelerator, b a s i c m a n u a l . admirable edition of a scientific classic,
t e c h n i c a l r e a d i n g m a n u a l , and d i s c u s s ion of hyperspeed
reading plus d i a g n o s t i c reading text with a n atys i s . $ 2 8 . 0 0 Cyril Stanley Smith points out that
The Gifted Child Reaumur's name is today widely known
F o r parents a n d teachers o f gifted children, t h i s b i - monthly
m a ga z i n e reviews res earch, new teaching methods, e q u i p ­
m e n t . book s , scholarshh) progra m s , and o u t s i d e o f school
only in connection with a thermometric
activities for i n t ellectually gifted and t a l ented children.
Including a n abstracting service on published l)ftl)ers, a n scale and a station on the Paris metro.
a n n u a l r e d e w of n e w e q u i p m e n t and b o o k s , plus a r t i c l e s f o r
parents on s e l e c t i o n of schoo l s , g a m e s , books, etc. , sources The fact is he made many solid contribu­
o f scholars h i J) s . Indispensable for the edllcaUonal a d m I n i s ­
trator. psycholog i s t . teacher or intelligent J) a rent who
w a n t s t h e best education for h i s child.
tions to science, though none was spec­
Annual s u b s cr i p t i o n. . . . . . . . .$ 5 . 0 0 tacular. Well-connected and financially
Courses in Science independent from birth, Reaumur lived
D e s i gned for home study, each courie com es com plete with
a " a riety of lI D - Lo - da t e t.e x t s , charts, and m a n u a}s � n t e -
a quiet bachelor's life dedicated to the
§L��d� d � � ��� �'!;; i����� �� ; ���� �� ��aJ;; ��� �!�Flti
' to u l & ; d l I
l' fO ' .t o ti l a · i
can begin at your level and go as far as you want. physical sciences, natural history and WHEN THE N E E D
� ���� � t�����
I f your problem i s how to fi n d the time 01' place to st.udy
(!d to know about or want to know about
e
s C
e
111 addition to t.he courses l isted below we can arrange in-
the improvement of several branches of IS T O KNOW • • • FOR SURE
g�����:�c � �fu !)I�·���n\t � ;� l j � ;;�;. 't�:g: technology. He firmly believed that
o��'
it
l·o
t h
f S
n
d
en
i l Ch
f r
now? You c�mnot afford to neglect your education fOI' lack
al
ca SPECIFY STATHAM
o f opnortunity wh en I t i s so ensy and inexpensive to study
knowledge should be shared, and in his Accelerometers
at. 110 m C' .
_ _ _ _ - - - -C O U P O N - - - - - - - _
P iease send me information aoout t.he courses
checked below. I underst.and that thc,'e i s no obl i gation
have r recording and publication of craftsmen's Pressure Transducers
on m y part t o f>nro l l , and that no one will c a l l ill C' .
techniques he anticipated the noble pro­
P H YS I CS
o Co l l ege PhysicS
C H E M ISTRY
0 H i gh Schoo l
Load Cells
o H i gh School Physics 0 Co l l ege gram of the Encyclopedists a generation
o T e l e v i s i o n (Cotor) 0 A n a l yt i c Catalog, complete with prices,
o Radar 0 Quantitative later. In his youth he became a full­
o N u c l ear Physics 0 Q u a l itat i v e available upon request.
o Const r u c t i o n of Robots 0 Organ i c fledged member of the Academie des
o Acoustics 0 PhYSical
o Computer O perat i o n 0 B i ochem i stry Sciences, and almost until the day of his
o D i g ital
o Analog
r-, Program m i n g
death in 1 757, aged 74, he devoted him­
B I O LO G Y
J H ig h Schoo l
M AT H E M AT I C S
0 T r i gonometry
PSY C H O L O G Y
o Normal
self assiduously to research in geology,
:J H u man Phys i o l ogy 0 A l gebra o Child
"l Zoo logy 0 So l i d Geometry o Abnormal physics, metallurgy, entomology, marine
o Botany 0 Calcu lus o Mental H y g i ene
n Genetics 0 Stat i s t i c s o A p t i t u d e Texts biology and other branches of knowl­
o N e u rophys i o l ogy 0 Progra m m i n g o R a p i d Read i n g L.AB O R ATO R I E S
n N u me r i c a l '\ n a l y s i s edge. In suburban Paris he had his own LOS AN G E L E S 64, CALI FOR N I A
O l i v e r G arfield C o . , D e pt. S A - P97
31 B r o ad way, New H aven, Connecticut laboratory, staffed with assistants and
N ame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Age . . . . . . O ccu pation
C i ty . .
. . ... . . ... . .. . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Zone . . . . . . . state . .
illustrators. He accumulated vast collec-

265

© 1957 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC

 tions of minerals, insects and other speci­
mens. He established a private aviary
and "menagerie." In the autumn he
would journey to his estate in the Ven­
dee, and there in the secluded village,
where his simple manor house still
stands, "old men tell stories of the
seigneur who had a taste for sorcery,
who chased insects and who observed
the stars." But a dilettante he was not,
despite the breadth of his interests. As a
biographer said of him, he was an
encyclopedic spirit outside the Encyclo­
pedist movement. He wrote some 75 pa­
pers which were published in the
AT
Mem oims of the Academy, and left be­
H A N FO R D hind 138 portfolios of unpublished notes
and papers. His history of insects fills
SAVA N N A H
six quarto volumes. He prepared, as
RIVER part of an Academy series, three vol­
N AVAL umes of description of existing arts and
R E S E A RC H LAB crafts . His close observation of the way
in which wasps build their nests from
I DA H O FA LLS vegetable fibers led him to proposals
LIVERMORE "which eventually gave rise to the wood­

C I N C I N N ATI
pulp paper industry." Reaumur's con­
cern with iron and steel, which is re­ Thi s
flected in the present treatise, began •

about 1 7 1 6 . His study was prompted

Sharp Definition and Clarity
True Color
Complete Reliability
No Operating Cost
Avai l a b l e w ith
these c u st o m featu res :
S E L E CT I V E M A G N I F I CATI O N
R E M OT E S C A N N I N G
largely from a "sense of duty to the
IS
state"; steel was important to France, yet
most of it had to be imported. A num­ our
ber of useful books recording metallurgi­
cal practice were published prior to
Reaumur's, but practice, as Smith says,
"World
was far ahead of theory. The begin­
We make electronic products, from
nings of modern science had not yet made
themselves felt in writings on metals. tiny transistors to continent·span.
Reaumur was the first to attempt to ning microwave systems, all part
combine a systematic study of the prop­ of the revolutionary world of com­
munications. We've had a finger
erties of materials with the art of metal­
lurgy; thus he may properly be consid­ in this pie for over forty years,
almost since the beginning of elec­
ered one of the first applied scientists­
tronics.
as we use the term. The treatise, for all
its serious shortcomings, was much more Our engineers are helping to make
than a cookbook. It dealt quantitatively everyone's life richer and our coun­
try safer. We value these men ;
with such matters as the amount of air
they make the future possible.
a blast furnace actually uses; the dif­
ference between the amount of heat I f you find tremendous satisfac­

( which depended on the amount of fuel tion and sense of achievement in

W I D E FOCUSI N G RANGE

burned ) and its intensity or tempera­ the field of design, development

" N O N - B R O W N I N G " O PT I CS
B U I LT - I N R A D I AT I O N S H I E L D ture; the conduction of heat by refrac­
I N T E G R A L C A M E R A A D A PT E R tory materials and metals ; the most effi­
M I C R O SC O P E R E LAY cient arrangement for combustion. One
B I N O C U LA R E Y E P I E C ES of the curious gaps in Reaumur's think­
U N D E R WAT E R D ES I G N S ing lay between his realization of the
importance of air in combustion and his
total failure to recognize that combus­
tion is a chemical union of air with fuel.
The memoirs discuss measurement of
the hardness of metals; describe the first
materials-testing machine for measuring
the deflection of a bar of heat-treated
steel before fracture; depict, as well as
could be done at the time, the micro­
structure of steel and the nature of frac-
o r applications engineering, we in­
vite you to investigate careers at
Federal.
For more in/ormation on career
opportunities at Federal, drop
a note to Mr. J. R. Connington,
Technical Placement Director.
Federal Telephone
and Radio (b,
A Division of International
Telephone & Telegraph Corp.
1 00 K ingsland Road, Clifton, N. J.

266

© 1957 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC

 now . . .
Academic Press Books= tures; and correctly appraise the relation
between wrought iron, steel and cast g reate r ca p a cita n ce
2 .ff'm/untant /!/wati6eo iron. Miss Sisco's translation is clear and per u n it vo l u m e
smooth; Smith's introduction and notes
The Proteins are invaluable; the plates are very hand­
somely reproduced. The entire volume
C H E M ISTRY, B I OLOGICAL ACTIVITY, & M ETHODS
Edited by H. NEURATH and K. BAILEY is a credit to the University of Chicago
Complete in 2 volumes, 4 parts Press, which for its several fine transla­
Vol. I, Part A, 1 9 5 3 , 548 pp., iIIus., $ 1 3 .00 tions and reprints of hard-to-get scien­
Vol. 1, Part B, 1 9 5 3 , 567 pp., iIlus., $ 1 3 .00 tific works deserves the gratitude of the
Vol. 2, Part A, 1 9 5 4 , 66 1 pp., iIIus., $ 1 4.00
Vol. 2, Part B, 1954, 756 pp., ill us., $ 1 6. 5 0 entire scholarly community.
Review : HNow that this impressive work is
S
completed, its full srature becomes quite evi­ p HILOSOPHY OF CIENCE, by Gustav

1 n e w OG=8MDVrg®
dent. It will undoubtedly remain standard the Bergmann. The University of Wis­
authority and reference on proteins and pro­
tein phenomena for many years to come. In consin Press ( $4.75 ) . P HILOSOPHY OF
few fields of modern science are workers for­ S
CIENCE, by Philipp G . Frank. Prentice­
tunate enough to have available one as good."
-Journal of Colloid Science Hall, Inc. ( $8 ) . These studies comple­ J wi re -ty pe
• TA N TA L U M
ment each other. Bergmann, a member

The Nucleic Acids

of the Vienna Circle and now professor

C H E M ISTRY AND BIOLOGY

of philosophy and psychology at the
State University of Iowa, had planned
f C A PA C I T O R S
Edited by E. CHARGAFF and J. N. DAVIDSON
Complete in 2 volumes
to write a book on the philosophy of
psychology. But as he got under way
1 SERIES TW : These n ew "Tan·O·
Mite®" subminiature, wire·type

, --
Vol. 1, 1 9 5 5 , 692 pp., illus., $ 1 6.80 Tantalum Capacitors have h i gh
Vol. 2, 1 9 5 5 , 576 pp., illus . , $ 1 4 . 5 0
he began to realize the ambitiousness of stability, long shelf l ife, and are
Review : " T h e t w o volumes together form a n his project and so, for the present at least, desi gned for 5 5 0 C to + 85 0 C.
indispensable reference unit; but they a r e more he has settled for a smaller volume They feature greater capacitance
than that, for they carry the added value of per unit volume, lower leakage
critical consideration and discussion by many
which represents the introductory chap­ current and power factor, and
leaders in this important field." -Science ter of the intended survey. His emphasis small capacitance drop at ex·
Detailed literature available upon request is on the logical analysis of language; on tremely low temperatures as com·
pared to other types of electrolyt.
� Acade m ic Press Inc.
the elucidation of such concepts as de­
duction, existence and number; on the
ics. Uitrasmall for low·voltage D C
transistori zed electronic equip·

'<!J
I I I Fifth Avenue, New York 3, N. Y.=
Publish ers philosophical bases of the contrasting
disciplines of physics and psychology. In
ment. , Available in six sub·minia·
ture sizes ; 0.1 to 60 mfd. over·all
capacitance range. Smallest size,
view of his philosophical leanings it is .075 x .156 inches ; largest, .125 x .5 0 0
r---------------- not surprising that his primary goal is to i n ches. F i v e s t o c k sizes i n a wide
range o f capacitances and volt·
I erect the frilmework of a language in a ges. Write for Bulletin 148.
I ARE YOU which everything that makes sense, from
I acorns to quantum mechanics to prob­
I
I KEEPING PACE ? lems in ideas, can be fully and sensibly
stated. Bergmann is an irritating writer.
He is mannered, sometimes chummy,
HAS SCI ENTIFIC PROGRESS MADE
and often makes Bat statements about

I i /1It:J�°r�J :�f1I��i 11,l1 1 111'

-1 1'lllll
things which are far from Bat. But irri­
tating means provocative as well as

= �:'23=1:: tj
exasperating, and this keen book will
IN YOUR TECHNICAL BACKGROUND ? undeniably jog and stimulate students
of philosophy. The strength of Philipp �Y[Lt��:�gi-..T!.. �t �
Frank's book is its lucid presentation of �.O'.L LUO n
OPTiO"&L -'"']J
'\1A � A G E,I1 E :\ 1" -
the philosophical underpinning of phys­
, -I S T R O P I I Y S I C S

-H-+>---I-+--I---l+-f+f-,
S C P E R S O :\ I C S
ical theories. His account of the foun­
dations of classical mechanics, of the
Newtonian system and of relativistic
lIE

T
D Iinch

.075
..
UNI NSULATED

( 5 /64 )
l l inches'

. 1 56 ( 5 /3 2 )
I NSULATED

.082
L

. 203
�CC L E A R S .075 ( 5 /64) . 1 87 (3/1 6) .082 . 234
ENERGY physics is Bowing and understandable. M .095 (3/32) . 1 72 1 1 1 /64 ) . 1 00 .21 8
He gets into the corners and makes ev­ A .095 13/32) . 250 1 1 /4 ) . 1 00 .31 2
B . 1 25 1 1 /8) .31 2 1 5 / 1 6) . 1 34 . 375
IF NOT. ISS B R I N G S Y O U T H ES E A N D M A N Y erything bright and coherent. But he is C .1 25 1 1 /8 ) . 500 I I /2) . 1 34 .562
OTHER U P . T O . DA T E CO U R S E S AT P R E ­ less successful in his general assessment
COL L E G E . COL L EG E . A N D POST GRAD UAT E
L EV E L . . . THROUGH ISS HOM E S T U D Y of different philosophies and in his dis­ R H E O STATS • R E S I S T O R S
M E T HO D S . cussion of cause and probability. The i1 R E L AY S ' T A P S W I T C H E S
C o n t r o c t I n s t r u c t i o n (l i s o a r r a n g e d for I n d u s t r y o r o t h e r separate themes no longer stand out dis­ TA N TA L U M C A PA C I T O R S
groups. W r i t e u s for d e t o i l s . L i s t c; o u n c s o f i nt e r e s t
a n d s i ze o f group. tinctly; everything is baked together as VA'R I A I L E T R A N S F O R M E R S
S E N D TODAY FOR F R E E I N FORMATION in a clam pie. Nevertheless this is a su­
CLIP A N D MAIL TO perior work from which the reader can BE R I G H T W I T H
I N ST I T U T E O F S CI E N T I FI C STUDI E S
derive much that is refreshing and infor­
OHMDflE ®
248 Ar l i ngton Avenue, E l mh u r st 3 , I l l i n o i s
NAME __________________________ mative; and one can admire Frank's in­
A D D R E SS ________________________ sistence on the point that scientific
L
'::T'::':'O� �T':T:" _ _ _ _ _
_ _-
theories of "high generality" cannot be
OHMITE MANUFACTURING COMPANY
r""-�,,.JL 3 6 0 9 H oward S t r e e t , S k o k i e , i l l i n o i s

267

© 1957 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC


f II 0 V E A R S O F P U B L I S H I N G
LOOKI NG F O R WA R D
Robert Fulton's marvelous steamboat
fired the minds of forward-looking men
when she churned up the H u d son
in 1807.
To the H o u s e of Wiley, founded that same year,
the Clermont's voyage opened up
a new and exciting frontier i n publishi ng.
If America were to exploit her new industrial age,
pioneering books would have to be provided.
It is this demand - greater in 1957 than ever -
that Wiley has been meeting successfully
for one hundred and fifty years .
Today, the Clermont's atom-powered granddaughter
slips through the seas .
the scientific community continues to expand .
and, planning for the future,
John Wiley & Sons looks forward to publishing
an ever-greater number of distingu ished books
i n all areas of pure and applied science.
JOH N W I L EY & SONS, I n c.
4 4 0 F o u r t h A v e nu e , New York 1 6, N . Y .
268
© 1957 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC
simply judged within the sciences them­
selves-as to whether they conform to
experience, facilitate prediction and the
like-but must meet the test of social
good. The function of the philosophy of
science, in his view, is not only to estab­
lish criteria of "SimpliCity," "elegance"
and "truth" ( i.e., agreement with obser­
vation ) but also to promote a coherent
system in which science will contribute
to the understanding of human behavior
and to human welfare.
Notes
F
THE P HYSIOLOGY OF ISHES, V OL. I :
M
ETABOLISM, edited by Margaret E .
Brown. Academic Press Inc. ( $ 12 ) . The
first of two volumes containing reviews
of the present state of knowledge of fish
physiology. The papers cover respira­
tion, the cardiovascular and digestive
systems, endocrine organs, reproduction,
growth studies, biochemical composition
of fish.
C N G
THE LIMATE ROUND, by
EAR THE
Rudolf Geiger. Harvard University
Press ( $6 ) . The second edition of this
standard work on microclimatology has
been thoroughly revised and brought up
to date.
G L
A UIDE TO THE ITERATURE OF
C
HEMISTRY, by E. J. Crane, Austin M .
Patterson and Eleanor B . M arr. John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. ( $9.50 ) . The second
edition of a comprehensive literature­
finder for chemists. It contains informa­
tion on books, periodicals, patents, gov­
ernment publications, trade literature,
indexes, libraries and other sources.
M
THE P RINCIPLES OF ECHANICS, by
Heinrich Hertz. Translated by D . E .
Jones and J . T. Walley. Dover Publica­
tions, Inc. ( $3.50 ) . This classic work
of physical thought, to which Hertz de­
voted the last three years of his life, pre­
sents the principles of mechanics "in a
new form," which is to say that a much
greater emphasis than in any earlier
writings on the subject is placed on de­
ducing theories from a set of clearly
defined axioms of motion. The Dover
reprint of the 1 899 translation includes
a new introductory essay by Robert S .
Cohen and a preface written shortly
after Hertz's death by his teacher, the
great Hermann von Helmholtz.
C
AERODYNAMIC OMPONENTS OF AIR­
H S F
CRAFT AT IGH PEEDS, edited by A. .
Donovan and H. R. Lawrence. Prince­
ton University Press ( $ 17.50 ) . Volume
V I I in the comprehensive series "High-
 TO
NOURISH
AN IDE A
Dr. Peter J. W. Debye, professor emeritus of chemistry at C ornell
HE
T
University, and Dr. Lloyd P. Smith, President, Avco Research FULL IMPACT of science on man and his economy is j ust
and Advanced Development Division, discuss the Avco research beginning to be realized. Past achievements, translated into
program prior to Dr. Debye's recent colloquium at the Division's
today's technology, are transforming the world.
Lawrence, Massachusetts, headquarters.

In the dynamic environment man has created, his civilization

cannot stand still. He is committed to move forward to new
scientific breakthroughs that lay the foundation for a strong
economy based on advanced technical achievement .

Creative scientists a n d engineers, working together in an intel­

lectual environment where ideas can be freely expressed and
freely explored, will shape this new economy. A vco is creating
the environment in which uninhibited thinking men can search
out new problems and work toward their solution . A new research
center will provide a physical environment, facilities and contact
with stimulating minds to nourish the best i deas that each man
contributes.

Some of America's foremost scientists and engineers are at work

here. Consultants, like Dr. Peter J . W. Debye, contribute through
collo quia and the stimulation of the inter-disciplinary currents
imperative to high-level scientific performance.
Pictured above is our new Research Center now under construc­
tion in Wilmington , MassachusettR. Scheduled for completion in A vco's scientific approach to urgent national defense problems
early 1 9 5 8 , this ultramodern la boratory will house the scientific has already brought advances in high-altitude, high-speed flight,
and technical staff of the A vco Research and Ad vanced Develop­
ment Division.
missile re-entry, aerodynamics, heat transfer, materials and other
areas. Practical problems have been solved ; scientific horizons
Avco's new research division now offers unusual and ex­ have been widened. But the greatest challenge at Avco lies with
citing career opportunities for exceptionally qualified and work yet to b e done.
forward-looking scientists and engineers in such fields as :
Science:
Aerodynamics . E lectro nics • Mathematics • Meta llurgy
Physical Chemistry . Physics • Thermodynamics

vc:o
E n g ineering:
Aero n a utical • A p plied Mechanics . Chemical • Electric a l
H e a t Transfer ' M e c h a n i c a l • Reliabi lity . Flight Test

Write to Dr. R . W. Johnston, Scientific and Technical Relations,

Avco Research and Advanced Development Division,
20 South Union Street, Lawrence, Massachusetts.

© 1957 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC

 o®
Speed Aerodyn amics and Jet Propul­
sion," intended to present "the aerody­
namic knowledge that is of most direct
JOSIAH MACY, JR. FOU N DATIO N interest to the designers of high-speed
aircraft."

G T
ALGEBRAIC EOMETRY A N D OPOL­
POLYSACCH ARIDES I N BIOLOCY OGY, edited by R. H. Fox, D. C. Spen­
cer and A. W . Tucker. Princeton
Edited by Georg f. Springer, W illiam Pepper Laboratory of Clinical Medicine,
Hospital of the -University of Pennsylvania
University Press ( $7.50 ) . The 25 pa­
pers composing this volume were con­
tributed to celebrate the 70th birthday
Transactions of the First Conference of Professor S. Lefschetz, for many
This sti m u lating new book is the fi rst in a series of five years on the faculty of Princeton Uni­
versity and a leading investigator in the
nea rly verbatim re ports of a m ulti-discipline co nfere nce
field of algebraic geometry.
g ro u p dealing with the many biological aspects of poly­
saccharides. The discussions a re prima rily concerned with L
UDWIG
S
CHLAFLI, 1 8 14- 1 895, C OL ­

M W
problems of nomenclature, pro blems of classificati o n , bac­ LECTED ATHEMATICAL ORKS. Birk­
terial polysa ccharides, a n d blood group su bsta nces. $5.00 hauser Verlag ( 172 francs ) . Schliiffi was
a distinguished 1 9th-century Swiss
mathematician who contributed to al­
Transactions of the Second Conference
gebra, geometry, topology and analysis.
The report of the second meeting of this g ro u p dea ls During his lifetime his work was not as
fully appreciated as it deserved, al­
with sialic acid a nd related com pounds, the intera ction
though the famous British mathema­
of polysa ccharides and vi ruses, and pyrogens. ITo be ready tician Arthur Cayley so much admired
in October.) $5.00 some of his papers that he translated
them into English to introduce them to
J O S I A H M A C Y , J R. FO U N DATI O N P U B L I CATI O N S
a wider audience. Schliiffi's complete
1 6 WEST 46th STREET, N E W Y O R K 3 6 , N E W Y O R K
works are now presented in German in
Please make checks payable fo Josiah Macy, J r . foundation this elegant, handsomely printed edition,
which includes his celebrated paper on
the theory of n-dimensional spaces.
The most importan t book Interested in Astronomy?
M M
on rockets ever written ... YOU N EE D T H E S E
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edited by Edwin F. Becken­
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Since its publication in 1 9 4 4 , this invaluable
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M A T H E M A T I CS , e d . W . Y o u n g , Foundations o f geom ­

I
(' h a n i c s , w h i t e d w a rfs , s t e l l a r energy e t c . " R e aches t h e e t ry , non - E u cl i d e a n geom e t ry . t h eory of n u m b e r s , c a l · T I 98 T 240 S244
5 1 64 S I 68 S I 93
h i g h e s t I m ' e l of scient ific m e r i t . " BI'LL. A )' 1 . :\ J ATH. c u i l l s . f o r persons who ha\'e forgotten o r ne\'er fi n i s hed

I
SOCIETY, 3 3 figures. 500 p p . 5 % x 8 . P a peruound $2.75 T350 S36 1
element ary college math. 432 PP. P a p erbound $ 2 , 0 0 S289 T295 T335 S346

S244. I N T R O D U C T I O N T O R E L A X A T I O N M E T H O D S .
F . S h a w . 1 s t inexpensive e d i t ion. C l e a r , modern t re a t ­
S 1 09 . V E C T O R A N D T E N S O R A N A L Y S I S . G . E . H ay. I S366 T370 T37 1 S377 T384 T394
S t a rt w i t h simple definitions, finish understanding vectors
I T400 S40 1 . 3 HI2 S4 1 3 T4 1 6 H25
m en t of a p p rox i m a t i o n m e t h o d s i n s o l u t i o n o f l i n e a r a n d a n d tensors. : W 1 11P, I:l aperbd. $ 1 . 7 5
part i a l d i ff e r e n t i a l e Q u a t i o n s of 2nd, h i g h e r o r d e r i n a U
f i e l d s . " V a l u a b l e , " HE V. O F S C I E X T I F I C I X S T R U ­ S 1 68 . N U M E R I C A L S O L U T I O N S O F D I F F E R E N T I A L I X773
)'l E X 'l' S . " Exeellent introdu ction , " PJIY S IKA LI S C HE E Q U A T I O N S , Levy & B a g gott. 'LneQualled t i m e sa\·er. Sati sfact i on g uaranteed . A l l books r e t u rna b l e w i t h i n
l:: LAET'l'ER. 253 d i a g r a m s . 72 t a b l e s . 400 pp. 5 % x 8. G r a p h i c . numerical m e t h o d s . " S hould b e i n hands o f a l l I 1 0 d ays f o r f u l l and i m m ed i ate c a shh refund i f t h e y
i n research i n applied m a t h , " X A T C H E . 2 4 6 PI>.
l �e �n� i�a� �i :..a � � p� � :: � ._ _ _ _
l'aperbound $ 2 . 4 5 t e
A l l b o o k s 5 % x 8 " u n l e s s otherwise i n d i c a t e d . l'aperlJd. $ 1 . 7 5

27 1

© 1957 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC

 FICo Viewfi n der Computing Tim er FICo Exh a u s l Te mp e ratu re I n d ica­
Computer Syslem - i n d icator a n d - controls up to five aerial c a m e r a s lor - ra n g e 200 ° C to 1 000 ° C w i t h
control a re shown. C a n b e provided s i m u l t a n eously. H i g h l y c o mpa ct. ± S o a cc u ra cy. 6" l o n g x 2" diem.
with polar capabi l i t i e s .

FI Co W i n d M e m o ry Com pu te r - a n FICo Magn etic Variation C om p u t e r FICo A S N - 6 P r e se n t Position Com­

a i d w h e n navigational syste m s oper. - precludes n e e d for m a n u al co r r e c· puter System - i n d icator and can·
ate with Dopp l e r. tion in a era nav i ga ti on. trol are shown.

No missile system s can be

i l l ustrated because of the
level of classificatio n . FICo
i s doing exte n s ive work in
ABMA ' s Red sto n e and J u pi·
ter progra ms, i n t h e Navy ' s
Tartar a n d T e r r i e r p rograms, FICo Test Set - for flight line check FICo A nalog-to-D igital Converter
out of navigational syst e m . Self· - for airborn e s ens i n g system for
a n d i n othe r p roj ects .
contained a n d portable. Iraffic conlrol.

272

© 1957 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC

Ford I nstru m e nt p rovid es th e systems
Navigational Systems and Computers Exhaust Temperature Indicators

Cruise Con trols Sensing Systems for Traffic Control

Guidance Systems Drone Controls

Missi l e Launching and Control Computers Computing Timers for Aerial Photography

Computer and Control Components PloHing Equipment

FORD I N STRUMENT CO.

D I V I S I O N O F SPERRY RAND CORPORATION
3 1 -1 0 Thomson Aven ue, Long Island City 1, New York.
Beverly H i l ls, Cal if. Dayton, Ohio

For information on f i Co's aero and missile p roduds and capabilities, w rite to fi Co's A I R B O R N E E Q U I P M E N T DEPARTMENT.

273

© 1957 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC