Unit - III Concept of Memory

A computer system is built using a combination of these types of computer memory, and the exact configuration can
be optimized to produce the maximum data processing speed or the minimum cost, or some compromise between
the two.

 Types of Computer Memory: Primary and Secondary

Although many types of memory in a computer exist, the most basic distinction is between primary memory, often
called system memory, and secondary memory, which is more commonly called storage.The key difference between
primary and secondary memory is speed of access.

I.Primary memory includes ROM and RAM, and is located close to the CPU on the computer motherboard,
enabling the CPU to read data from primary memory very quickly indeed. It is used to store data that the CPU needs
imminently so that it does not have to wait for it to be delivered.

II.Secondary memory by contrast, is usually physically located within a separate storage device, such as a
hard disk drive or solid state drive (SSD), which is connected to the computer system either directly or over a
network. The cost per gigabyte of secondary memory is much lower, but the read and write speeds are significantly
slower.

III.Catche memory: Cache memory is a high-speed memory, which is small in size but faster than the main
memory (RAM). The CPU can access it more quickly than the primary memory. So, it is used to synchronize with
high-speed CPU and to improve its performance.

I.Primary Memory Types: RAM and ROM :-There are two key types of primary memory:

1) RAM Computer Memory(Random Access Memory)

Unit - III Concept of Memory Paper-II By Prof.Miss.Bavale.A.T Page 1

 The acronym RAM stems from the fact that data stored in random access memory can be accessed – as the
name suggests – in any random order. Or, put another way, any random bit of data can be accessed just as
quickly as any other bit.
 The most important things to understand about RAM are that RAM memory is very fast, it can be written to as
well as read, it is volatile (so all data stored in RAM memory is lost when it loses power) and, finally, it is very
expensive compared to all types of secondary memory in terms of cost per gigabyte. It is because of the relative
high cost of RAM compared to secondary memory types that most computer systems use both primary and
secondary memory.

Data that is required for imminent processing is moved to RAM where it can be accessed and modified very quickly,
so that the CPU is not kept waiting. When the data is no longer required it is shunted out to slower but cheaper
secondary memory, and the RAM space that has been freed up is filled with the next chunk of data that is about to
be used.

Types of RAM

1.DRAM: DRAM stands for Dynamic RAM, and it is the most common type of RAM used in computers. The
oldest type is known as single data rate (SDR) DRAM, but newer computers use faster dual data rate (DDR)
DRAM. DDR comes in several versions including DDR2 , DDR3, and DDR4, which offer better performance and
are more energy efficient than DDR. However different versions are incompatible, so it is not possible to mix DDR2
with DDR3 DRAM in a computer system. DRAM consists of a transistor and a capacitor in each cell.

Types of DRAM:-There are mainly 5 types of DRAM:

1. Asynchronous DRAM (ADRAM): The DRAM described above is the asynchronous type
DRAM. The timing of the memory device is controlled asynchronously. A specialized
memory controller circuit generates the necessary control signals to control the timing. The
CPU must take into account the delay in the response of the memory.
2. Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM): These RAM chips’ access speed is directly
synchronized with the CPU’s clock. For this, the memory chips remain ready for operation
when the CPU expects them to be ready. These memories operate at the CPU-memory bus
without imposing wait states. SDRAM is commercially available as modules incorporating
multiple SDRAM chips and forming the required capacity for the modules.
3. Double-Data-Rate SDRAM (DDR SDRAM): This faster version of SDRAM performs its
operations on both edges of the clock signal; whereas a standard SDRAM performs its
operations on the rising edge of the clock signal. Since they transfer data on both edges of
the clock, the data transfer rate is doubled. To access the data at high rate, the memory cells
are organized into two groups. Each group is accessed separately.
4. Rambus DRAM (RDRAM): The RDRAM provides a very high data transfer rate over a
narrow CPU-memory bus. It uses various speedup mechanisms, like synchronous memory
interface, caching inside the DRAM chips and very fast signal timing. The Rambus data
bus width is 8 or 9 bits.
5. Cache DRAM (CDRAM): This memory is a special type DRAM memory with an on-
chip cache memory (SRAM) that acts as a high-speed buffer for the main DRAM.

2.SRAM: SRAM stands for Static RAM, and it is a particular type of RAM which is faster than DRAM, but
more expensive and bulker, having six transistors in each cell. For those reasons SRAM is generally only used as a
data cache within a CPU itself or as RAM in very high-end server systems. A small SRAM cache of the most
imminently-needed data can result in significant speed improvements in a system

Unit - III Concept of Memory Paper-II By Prof.Miss.Bavale.A.T Page 2

The SRAM memories consist of circuits capable of retaining the stored information as long as
the power is applied. That means this type of memory requires constant power. SRAM memories
are used to build Cache Memory.

SRAM Memory Cell: Static memories(SRAM) are memories that consist of circuits capable of
retaining their state as long as power is on. Thus this type of memories is called volatile
memories.

Difference between SRAM and DRAM

2) ROM Computer Memory (Read-Only Memory):

ROM stands for read-only memory, and the name stems from the fact that while data can be read from this type of
computer memory, data cannot normally be written to it. It is a very fast type of computer memory which is usually
installed close to the CPU on the motherboard.

ROM is a type of non-volatile memory, which means that the data stored in ROM persists in the memory even when
it receives no power – for example when the computer is turned off. In that sense it is similar to secondary memory,
which is used for long term storage.

When a computer is turned on, the CPU can begin reading information stored in ROM without the need for drivers
or other complex software to help it communicate. The ROM usually contains "bootstrap code" which is the basic
set of instructions a computer needs to carry out to become aware of the operating system stored in secondary
memory, and to load parts of the operating system into primary memory so that it can start up and become ready to
use.ROM is also used in simpler electronic devices to store firmware which runs as soon as the device is switched
on.

Types of ROM

ROM is available in several different types, including PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM.

Unit - III Concept of Memory Paper-II By Prof.Miss.Bavale.A.T Page 3

1.PROM PROM stands for Programmable Read-Only Memory, and it is different from true ROM in that while a
ROM is programmed (i.e. has data written to it) during the manufacturing process, a PROM is manufactured in an
empty state and then programmed later using a PROM programmer or burner.

PROM is read-only memory chip that data can be written only once by a user. The difference between it and the
read only memory is that PROM is manufactured as a blank memory, while the ROM is programmed during the
manufacturing process.

The user buys a PROM, the user will need a special device called a PROM programmer or PROM burner to write
the desired data onto the blank PROM chip. The process of programming a PROM is sometimes called burning the
PROM. The memory can be programmed just once after manufacturing by "blowing" the fuses, which is an
irreversible process.

2.EPROM EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory, and as the name suggests, data stored
in an EPROM can be erased and the EPROM reprogrammed. Erasing an EPROM involves removing it from the
computer and exposing it to ultraviolet light before re-burning it.

EPROM is a special kind of read only memory chip that has the opportunity to erase the programmed data, which
the feature can be seen from its name. The programmable read-only memory can be programmed to write data with
high voltage, and the data remains until it is exposed to ultraviolet light for lasting up to 10 minutes or longer.

Usually, an EPROM eraser can achieve this purpose, making it possible to reprogram the memory. For this purpose,
a quartz transparent window is reserved on the package of the memory for easy exposure.

3.EEPROM EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory, and the distinction
between EPROM and EEPROM is that the latter can be erased and written to by the computer system it is installed
in. In that sense EEPROM is not strictly read-only. However in many cases the write process is slow, so it is
normally only done to update program code such as firmware or BIOS code on an occasional basis

EEPROM is also a kind of read only memory that the principle of operation is similar to EPROM which we have
mentioned, but the ways to program and erase are done by exposing it to an electrical charge, so no transparent
window is needed.

It can be erased and reprogrammed about 10,000 times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10
milliseconds. In the EEPROM, users can selectively erase and program any location and it can be erased one byte at
a time instead of being erased the entire chip. Therefore, the process of reprogramming can be flexible but slow.

II.Secondary Memory Types

Secondary memory comprises many different storage media which can be directly attached to a computer system.
These include:

1. Hard Disk Drives

Disk drives are still the backbone of data storage, used in a plethora of business environments. Here’s the inside
story on this key data storage building block.

Modern HDDs spin from a low consumer speed of 4200 revolutions per minute (rpm) to enterprise-grade 15K rpm.
HDDs usually have two motors: one for the spindle to spin the disks and the motor that positions the arms and
read/write heads.

 HDD Characteristics: Capacity, Performance, Reliability

Unit - III Concept of Memory Paper-II By Prof.Miss.Bavale.A.T Page 4

High capacity and performance are primary HDD characteristics, with reliability a close second.

Capacity

The industry measures capacity in powers of 1000, so a 1TB drive stores 1000GB. Not all this room is available for
user data storage thanks to the file system and computer OS, and on most disks reserved space for RAID operations
or other recovery options. The OS will report available storage correctly to the user.

Commercial available HDD capacity varies wildly from a few hundred GBs to 12TB for enterprise drives. That
number has been inching up for years and will likely go higher as HDD capacity development continues.

Performance

Performance is calculated by three measurements: average access time, average latency, and average data rate.

1. Access time is the time it takes for the disk drive to move the heads to a track to read or write the data. Access
time includes the actual seek time (how long it takes the heads to get to the right track), rotational latency, and
sufficient time to complete command processing.

2. Rotational latency is the time it takes for the requested sector to move under the head. Latency is calculated from
seek time and the rpm of the spinning disk and is measured in milliseconds. Typical rotational speeds range from
6.25 ms at 4800 rpm to 2 ms at 15K rpm.

3. Transfer rate is how fast the data is transmitted to and from the read/write heads. It’s usually described in as
megabytes per second (MBps).

2.Magnetic Disk
A magnetic disk is a storage device that uses a magnetization process to write, rewrite and access data. It is covered
with a magnetic coating and stores data in the form of tracks, spots and sectors. Hard disks, zip disks and floppy
disks are common examples of magnetic disks.
A magnetic disk primarily consists of a rotating magnetic surface and a mechanical arm that moves over it. The
mechanical arm is used to read from and write to the disk. The data on a magnetic disk is read and written using a
magnetization process. Data is organized on the disk in the form of tracks and sectors, where tracks are the circular
divisions of the disk. Tracks are further divided into sectors that contain blocks of data. All read and write operations
on the magnetic disk are performed on the sectors.
Magnetic disks have traditionally been used as primary storage in computers. With the advent of solid-state drives
(SSDs), magnetic disks are no longer considered the only option, but are still commonly used.

Unit - III Concept of Memory Paper-II By Prof.Miss.Bavale.A.T Page 5

3.Floppy Disk Definition & Meaning
Floppy disk is a soft magnetic disk. It is called floppy because it flops if you wave it (at least, the 5¼-inch variety
does). Unlike most hard disks, floppy disks (often called floppies or diskettes) are portable, because you can remove
them from a disk drive. Disk drives for floppy disks are called floppy drives. Floppy disks are slower to access than
hard disks and have less storage capacity, but they are much less expensive. And most importantly, they are
portable.

Unit - III Concept of Memory Paper-II By Prof.Miss.Bavale.A.T Page 6

Standard Sizes
Floppies come in three basic sizes:
8-inch:The first floppy disk design, invented by IBM in the late 1960s and used in the early 1970s as first a read-
only format and then as a read-write format. The typical desktop/laptop computer does not use the 8-inch floppy
disk.

5¼-inch: The common size for PCs made before 1987 and the predecessor to the 8-inch floppy disk. This type of
floppy is generally capable of storing between 100K and 1.2MB (megabytes) of data. The most common sizes are
360K and 1.2MB.

3½-inch: Floppy is something of a misnomer for these disks, as they are encased in a rigid envelope. Despite
their small size, microfloppies have a larger storage capacity than their cousins -- from 400K to 1.4MB of data. The
most common sizes for PCs are 720K (double-density) and 1.44MB (high-density). Macintoshes support disks of
400K, 800K, and 1.2MB.

4.Optical Disk:-
An optical disk is primarily used as a portable and secondary storage device. It can
store more data than the previous generation of magnetic storage media, and has a
relatively longer lifespan. Compact disks (CD), digital versatile/video disks (DVD) and
Blu-ray disks are currently the most commonly used forms of optical disks. These disks
are generally used to:

 Distribute software to customers

 Store large amounts of data such as music, images and videos
 Transfer data to different computers or devices
 Back up data from a local machine

1.A compact disc (CD) is a circular disc introduced by James Russell. It is 4.75 in diameter, which is a flat,
round, portable storage medium used to record, store and playback audio, video, and other data.

The first CDs were able to store only audio, which was replaced by audiotapes. Audio CDs have the ability to enable
users to skip to different places on the disc. CDs can be used unlimited time without losing quality, while audio
tapes can lose the quality if you use it around ten times. Because in the CDs, the laser that reads data does not put
the pressure on the disc, while in a tape, the play heads drape slowly wear away the magnetic strip on the tape.

What is the use of a CD on the computer?

CDs are used to store data, which can be executed in the future. Thus, you can load software programs in the
compact disc that can be moved onto the computer. Even, Windows files are also stored in the CD, which can be
installed onto the computer. Furthermore, the stored files on the compact disc can be transferred to other computers,
through which you can make a backup of all files.

Different types of Compact disc (CD)

There are different types of Compact Disc, but they all are used to store digital information.

1. CD-ROM
The term ROM means read-only memory that allows the computer to read the data, which is already stored

Unit - III Concept of Memory Paper-II By Prof.Miss.Bavale.A.T Page 7

 on the computer, and it cannot be deleted or changed. It was more popular for distributing games and
software for several consoles. Furthermore, any standard can be used to play CD ROM recordings.
2. Recordable CD (CD-R)
The CD-R stands for recordable, which is also known as CD-WORM (Write Once, Read Many) or CW-
WO (write-once). Philips and Sony jointly developed it. Usually, these types of CDs have 74 minutes of
music storage available, but some CDs can store as much as 80 minutes of music. It includes an advantage
that the information is written once and can be read multiple times. It also had a limitation that it was not
properly compatible with all devices; therefore, it had no ability to read all devices.
When it is inserted into the player, the inbuilt laser rays read the data, which is recorded by the user on it.
The music CD became popular with the Recordable CD because most music albums were released in this
format.
3. CD+R
The CD+R is not relevant with the CD-R, the R in CD stand for recordable. A group of companies
developed the +R format. It was developed to increase the amount of storage available on a compact disc.
The CD+R allows for around twice storage space as compared to standard CD-R.
4. Rewriteable CD (CD-RW)
The CD-RW can be used to write data a number of times, erased and re-used, and also used as a normal
CD-R. Usually, a rewritable CD can store up to 700 MB of data and can be written again as many as 1000
times. But rewriting the stored video and audio in it reduces the quality of data. On a CD, a CD burner
melts the recording layer onto a CD by using its highest laser power. In CD-RW, the burner melts the data
layer by using its medium level of laser power; new data can be added to the disk. A CD player will not
change the recorded layer, and it uses the lowest amount of laser power to read a CD.

2..DVD: Digital Video Disc or Digital Versatile Disc

DVD stands for Digital Versatile Disc. It is commonly known as Digital Video Disc. It is a digital optical disc
storage format used to store high capacity data like high quality videos and movies. It is also used to store operating
system. It is invented and developed by 4 companies named Philips, Sony, Toshiba and Panasonic in 1995. DVDs
provide higher storage capacity than CDs( compact disc) and can be played in multiple types of players like DVD
players.

DVD Storage Capacity

On the basis of storage capacity, DVD can be divided in 4 types.

No. Type Storage capacity

1) Single-sided, Single layer 4.7 gb

2) Single-sided, Double layer 8.5 gb to 8.7 gb

3) Double-sided, Single layer 9.4 gb

4) Double-sided, Double layer 17.08 gb

Unit - III Concept of Memory Paper-II By Prof.Miss.Bavale.A.T Page 8

 Types

On the basis of applications, a DVD can be categorized in different ways as described below:

o DVD-ROM: It can only be used for reading and cannot be written.

o DVD-R: It can be used to record any type of data.
o DVD-RW: It can be read, written, erased and rewritten.

III.Cache Memory
Cache memory is a high-speed memory, which is small in size but faster than the main memory (RAM). The CPU
can access it more quickly than the primary memory. So, it is used to synchronize with high-speed CPU and to
improve its performance.

Cache memory can only be accessed by CPU. It can be a reserved part of the main memory or a storage device
outside the CPU. It holds the data and programs which are frequently used by the CPU. So, it makes sure that the
data is instantly available for CPU whenever the CPU needs this data. In other words, if the CPU finds the required
data or instructions in the cache memory, it doesn't need to access the primary memory (RAM). Thus, by acting as a
buffer between RAM and CPU, it speeds up the system performance.

 RAID
RAID is a technology that is used to increase the performance and/or reliability of data storage. The abbreviation
stands for either Redundant Array of Independent Drives or Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks, which is older
and less used. A RAID system consists of two or more drives working in parallel. These can be hard discs, but there
is a trend to also use the technology for SSD (Solid State Drives). There are different RAID levels, each optimized
for a specific situation. These are not standardized by an industry group or standardization committee. This explains
why companies sometimes come up with their own unique numbers and implementations. This article covers the
following RAID levels:

 RAID 0 – striping
 RAID 1 – mirroring
 RAID 5 – striping with parity
 RAID 6 – striping with double parity
 RAID 10 – combining mirroring and striping

The software to perform the RAID-functionality and control the drives can either be located on a separate controller
card (a hardware RAID controller) or it can simply be a driver. Some versions of Windows, such as Windows Server
2012 as well as Mac OS X, include software RAID functionality. Hardware RAID controllers cost more than pure
software, but they also offer better performance, especially with RAID 5 and 6.
RAID-systems can be used with a number of interfaces, including SATA, SCSI, IDE, or FC (fiber channel.) There
are systems that use SATA disks internally, but that have a FireWire or SCSI-interface for the host system.

Unit - III Concept of Memory Paper-II By Prof.Miss.Bavale.A.T Page 9

 Sometimes disks in a storage system are defined as JBOD, which stands for Just a Bunch Of Disks. This means that
those disks do not use a specific RAID level and acts as stand-alone disks. This is often done for drives that contain
swap files or spooling data.

Below is an overview of the most popular RAID levels:

RAID level 0 – Striping
In a RAID 0 system data are split up into blocks that get written across all the drives in the array. By using multiple
disks (at least 2) at the same time, this offers superior I/O performance. This performance can be enhanced further
by using multiple controllers, ideally one controller per disk.RAID 0 – Striping

Advantages of RAID 0

 RAID 0 offers great performance, both in read and write operations. There is no overhead caused by parity
controls.
 All storage capacity is used, there is no overhead.
 The technology is easy to implement.

Disadvantages of RAID 0

 RAID 0 is not fault-tolerant. If one drive fails, all data in the RAID 0 array are lost. It should not be used for
mission-critical systems.

Ideal use
RAID 0 is ideal for non-critical storage of data that have to be read/written at a high speed, such as on an image
retouching or video editing station.
If you want to use RAID 0 purely to combine the storage capacity of twee drives in a single volume, consider
mounting one drive in the folder path of the other drive. This is supported in Linux, OS X as well as Windows and
has the advantage that a single drive failure has no impact on the data of the second disk or SSD drive.

RAID level 1 – Mirroring

Data are stored twice by writing them to both the data drive (or set of data drives) and a mirror drive (or set of
drives). If a drive fails, the controller uses either the data drive or the mirror drive for data recovery and continuous
operation. You need at least 2 drives for a RAID 1 array.

Types of RAID

Storage administrators can deploy RAID as hardware (controller card or chip) or software
(software-only or hybrid).

Hardware RAID

A dedicated hardware controller provides hardware-based RAID services. IT can deploy

hardware RAID two ways: an external RAID Controller Card or internal RAID-on-Chip.

 RAID Controller Card: This plug-in expansion card connects to a PCIe or PCI-X motherboard
slot. The card contains a RAID processor and I/O processors with drive interfaces. The cards are
expensive, but since they are independent of the host, all RAID operations are offloaded from the
CPU to the dedicated card.

 RAID-on-Chip: A single chip on the motherboard integrates the host interface, I/O interfaces for
HDDs, the RAID processor, and a memory controller.

Unit - III Concept of Memory Paper-II By Prof.Miss.Bavale.A.T Page 10

Software RAID

Software-based RAID delivers RAID services from the host. Software RAID comes in two
flavors: pure software defined running from the OS, and hybrid software that contains a
hardware component to relieve the load on the CPU.

 Software-only. Software RAID is the least expensive of the RAID types, and is often included as
a native function on the OS. It is a host-based software application that manages RAID
calculations for attached hard disk drives. It’s attached via an an HBA or native I/O interface, and
activates when the OS loads the RAID driver.

 Hybrid. This software-based RAID uses a hardware component to deliver RAID BIOS functions
from RAID BIOs on the motherboard or on an HBA. This technology offers a layer of redundant
protection from a faulty boot process. Software-only RAID boots from the operating system, and
boot errors could affect the entire RAID subsystem. The addition of a RAID BIOS hardware
component protects the subsystem from operating system boot errors.

 RAID Levels

Whether hardware or software, RAID is available in different schemes, or RAID levels. The
most commonly levels are RAID 0, 1, 5, 6, and 10. RAID 0, 1, and 5 work on both HDD and
SSD media. (RAID levels 4 and 6 also work on both media, but are rarely seen in practice.)

1.Raid 0: Striping

Requiring a minimum of two disks, RAID 0 splits files and stripes the data across two disks or
more, treating the striped disks as a single partition. Because multiple hard drives are reading and
writing parts of the same file at the same time, throughput is generally faster.

RAID 0 does not provide redundancy or fault tolerance. Since it treats multiple disks as a single
partition, if even one drive fails, the striped file is unreadable. This is not an insurmountable
problem in video streaming or computer gaming environments where performance matters the
most, and the source file will still exist even if the stream fails. It is a problem in high availability
environments.

2.RAID 1: Mirroring

RAID 1 requires a minimum of two disks to work, and provides data redundancy and failover. It
reads and writes the exact same data to each disk. Should a mirrored disk fail, the file exists in its

Unit - III Concept of Memory Paper-II By Prof.Miss.Bavale.A.T Page 11

entirety on the functioning disk. Once IT replaces the failed desk, the RAID system will
automatically mirror back to the replacement drive. RAID 1 also increases read performance.

It does take up more usable capacity on drives, but is an economical failover process on
application servers.

3.Raid 5: Striping with Parity

This RAID level distributes striping and parity at a block level. Parity is raw binary data. The
RAID system calculates its values to create a parity block, which the system uses to recover
striped data from a failed drive. Most RAID systems with parity functions store parity blocks on
the disks in the array. (Some RAID systems dedicate a disk to parity calculations, but these are
rare.)

RAID 5 stores parity blocks on striped disks. Each stripe has its own dedicated parity block.
RAID 5 can withstand the loss of one disk in the array.

RAID 5 combines the performance of RAID 0 with the redundancy of RAID 1, but takes up a lot
of storage space to do it – about one third of usable capacity.

This level increases write performance since all drives in the array simultaneously serve write
requests. However, overall disk performance can suffer from write amplification, since even
minor changes to the stripes require multiple steps and recalculations.

4.RAID 6: Striping with double parity

This RAID level operates like RAID 5 with distributed parity and striping. The main operational
difference in RAID 6 is that there is a minimum of four disks in a RAID 6 array, and the system
stores an additional parity block on each desk. This enables a configuration where two disks may

Unit - III Concept of Memory Paper-II By Prof.Miss.Bavale.A.T Page 12

fail before the array is unavailable. Its primary usage case or application servers and large
storage arrays.

RAID 6 offers higher redundancy than 5 and increased read performance. It can suffer from the
same server performance overhead with intensive write operations. This performance hit depends
on the RAID system architecture: hardware or software, if it’s located in firmware, and if the
system includes processing software for high-performance parity calculations.

5.RAID 10: Striping and Mirroring

RAID 10 requires a minimum of four disks in the array. It stripes across disks for higher
performance, and mirrors for redundancy. In a four-drive array, the system stripes data to two of
the disks. The remaining two disks mirror the striped disks, each one storing half of the data.

This RAID level serves environments that require both high data security and high performance,
such as high transactional databases that store sensitive information. It is the most expensive of
the RAID levels with lower usable capacity and high system costs.

Unit - III Concept of Memory Paper-II By Prof.Miss.Bavale.A.T Page 13