Storage Devices

Introduction
Concept of Memory

Computer storage devices are used to store huge amounts of data and information
permanently. If you want any of your data kept safe and lastingly, then your choice should be
these devices. Usually these kinds of devices are called secondary storage or permanent storage.
Memory is an essential element of a computer. Without its memory, a computer is of hardly any
use. Memory plays an important role in saving and retrieving data. The performance of the
computer system depends upon the size of the memory.

There are two kinds of computer memory: primary and secondary. Primary memory is
accessible directly by the processing unit. RAM is an example of primary memory. As soon as
the computer is switched off, the contents of the primary memory is lost. You can store and
retrieve data much faster with primary memory compared to secondary memory. Secondary
memory such as floppy disk, magnetic disk, etc., is located outside the computer. Primary
memory is more expensive than secondary memory.

Computer memory is used to store two things:

i) Instructions to execute a program and
ii) data

In computer's memory both programs and data are stored in the binary form. You have
already been introduced with decimal number system that is the numbers 1 to 9 and 0. The binary
system has only two values 0 and 1. These are called bits.

As program or the set of instructions is kept in primary memory, the computer is able to
follow instantly the set of instructions. For example, when you book ticket from railway
reservation counter, the computer has to follow the same steps: take the request, check the
availability of seats, calculate fare, and wait for moneyto be paid, store the reservation and get the
ticket printed out. The program containing these steps is kept in memory of the computer and is
followed for each request.

When we choose storage devices, we need to understand their characteristics. The three
main characteristics of storage media are access method, capacity and portability.
Access method refers to how data is accessed from storage devices. Sequential and
direct are the two kinds of methods used to access data from secondary devices.
Storage devices are the building blocks of storage in disk subsystems as well as being used
as standalone products in server systems. The disk drive technology as the device that is
used tar more than any other.
 Computers and other Memory Storage Devices
Computers have limited memory capacity, even though we have lots of additional external
aids for memory storage like external hard disks, flash memories, memory cards etc. These
devices are just electronic devices which store data in a particular format. These data s
gets distributed around various
―sectors‖ on a compact disk or the memory slot. These are stored in a language which are only
― 0s & ―1s. They can be arranged, edited, formatted, and retrieved whenever required. There is
a greater flexibility in using such memories. They take few seconds to retrieve from their memory
space. Let us say for e.g.: we have a computer of memory 160 GB. So we can store data s up
to say 140 GB easily. After that there is always a limitation that it can no more accept data s. The
effect of such huge memory storage results in slowing down the processor. So the speeds of
retrieval or any operation performed are slow. The data‘s as such stored in the memory space of
the computers cannot integrate by itself until any programmer is coded to perform that particular
operation.

Storage Evaluation Units

Primary Storage
Primary storage, also known as main storage or memory, is the main area in a computer in
which data is stored for quick access by the computer's processor. On today‘s smaller
computers, especially personal computers and workstations, the term random access
memory (RAM) - or just memory is used instead of primary or main storage, and the hard
disk, diskette, CD, and DVD collectively describe secondary storage or auxiliary storage.

The terms main storage and auxiliary storage originated in the days of the mainframe
computer to distinguish the more immediately accessible data storage from storage that
required input/output operations. An earlier term for main storage was core in the days
when the main data storage contained ferrite cores.

Primary storage is sometimes used to mean storage for data that is in active use in contrast to
storage that is used for backup purposes. In this usage, primary storage is mainly the
secondary storage referred to in meaning 1. (It should be noted that, although these two
meanings conflict, the appropriate meaning is usually apparent from the context.)

Primary Storage
🠹 Also known as main memory.
🠹 Main memory is directly or indirectly connected to the central processingunit via a memory
bus.
🠹 The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them as required.
• Example:
– RAM
– ROM
– Cache
 RAM

Random Access Memory (RAM): The primary storage is referred to as Random

Access Memory (RAM) because it is possible to randomly select and use any location of the
memory directly to store and retrieve data. It takes same time to any address of the memory as the
first address. It is also called read/write memory. The storage of data and instructions inside the
primary storage is temporary. It disappears from RAM as soon as the power to the computer is
switched off. The memories, which lose their content on failure of power supply, are known as
volatile memories. So now we can say that RAM is volatile memory.

A RAM constitutes the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program and
program result. It is read/write memory. It is called random access memory (RAM).Since access
time in RAM is independent of the address to the word that is, each storage location inside the
memory is as easy to reach as other location & takes the same amount of time. We can reach into
the memory at random & extremely fast but can also be quite expensive.

RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is
a power failure. Hence a backup uninterruptible power system (UPS) is often used with
computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.

RAM is of two types

 Static RAM (SRAM)

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

– Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power remains applied.
However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix
of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM
need not have to be refreshed on a regular basis.
Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the
same amount of storage space, thus making the manufacturing costs higher. Static RAM is used
as cache memory needs to be very fast and small.

– Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order for it to maintain the data. This is
done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per
second. DRAM is used for most system memory because it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are
made up of memory cells. These cells are composed of one capacitor and one transistor
Types of DRAM
🠹 Asynchronous DRAM
🠹 Fast Page Mode (FPM) DRAM or FPRAM
🠹 Extended Data out (EDO) DRAM
🠹 Burst EDO (BEDO) DRAM
🠹 Synchronous Dynamic RAM (SDRAM)
🠹 Direct Rambus DRAM (DRDRAM)
🠹 Double Data Rate (DDR) SDRAM

ROM

🠹 Read Only Memory (ROM): There is another memory in computer, which is called Read
Only Memory (ROM). Again it is the ICs inside the PC that form the ROM. The storage
of program and data in the ROM is permanent.
🠹 The ROM stores some standard processing programs supplied by the manufacturers to
operate the personal computer. The ROM can only be read by the CPU but it cannot be
changed.
🠹 The basic input/output program is stored in the ROM that examines and initializes various
equipment attached to the PC when the switch is turned ON. The memories, which do
not lose their content on failure of power supply, are known as non-volatile memories.
ROM is non-volatile memory.
🠹 Read-only memory (usually known by its acronym, ROM) is a class of storage media used
in computers and other electronic devices.
🠹 Because data stored in ROM cannot be modified (at least not very quickly or easily), it is
mainly used to distribute firmware
🠹 Firmware is software that is very closely tied to specific hardware, and unlikely to
require frequent updates.
🠹 The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it. This type of memory is
non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories during
manufacture.
🠹 A ROM, stores such instruction as are required to start computer when electricity is first
turned on, this operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chip are not only used in the
computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.

Following are the various types of ROM:

🠹 MROM (Masked ROM):

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or
instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs. It is inexpensive ROM.
🠹 PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)
PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank
PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM programmer. Inside the PROM chip there
are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once and
is not erasable.

🠹 EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for duration of up to 40 minutes.
Usually, a EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming an electrical charge is
trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than ten years because the
charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz
crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use
the quartz lidis sealed with a sticker.

🠹 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about
ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (milli second). In
EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one
byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of re- programming is
flexible but slow.

Secondary Storage
Secondary storage devices, as indicated by the name, save data after it has been saved by the
primary storage device, usually referred to as RAM (Random Access Memory). From the
moment you start typing a letter in Microsoft Word, for example, and until you click on
―Save,‖ your entire work is stored in RAM. However, once you power off your machine,
that work is completely erased, and the only copy remaining is on the secondary storage
device where you saved it, such as internal or external hard disk drive, optical drives for
CDs or DVDs, or USB flash drive.
As a result, additional memory, called auxiliary memory or secondary storage, is used with
most computer system. Secondary storage is non-volatile and has lower cost per bit stored
but it generally has an operating speed far slower than that of primary storage. It is used
primarily to store large volume of data on permanent basis that can be partially transferred to
primary storage, whenever required for processing.
Over the years, several devices and media have been used as secondary storage in computer
systems. Many of them such as punched paper tape and punched cards have become obsolete
now. They are magnetic tape, magnetic disk, optical disk, and memory storage devices.

Hard Disk Operations

The basic physical construction of a hard disk drive consists of spinning disks with heads
that move over the disks and store data in tracks and sectors. The heads read and write data
in concentric rings called tracks, which are divided into segments called sectors, which
typically store 512 bytes each (see Figure 1).

Figure 1: The tracks and sectors on a disk.

Hard disk drives usually have multiple disks, called platters, that are stacked on top of each
other and spin in unison, each with two sides on which the drive stores data. Most drives
have two or three platters, resulting in four or six sides, but some PC hard disks have up to
12 platters and 24 sides with 24 heads to read them (Seagate Barracuda 180). The identically
aligned tracks on each side of every platter together make up a cylinder. A hard disk drive
usually has one head per platter side, with all the heads mounted ona common carrier device
or rack. The heads move radially across the disk in unison; they can't move independently
because they are mounted on the same carrier or rack, called an actuator.

Figure 2: Hard disk cylinders.

Originally, most hard disks spun at 3,600rpm—approximately 10 times faster than a floppy
disk drive. For many years, 3,600rpm was pretty much a constant among hard drives. Now,
however, most drives spin even faster. Although speeds can vary, modern drives typically
spin the platters at either 4,200rpm; 5,400rpm; 7,200rpm; 10,000rpm; or 15,000rpm. Most
standard-issue drives found in PCs today spin at 5,400rpm, with high performance models
spinning at 7,200rpm. Some of the small 2 1/2'' notebook drives run at only 4,200rpm to
conserve power, and the 10,000rpm or 15,000rpm drives are usually found only in very
high-performance workstations or servers, where their higher prices, heat generation, and
noise can be more easily dealt with. High rotational speeds combined with a fast head-
positioning mechanism and more sectors per track are what make one hard disk faster
overall than another.
The heads in most hard disk drives do not (and should not!) touch the platters during normal
operation. However, on most drives, the heads do rest on the platters when the drive is
powered off. In most drives, when the drive is powered off, the heads move to the innermost
cylinder, where they land on the platter surface. This is referred to as contact start stop
(CSS) design. When the drive is powered on, the heads slide on the platter surface as they
spin up, until a very thin cushion of air builds up between the heads and platter surface,
causing the heads to lift off and remain suspended a short distance above or below the
platter. If the air cushion is disturbed by a particle of dust or a shock, the head can come into
contact with the platter while it is spinning at full speed. When contact with the spinning
platters is forceful enough to do damage, the event is called a head crash. The result of a
head crash can be anything from a few lost bytes of data to a completely ruined drive. Most
drives have special lubricants on the platters and hardened surfaces that can withstand the
daily ―takeoffs and landings‖ as well as more severe abuse.

Some newer drives do not use CSS design and instead use a load/unload mechanism that
does not allow the heads to contact the platters, even when the drive is powered off. First
used in the 2 1/2'' form factor notebook or laptop drives where resistance to mechanical
shock is more important, traditional load/unload mechanisms use a ramp positioned just
off the outer part of the platter surface, whereas some newer designs position the ramp
near the spindle. When the drive is powered off or in a power saving mode, the heads ride
up on the ramp. When powered on, the platters are allowed to come up to full speed before
the heads are released down the ramp, allowing the airflow (air bearing) to prevent any
head/platter contact.
Because the platter assemblies are sealed and non-removable, the track densities on the disk
can be very high. Hard drives today have up to 96,000 or more tracks per inch (TPI)
recorded on the media (Hitachi Travelstar 80GN). Head disk assemblies (HDAs), which
contain the platters, are assembled and sealed in clean rooms under absolutely sanitary
conditions. Because few companies repair HDAs, repair or replacement of the parts inside
a sealed HDA can be expensive. Every hard disk ever made eventually fails. The only
questions are when the failure will occur and whether your data is backed up.

Floppy Disk Drives

Most modern personal computers do not have floppy drives anymore. The small, 3 1/2"
disks they read only hold 1.44 MB of data so they have become somewhat obsolete when
compared to the data storing capabilities of USB flash drives (up to 256 GB) and CD drives
(700 MB).
Floppies are non-volatile storage. The data remains when the computer power is turned off.
They can be read or written to over and over again.
The standard types of floppy disk drives and disks that have been used in PCs since the
beginning. It explores the various types of drives and disks, how they function, and how to
properly install and service them. The high-capacity floppy drives such as the SuperDisk
(LS-120 and LS-240) and flash memory devices such as USB keychain are covered
separately the floppy is still sometimes used as a system installation and configuration
device, especially when troubleshooting. In older systems that don't support the El Torito
CD-ROM boot specification, the floppy drive is the only way to load an operating system
from scratch or to run bootable diagnostics. Newer systems that support El Torito (bootable
CDs) do not require floppy drives because they can boot operating systems and diagnostics
directly from a CD.
 Figure 3: Floppy Disk Drives.
Winchester Disk
An early removable disk drive from IBM that put the heads and platters (disks) in a sealed
unit for greater speed. Before the Winchester architecture, removable disks were like
removable disks today, in which the read/write heads remain in the drive and make contact
with the platter after the cartridge is inserted.
Introduced in 1973 as the model 3340, the drive had one permanent and one removable
spindle, each holding 30MB. The ―30-30‖ storage capacities led to the Winchester nickname
after the Winchester 30-30 rifle. The term later referred to all fixed hard disks because the
heads and platters are always encased in the same, sealed unit. See also Winchester.

Figure 4: The Winchester Disk.

The BM‘s Winchester disk was a removable cartridge, but the heads and platters were built
in a sealed unit and were not separable.
A type of disk storage device characterized by no removable or sealed disk packs;
extremely narrow tracks; a lubricated surface that allows the head to rest on the surface
during start and stop operations; and servomechanisms which utilize a magnetic pattern,
recorded on the medium itself, to position the head.

Optical Disk
An optical disk is mounted on an optical disk drive for reading/writing of information on it.
An optical disk drive contains all the mechanical, electrical, and electronic components for
holding an optical disk and for reading/writing of information on it. That is, it contains the
tray on which the disk is kept, read/write laser beams assembly, and motor to rotate the disk
Figure 5 Shows an optical disk drive.
 Figure 5 Optical Disk Drive

Zip Drive: A Zip drive is a small, portable disk drive used primarily for backing up and
archiving personal computer files. The trademarked Zip drive was developed and is sold by
Lomega Corporation. Zip drives and disks come in two sizes. The 100 megabyte size
actually holds 100,431,872 bytes of data or the equivalent of 70 floppy diskettes. There is
also a 250 megabyte drive and disk. The Lomega Zip drive comes with a software utility
that lets you copy the entire contents of your hard drive to one or more Zip disks.

Flash Drives: flash drive is a compact device of the size of a pen, comes in various
shapes and stylish designs (such as pen shape, wallet shape etc.), and may have different
added features (such as with a camera, with a built-in N1P3lWMA/FM Radio play back for
music on the go, etc.). It enables easy transport of data from one computer to another. It is a
plug-and-play device that simply plugs into a USB (Universal Serial Bus) port of a
computer. The computer detects it automatically as removable drive. No one can read, write,
copy, delete, and move data from the computer‘s hard disk drive to the flash drive or from
the flash drive to the hard disk drive. One can even run applications, view videos, or play
MP3 files from it directly. Once done, it can be simply plugged out of the USB port of the
computer and kept into the pocket for being carried anywhere. A flash drive does not require
any battery cable, or software, and is compatible with most PCs, desktop, and laptop
computers with USB 2.0 port. All these features make it ideal external data storage for
mobile people to carry or transfer data from one computer to another. As the name implies,
it is based on flush memory storage technology Recall that flash is non-volatile, Electrically
Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM) chip. It is a highly -Aid-state
storage having data retention capability of more than 10 years.

Figure 6: A flash drive (pen drive).

Available storage capacities are 8MB, 16MB, 64MB, 128MB, 256MB, 512MB, 1GB, 2GB,
4GB, and 8GB. A: of 16MB capacity has 5600 times more storage capacity than a IAMB
floppy disk.
Figure 9.7 shows a flash drive. It has a main body and usually a port connector cover. The
cover is removed or port connector is pushed out when the drive is to be plugged into the
USB port of' a computer. The main body usually has a write protect tab, a read/write LED
(Light Emitting Diode) indicator, and a strap hole. Some manufacturers also provide
software to be used with the drive.

Blu Ray Disk: Blu-ray Disc (BD) is a next-generation optical disc format meant for
storage of high- definition video and high-density data. The Blu-ray standard was jointly
developed by a group of consumer electronics and PC companies called the Blu-ray Disc
Association (BDA). As compared to the HD DVD format, its main competitor, Blu-ray has
more information capacity per layer, 25 instead of 15 gigabytes, but may initially be more
expensive to produce.
 Data Access Methods
How data files are stored in secondary storage varies with the types of media and devices
you are using. Data files may be stored on or in sequential-access storage, direct-access
storage, or random-access storage.

Sequential Access Storage

Punched cards, paper tape, and magnetic tape are examples of sequential-access storage
media. When operating in a sequential environment, a particular record can be read only by
first reading all the records that come before it in the file. When you store a file on tape, the
125th record cannot be read until the 124 records in front of it are read. The records are read
in sequence. You cannot read just any record at random. This is also true when reading
punched cards or paper tape.

Direct Access Storage

Direct-access storage allows you to access the 125th record without first having to read the
124 records in front of it. Magnetic disks and drums are examples of direct-access storage
media. Data can be obtained quickly from anywhere on the media. However, the amount of
time it takes to access a record is dependent to some extent on the mechanical process
involved. It is usually necessary to scan some (but not all) of the preceding data.

Random Access Storage

Random-access storage media refers to magnetic core, semiconductor, thin film, and bubble
storage. Here, a given item of data can be selected from anywhere in storage without having
to scan any preceding items. And, the access time is independent of the storage location.

In computing, an access method is a program or a hardware mechanism that moves data

between the computer and an outlying device such as a hard disk (or other form of storage)
or a display terminal. The term is sometimes used to refer to the mechanics of placing or
locating specific data at a particular place on a storage medium and then writing the data or
reading it. It is also used to describe the way that data is located within a larger unit of data
such as a data set or file. An access method is also an application program interface (API)
that a programmer uses to create or access data sets or to read from or write to a display
terminal or other output device. Examples are the Virtual Sequential Access Method
(VSAM) and the Virtual Telecommunication Access Method (VTAM).