Hardware

Processing Devices
Memory Devices
Input Devices
Optical Input Devices
Audio-visual Input Devices
Output Devices
Monitors
Printing Devices
Storage Devices
Magnetic
Optical Storage Devices.
 Memory Devices
Memory Units:
- amount of data that can be stored

- expressed in Bytes, KB, MB, GB….

Following are the storage units:

 Memory Devices
-­‐  Internal  storages  areas  in  a  computer    
 Term  “memory”  identi6ies  the  memory  chips,    
 Term  “storage”  de6ines  capacity  of  devices  to  hold  the  data.  
 

-­‐  CPU  has  very  little  memory  hence  

 must  depend  on  other  memories  to    
hold  data,  instruction  and  to  save    
the  outputs/results.  
 

-­‐  Each  memory  location  has  to    

 have  an  address  
 
-­‐  Each  address  is  assigned  a  unique  identi,ier  speci6ic  to  that  memory  
location  
-­‐  comes  in  various  capacity  range  (512  KB,  1MB,  2  GB….)  
e.g.  mailboxes  where  their  number  remains  the  same  but    
the  actual  contents  changes  continuously  
 Memory Devices
Two  types  of  Memory:  RAM  and  ROM.  
 
1.  RAM  (Random  Access  Memory):  
  Normal RAM
-­‐  aka  Main  or  primary  memory  
 
-­‐  Processor  can  read/write  contents  from/to  any  memory  locations  
“RANDOM”  
 
-­‐  temporarily  stores    operating  system,  application  programs  and  data  
currently  in  use  or  data  being  processed  by  the  CPU.  
 
-­‐  faster  to  read  from  and  to  write  than  other  storage  devices  like  hard  disk,  
6loppy  disk,  CD-­‐ROM,  USB  Drives  
 
-­‐  Volatile  behavior,  i.e.  holds  data    
as  long  as  there’s  electricity.  Once    
First of it’s kind
PC  is  switched  off,  RAM  looses     128 GB DDR4 RAM from Samsung
all  it’s  contents   Data Rate: 2400 Mbps
 RAM  (Random  Access  Memory)  
Exception:  “Flash  RAM”,  stores  data  even  when  there  is  no  electricity  But  
more  expensive.    
 

two  basic  types  of  RAM:  

–  (i)  Dynamic  RAM  (DRAM)    &  
–  (ii)  Static  RAM  (SRAM).  
 

i)  Static  RAM  (SRAM):  

-­‐  Stores  data  continuously  as  long  as  there  is  electricity,  without  any  
refresh  or  less  refresh  process.  
-­‐  used  as  cache  memory  (L1:  8  –  64  KB;  L2:  2  –  4  MB;    &  L3:  8  –  16  MB)    
-­‐  more  faster  than  DRAM,  but  expensive  
ii)  Dynamic  RAM  (DRAM):    
DRAM requires continuous current to maintain
-­‐  doesn't  store  the  data  continuously     its electrical state as it’s electrical charge
decreases with time which may result in loss of
hence,  the  computer  will  refresh  the     DATA. Hence must be recharged or refreshed
data  hundreds  of  times  every  second   again and again to maintain the data. Also the
processor cannot access the data of DRAM
-­‐  slower  compared  to  SRAM,  cheap.   when it is being refreshed. Hence is slower.
-­‐  used  in  personal  computers.  
 ROM  (Read  Only  Memory)  
-­‐  non-­‐volatile  memory  i.e.  ROM  can  store  data  permanently  
 
-­‐  also  Random  access,  i.e.  CPU  can  read  contents  of  ROM  but  cannot  make  
any  modiNications,  Hence,  is  called  Read  Only.  
 
-­‐  programmed  during  manufacturing  process  itself  by  the  manufacturer.    
 
-­‐  Firmware  =>  program  stored  in  ROM    
 
-­‐  Write  once  and  read  many    
-­‐  Requires  special  equipment  to  remove  it’s  contents  
 
-­‐  Used  to  store  critical  programs  e.g.  program  that  boots  the  computer.  BIOS.  
 
There  are  four  types  of  ROM:    
     
1.  PROM:  Programmable  ROM.        3.  EEPROM:  Electrically  EPROM    
     
2.  EPROM:  Erasable  Programmable  ROM    4.  Flash  Memory  
 ROM  (Read  Only  Memory)  
1.  PROM:  Programmable  Read  Only  Memory  
-  non-­‐volatile.  
-  Can  be  programmed  with  special  tool  such  as  PROM-­‐Programmers.    
-  one-­‐time  programmable  device:  Once  programmed,  can  never  be  changed  
again.  
-  manufactured  blank  where  as  ROM  chips  are  programmed  during  
manufacturing  process.    
 
2.  EPROM:  Erasable  Programmable  ROM    
-  special  types  of  PROM  chips  that  can  be  erased  and  reused  again  and  again.  
-  can  be  erased  by  exposing  them  to  strong  ultra-­‐violet  rays  
-  Can  be  re-­‐programmed  repeatedly  using  PROM-­‐Programmers  
-  more  expensive  than  PROM  
-  Widely  used  in  personal  computers    
because  it  allows  manufacturer  to  change  the  contents  before  computer  is  actually  shipped,  
this  means  bugs  can  be  removed  and  new  versions  can  be  installed  shortly  before  delivery.  
 Memory Devices
3.  EEPROM:  Electrically  Erasable  Programmable  Read  Only  Memory  
-  Special  types  of  PROM  that  can  be  erased  by  an  electrical  charge    
-  Can  be  reprogrammed  by  using  slightly  higher  voltage.    
-  can  erase  one  byte  at  a  time  and  hence,  re-­‐programming  is  Nlexible.    
-  does  not  need  additional  equipment  for  re-­‐programming.  
 
also  known  as  Flash  EEPROM,  difference  is  that  EEPROM  allows  contents  be  
erased  one  Byte  at  a  time  whereas,  Flash  Memory  erases  contents  in  Block.    
 
4.  Flash  Memory:    
-  special   type   of   EEPROM   that   can   be   erased   and   re-­‐programmed   in   blocks  
instead  of  one  byte  at  a  time.    
-  Hence  easy/faster  to  update.    
-  New  PCs  have  their  BIOS  stored  in  Nlash  memory.  
-  also  used  in  digital  devices  and  phones.    
 CMOS  
CMOS:  complementary  metal  oxide  semiconductor.  
 
-­‐  special  RAM  chip  powered  and  maintained  by  a  small  battery    

-­‐  provides  Nlexibility  and  expandability  to  the  computer  system.  

-­‐  -­‐  holds  basic  con6iguration  data  your  computer  needs  in  order  to  start.  
 
e.g.  information:  total  RAM  size,  types  of  keyboard,  mouse,  monitor  and  disc  
drive.    
 
However  it’s  content  changes  according  to    
changes  inside  the  computer  system,    
such  as  the  addition  of  new  hardware    
such  as  RAM,  graphic  cards…  
 
 
CMOS Battery
 BIOS  
BIOS => Basic input output system.

- A program stored in a read-only memory (ROM) chip that the CPU

automatically loads and executes when it receives power.

- controls the start-up process and loads the operating system into main
memory.

- BIOS is an example of firmware.

Most BIOS chips are 64k in size,

though there is 384k address space
available for the BIOS to use.
 Virtual  Memory  
-  using hard disk space to make main memory ‘appear’ larger  
-  RAM  alone  cannot  accommodate  the  entire  program  and  data.    
-  In  such  cases,  program  and  data  are  kept  outside  RAM  till  it  is  needed.    
-  This  type  of  storage  is  known  as  virtual  memory.    
-  On  a  system  which  uses  virtual  memory,  only  the  parts  of  the  program  
and  data  currently  needed  are  stored  in  main  memory,  the  rest  remains  in  
a  hard  disk,    
-  when  the  computer  needs  a  part  of  the  program  that  is  in  disk,  it  moves  
the  contents  of  the  memory  to  the  disk  and  brings  the  required  part  to  the  
main  memory.    
-  Both  operating  system  and  CPU  must  be  equipped  for  this  purpose.    
-  Reduces  cost  of  the  system  because  it  is  cheaper  to  store  data  on  a  hard  
disk  instead  of  adding  additional  memory  chips  to  the  computer.  
 Cache Memory
-  very  high  speed  semiconductor  memory,  which  speeds  up  CPU.    
-  Placed  between  CPU  and  Main  Memory,  hence  acts  as  a  buffer  
-  used  to  hold  frequently  used  parts  of  data  and  program.  
-  faster  to  read  from  Cache  than  main  memory.  
-  Only  offers  limited  storage  capacity  
-  very  expensive.  
 
Operating  system  transfers  the    
parts  of  data  and  programs  from    
disk  to  cache  memory  from  
where  CPU  can  access  them.  
 
 
 Secondary Memory
-  known  as  external  memory  or  non-­‐volatile.    

-  slower  than  main  memory.    

-  used  for  storing  Data/Information  permanently  

-  CPU  does  not  access  these  memories  directly,  instead  they  are  accessed  via  
input-­‐output  routines.    

-  Contents  of  secondary  memories  are  Nirst  transferred  to  main  memory  
and  then  CPU  can  access  it.    

-  These  are  magnetic  and  optical  memories.    

-  Computer  may  run  without  secondary  memory.  

-  For  example:  Hard-­‐disk,  CD-­‐ROM,  DVD,  USB  sticks  etc.