Contents vi

15.1 Pressure Solution................................................................................................................... 114

15.1.1 Observational Aspects .............................................................................................. 114
15.1.2 Environmental constrains on Pressure Solution ....................................................... 117
15.2 Mechanisms of Crystal Plasticity ........................................................................................... 117
15.2.1 Point Defects............................................................................................................. 118
15.2.2 Diffusion .................................................................................................................... 118
15.2.3 Planar Defects........................................................................................................... 119

Lecture 16—Deformation Mechanisms IV: Dislocations ....................................... 1 2 1

16.1 Basic Concepts and Terms.................................................................................................... 121
16.2 Dislocation (“Translation”) Glide ............................................................................................ 123
16.3 Dislocations and Strain Hardening......................................................................................... 123
16.4 Dislocation Glide and Climb................................................................................................... 125
16.5 Review of Deformation Mechanisms ..................................................................................... 126

Lecture 17—Flow Laws & State of Stress in the Lithosphere ................................ 1 2 7

17.1 Power Law Creep .................................................................................................................. 127
17.2 Diffusion Creep ...................................................................................................................... 129
17.3 Deformation Maps.................................................................................................................. 129
17.4 State of Stress in the Lithosphere.......................................................................................... 130

Lecture 18—Joints & Veins ..................................................................................1 3 3

18.1 Faults and Joints as Cracks................................................................................................... 133
18.2 Joints ..................................................................................................................................... 133
18.2.1 Terminology .............................................................................................................. 134
18.2.2 Surface morphology of the joint face:........................................................................ 135
18.2.3 Special Types of Joints and Joint-related Features .................................................. 136
18.2.4 Maximum Depth of True Tensile Joints..................................................................... 136
18.3 Veins ..................................................................................................................................... 137
18.3.1 Fibrous Veins in Structural Analysis.......................................................................... 138
18.3.2 En Echelon Sigmoidal Veins ..................................................................................... 139
18.4 Relationship of Joints and Veins to other Structures ............................................................. 140

Lecture 19—Faults I: Basic Terminology ............................................................. 1 4 1

19.1 Descriptive Fault Geometry ................................................................................................... 141

Economic Geo. _ JH
Contents vii

19.2 Apparent and Real Displacement .......................................................................................... 142

19.3 Basic Fault Types .................................................................................................................. 143
19.3.1 Dip Slip...................................................................................................................... 143
19.3.2 Strike-Slip.................................................................................................................. 143
19.3.3 Rotational fault .......................................................................................................... 144
19.4 Fault Rocks ............................................................................................................................ 144
19.4.1 Sibson’s Classification .............................................................................................. 144
19.4.2 The Mylonite Controversy ......................................................................................... 146

Lecture 20—Faults II: Slip Sense & Surface Effects............................................. 1 4 7

20.1 Surface Effects of Faulting..................................................................................................... 147
20.1.1 Emergent Faults........................................................................................................ 147
20.1.2 Blind Faults ............................................................................................................... 149
20.2 How a Fault Starts: Riedel Shears........................................................................................ 149
20.2.1 Pre-rupture Structures............................................................................................... 150
20.2.2 Rupture & Post-Rupture Structures .......................................................................... 151
20.3 Determination of Sense of Slip .............................................................................................. 151

Lecture 21—Faults III: Dynamics & Kinematics.................................................... 1 5 7

21.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 157
21.2 Anderson’s Theory of Faulting............................................................................................... 158
21.3 Strain from Fault Populations................................................................................................. 161
21.3.1 Sense of Shear ......................................................................................................... 161
21.3.2 Kinematic Analysis of Fault Populations ................................................................... 161
21.3.3 The P & T Dihedra .................................................................................................... 162
21.4 Stress From Fault Populations1............................................................................................. 164
21.4.1 Assumptions.............................................................................................................. 164
21.4.2 Coordinate Systems & Geometric Basis ................................................................... 165
21.4.3 Inversion Of Fault Data For Stress............................................................................ 167
21.5 Scaling Laws for Fault Populations........................................................................................ 169

Lecture 22—Faults IV: Mechanics of Thrust Faults..............................................1 7 0

22.1 The Paradox of Low-angle Thrust Faults.............................................................................. 170
22.2 Hubbert & Rubey Analysis..................................................................................................... 170
22.3 Alternative Solutions.............................................................................................................. 174

Economic Geo. _ JH
Contents viii

Lecture 23—Folds I: Geometry ............................................................................ 1 7 8

23.1 Two-dimensional Fold Terminology....................................................................................... 178
23.2 Geometric Description of Folds.............................................................................................. 180
23.2.1 Two-dimensional (Profile) View:................................................................................ 180
23.2.2 Three-dimensional View:........................................................................................... 181
23.3 Fold Names Based on Orientation......................................................................................... 182
23.4 Fold Tightness ....................................................................................................................... 183

Lecture 24 — Folds II: Geometry & Kinematics.................................................... 1 8 4

24.1 Fold Shapes........................................................................................................................... 184
24.2 Classification Based on Shapes of Folded Layers................................................................. 185
24.3 Geometric-kinematic Classification:....................................................................................... 186
24.3.1 Cylindrical Folds........................................................................................................ 186
24.3.2 Non-Cylindrical Folds................................................................................................ 188
24.4 Summary Outline ................................................................................................................... 189
24.5 Superposed Folds.................................................................................................................. 189

Lecture 25—Folds III: Kinematics........................................................................1 9 1

25.1 Overview................................................................................................................................ 191
25.2 Gaussian Curvature ............................................................................................................... 191
25.3 Buckling ................................................................................................................................. 192
25.4 Shear Parallel to Layers......................................................................................................... 193
25.4.1 Kink folds................................................................................................................... 195
25.4.2 Simple Shear during flexural slip............................................................................... 196
25.5 Shear Oblique To Layers....................................................................................................... 196
25.6 Pure Shear Passive Flow....................................................................................................... 197

Lecture 26—Folds IV: Dynamics ..........................................................................1 9 8

26.1 Basic Aspects ........................................................................................................................ 199
26.2 Common Rock Types Ranked According to “Competence” .................................................. 199
26.3 Theoretical Analyses of Folding............................................................................................. 199
26.3.1 Nucleation of Folds ................................................................................................... 200
26.3.2 Growth of Folds......................................................................................................... 201
26.3.3 Results for Kink Folds ............................................................................................... 202

Economic Geo. _ JH
Contents ix

Lecture 27—Linear Minor Structures.................................................................... 2 0 3

27.1 Introduction to Minor Structures............................................................................................. 203
27.2 Lineations............................................................................................................................... 203
27.2.1 Mineral Lineations..................................................................................................... 203
27.2.2 Deformed Detrital Grains (and related features)....................................................... 204
27.2.3 Rods and Mullions..................................................................................................... 205
27.3 Boudins.................................................................................................................................. 205
27.4 Lineations Due to Intersecting Foliations ............................................................................... 206

Lecture 28—Planar Minor Structures I.................................................................. 2 0 7

28.1 Introduction to Foliations........................................................................................................ 207
28.2 Cleavage................................................................................................................................ 207
28.2.1 Cleavage and Folds .................................................................................................. 208
28.3 Cleavage Terminology........................................................................................................... 209
28.3.1 Problems with Cleavage Terminology....................................................................... 210
28.3.2 Descriptive Terms ..................................................................................................... 210
28.4 Domainal Nature of Cleavage................................................................................................ 211
28.4.1 Scale of Typical Cleavage Domains ......................................................................... 212

Lecture 29—Planar Minor Structures II: Cleavage & Strain .................................. 2 1 3

29.1 Processes of Foliation Development ..................................................................................... 213
29.2 Rotation of Grains.................................................................................................................. 213
29.2.1 March model ............................................................................................................. 214
29.2.2 Jeffery Model............................................................................................................. 214
29.2.3 A Special Case of Mechanical Grain Rotation .......................................................... 214
29.3 Pressure Solution and Cleavage ........................................................................................... 215
29.4 Crenulation Cleavage ............................................................................................................ 216
29.5 Cleavage and Strain .............................................................................................................. 217

Lecture 30—Shear Zones & Transposition............................................................ 2 1 9

30.1 Shear Zone Foliations and Sense of Shear........................................................................... 219
30.1.1 S-C Fabrics ............................................................................................................... 219
30.1.2 Mica “Fish” in Type II S-C Fabrics............................................................................. 219
30.1.3 Fractured and Rotated Mineral Grains...................................................................... 220

Economic Geo. _ JH
Contents x

30.1.4 Asymmetric Porphyroclasts....................................................................................... 220

30.2 Use of Foliation to Determine Displacement in a Shear Zone ............................................... 221
30.3 Transposition of Foliations..................................................................................................... 222

Lecture 31—Thrust Systems I: Overview & Tectonic Setting................................ 2 2 5

31.1 Basic Thrust System Terminology ......................................................................................... 225
31.2 Tectonic Setting of Thin-skinned Fold & Thrust Belts............................................................ 226
31.2.1 Andean Type:............................................................................................................ 227
31.2.2 Himalayan Type: ....................................................................................................... 227
31.3 Basic Characteristics of Fold-thrust Belts.............................................................................. 228
31.4 Relative and Absolute Timing in Fold-thrust Belts................................................................. 229
31.5 Foreland Basins..................................................................................................................... 229

Lecture 32—Thrust Systems II: Basic Geometries ............................................... 2 3 1

32.1 Dahlstrom’s Rules and the Ramp-flat (Rich Model) Geometry.............................................. 231
32.2 Assumptions of the Basic Rules ............................................................................................ 232
32.3 Types of Folds in Thrust Belts ............................................................................................... 233
32.4 Geometries with Multiple Thrusts........................................................................................... 234
32.4.1 Folded thrusts ........................................................................................................... 234
32.4.2 Duplexes ................................................................................................................... 235
32.4.3 Imbrication................................................................................................................. 237
32.4.4 Triangle Zones .......................................................................................................... 237

Lecture 33—Thrust Systems III: Thick-Skinned Faulting......................................2 3 9

33.1 Plate-tectonic Setting............................................................................................................. 239
33.2 Basic Characteristics ............................................................................................................. 240
33.3 Cross-sectional Geometry ..................................................................................................... 240
“Upthrust” Hypothesis ........................................................................................................... 240
33.3.1 Overthrust Hypothesis............................................................................................... 240
33.3.2 Deep Crustal Geometry ............................................................................................ 241
33.4 Folding in Thick-skinned Provinces ....................................................................................... 242
33.4.1 Subsidiary Structures................................................................................................ 242
33.5 Late Stage Collapse of Uplifts................................................................................................ 243
33.6 Regional Mechanics............................................................................................................... 244

Economic Geo. _ JH
Contents xi

Lecture 34—Extensional Systems I ...................................................................... 2 4 5

34.1 Basic Categories of Extensional Structures........................................................................... 245
34.2 Gravity Slides......................................................................................................................... 245
34.2.1 The Heart Mountain Fault ......................................................................................... 246
34.2.2 Subaqueous Slides ................................................................................................... 246
34.3 Growth Faulting on a Subsiding Passive Margin ................................................................... 247
34.4 Tectonic Rift Provinces .......................................................................................................... 248
34.4.1 Oceanic Spreading Centers...................................................................................... 248
34.4.2 Introduction to Intracontinental Rift Provinces........................................................... 249

Lecture 35—Extensional Systems II .....................................................................2 5 0

35.1 Basic Categories of Extensional Structures........................................................................... 250
35.2 Rotated Planar Faults ............................................................................................................ 250
35.3 Listric Normal Faults.............................................................................................................. 252
35.4 Low-angle Normal Faults....................................................................................................... 253
35.5 Review of Structural Geometries ........................................................................................... 254
35.6 Thrust Belt Concepts Applied to Extensional Terranes ......................................................... 254
35.6.1 Ramps, Flats, & Hanging Wall Anticlines:................................................................. 254
35.6.2 Extensional Duplexes:............................................................................................... 254
35.7 Models of Intracontinental Extension..................................................................................... 255
35.7.1 Horst & Graben: ........................................................................................................ 255
35.7.2 “Brittle-ductile” Transition & Sub-horizontal Decoupling:........................................... 255
35.7.3 Lenses or Anastomosing Shear Zones:.................................................................... 255
35.7.4 Crustal-Penetrating Low-Angle Normal Fault:........................................................... 256
35.7.5 Hybrid Model of Intracontinental Extension............................................................... 256

Lecture 36—Strike-slip Fault Systems ............................................................... 2 5 7

36.1 Tectonic setting of Strike-slip Faults ...................................................................................... 257
36.1.1 Transform faults ........................................................................................................ 257
36.2 Transcurrent Faults and Tear Faults...................................................................................... 258
36.3 Features Associated with Major Strike-slip Faults................................................................. 259
36.3.1 Parallel Strike-slip ..................................................................................................... 259
36.3.2 Convergent-Type ...................................................................................................... 262
36.3.3 Divergent Type.......................................................................................................... 262
36.4 Restraining and Releasing bends, duplexes.......................................................................... 263

Economic Geo. _ JH
Contents xii

36.5 Terminations of Strike-slip Faults........................................................................................... 264

Lecture 37—Deformation of the Lithosphere ........................................................2 6 5

37.1 Mechanisms of Uplift.............................................................................................................. 265
37.1.1 Isostasy & Crust-lithosphere thickening.................................................................... 265
37.1.2 Differential Isostasy................................................................................................... 266
37.1.3 Flexural Isostasy ....................................................................................................... 267
37.2 Geological Processes of Lithospheric Thickening ................................................................. 269
37.2.1 Distributed Shortening:.............................................................................................. 269
37.2.2 “Underthrusting”: ....................................................................................................... 269
37.2.3 Magmatic Intrusion:................................................................................................... 269
37.3 Thermal Uplift......................................................................................................................... 270
37.4 Evolution of Uplifted Continental Crust .................................................................................. 270

Economic Geo. _ JH
Lecture 1 1
Terminology, Scale

LECTURE 1—INTRODUCTION, SCALE, & BASIC TERMINOLOGY

1.1 Introduction

Structural Geology is the study of deformed rocks. To do so, we define the geometries of rock
bodies in three dimensions. Then, we measure or infer the translations, rotations, and strains experienced
by rocks both during, and particularly since, their formation based on indicators of what they looked like
prior to their deformation. Finally, we try to infer the stresses that produced the deformation based on
our knowledge of material properties. Structure is closely related to various fields of engineering mechanics,
structural engineering, and material science.

But, there is a big difference: In structural geology, we deal almost exclusively with the end
product of deformation in extremely heterogeneous materials. Given this end product, we try to infer the
processes by which the deformation occurred. In engineering, one is generally more interested in the
effect that various, known or predicted, stress systems will produce on undeformed, relatively homogeneous
materials.

Engineering:

Structural Geology:

?
Key Point: What we study in structural geology is strain and its related translations and rotations;
this is the end product of deformation. We never observe stress directly or the forces responsible for the
deformation. A famous structural geologist, John Ramsay, once said that "as a geologist, I don't believe in
stress". This view is perhaps too extreme -- stress certainly does exist, but we cannot measure it directly.
Stress is an instantaneous entity; it exists only in the moment that it is applied. In Structural Geology we
study geological materials that were deformed in the past, whether it be a landslide that formed two
hours ago or a fold that formed 500 Ma ago. The stresses that were responsible for that deformation are no

Economic Geo. _ JH
draft date: 1/20/99
Lecture 1 2
Terminology, Scale

longer present. Even when the stresses of interest are still present, such as in the test of the strength of a
concrete block in an engineering experiment, you cannot measure stress directly. What you do is measure
the strain of some material whose material response to stress, or rheology, is very well known.

If you learn nothing else in this course, it should be the distinction between stress and strain, and
what terms are appropriate to each:

Stress Strain

compression shortening (contraction)

tension lengthening (extension)

note that terms in the same row are not equal but have
somewhat parallel meanings. As we will see later in the
course, the relations among these terms is quite

1.2 Levels of Structural Study

There are three basic level at which one can pursue structural geology and these are reflected in
the organization of this course:

• Geometry basically means how big or extensive something is (size or magni-

tude) and/or how its dimensions are aligned in space (orientation). We will
spend only a little time during lecture on the geometric description of structures
because most of the lab part of this course is devoted to this topic.

• Kinematics is the description of movements that particles of material have

experienced during their history. Thus we are comparing two different states
of the material, whether they be the starting point and ending point or just
two intermediate points along the way.

• Mechanics implies an understanding of how forces applied to a material

have produced the movements of the particles that make up the material.

1.3 Types of Structural Study

Economic Geo. _ JH
draft date: 1/20/99
Lecture 1 3
Terminology, Scale

• Observation of natural structures, or deformed features in rock. This observa-

tion can take place at many different scales, from the submicroscopic to the
global. Observation usually involves the description of the geometry and
orientations of individual structures and their relations to other structures.
Also generally involves establishing of the timing relations of structures (i.e.
their order of formation, or the time it took for one feature to form).

• Experimental -- an attempt to reproduce under controlled laboratory conditions

various features similar to those in naturally deformed rocks. The aim of
experimental work is to gain insight into the stress systems and processes that
produced the deformation. Two major drawbacks: (1) in the real earth, we
seldom know all of the possible factors effecting the deformation (P, T, t,
fluids, etc.); (2) More important, real earth processes occur at rates which are
far slower than one can possibly reproduce in the laboratory (Natural rates:
10-12 to 10–18 sec-1; in lab, the slowest rates: 10-6 - 10-8 sec -1)

• Theoretical -- application of various physical laws of mechanics and thermo-

dynamics, through analytical or numerical methods, to relatively simple struc-
tural models. The objective of this modeling is to duplicate, theoretically, the
geometries or strain distributions of various natural features. Main problem is
the complexity of natural systems.

1.4 Importance of S c a l e

1.4.1 Scale Terms

Structural geologists view the deformed earth at a variety of different scales. Thus a number of
general terms are used to refer to the different scales. All are vague in detail. Importantly, all depend on
the vantage point of the viewer:

• Global -- scale of the entire world. ~104-10 5 km (circumference = 4 x 104 km)

• Regional or Provincial -- poorly defined; generally corresponds to a physio-

graphic province (e.g. the Basin and Range) or a mountain belt 103-10 4 km (e.g.
the Appalachians).

• Macroscopic or Map Scale -- Bigger than an area you can see standing in one

Economic Geo. _ JH
draft date: 1/20/99