What is computer

Computer
Computer is an electronic device which is capable of receiving information or data
and perform a series of operations in accordance with a set of operations. This
produces results in the form of data or information. Computer is a machine capable
of solving problems and manipulating data. It accepts and processes the data by
doing some mathematical and logical operations and gives us the desired output.
in other language Computer is an electronic machine which has been mastered in
the rapid calculation, today the use of computer is increasing in all fields, now
computer is not only used for addition and remainder, it is now a machine taken
even in rocket science. It is really such an amazing machine that processes our
given Instructions (Input) and produces useful Results (output|).
Computer Hardware: It is the external part of the whole computer which we can
see even by touching or in other language say that the parts and devices of the
computer which we can touch and see are hardware. It is physically connected to
the computer.
Computer Software: It is a set of instructions and programs. A computer needs a
set of programs to program and run it, these are called software, it gives the ability
to any user to work on the computer very easily.
Computer User: The one who operates the computer is the user because the
computer needs to be operated and turned on at least once, to run any software, the
user’s instruction is required.

The characteristics of the computer system are as follows −

 Speed

A computer works with much higher speed and accuracy compared to

humans while performing mathematical calculations. Computers can process
millions (1,000,000) of instructions per second. The time taken by
computers for their operations is microseconds and nanoseconds.

Accuracy

Computers perform calculations with 100% accuracy. Errors may occur due
to data inconsistency or inaccuracy.

Diligence

A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the same

consistency and accuracy. It doesn’t feel any fatigue or lack of
concentration. Its memory also makes it superior to that of human beings.

Versatility

Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different kinds of

works with same accuracy and efficiency.

Reliability

A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set of data i.e., if we
give same set of input any number of times, we will get the same result.

Automation Computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e. it performs tasks
without manual intervention.

Memory

A computer has built-in memory called primary memory where it stores data.
Secondary storage are removable devices such as CDs, pen drives, etc., which are
also used to store data.

Types of Computer Storage Devices

Now we will discuss different types of storage devices available in the market. These storage devices
have their own specification and use. Some of the commonly used storage devices are:
1. Primary Storage Devices
2. Magnetic Storage Devices
3. Flash memory Devices
4. Optical Storage Devices
5. Cloud and Virtual Storage
1. Primary Storage Devices
 RAM: It stands for Random Access Memory. It is used to store information that is used immediately
or we can say that it is a temporary memory. Computers bring the software installed on a hard disk
to RAM to process it and to be used by the user. Once, the computer is turned off, the data is
deleted. With the help of RAM, computers can perform multiple tasks like loading applications,
browsing the web, editing a spreadsheet, experiencing the newest game, etc. It allows you to modify
quickly among these tasks, remembering where you’re in one task once you switch to a different
task. It is also used to load and run applications, like your spreadsheet program, answers
commands, like all edits you made within the spreadsheet, or toggle between multiple programs,
 like once you left the spreadsheet to see the email. Memory is nearly always actively employed by
your computer. It ranges from 1GB – 32GB/64GB depending upon the specifications. There are
different types of RAM, and although they all serve the same purpose, the most common ones are :
 SRAM: It stands for Static Random Access Memory . It consists of circuits that retain
stored information as long as the power supply is on. It is also known as volatile
memory. It is used to build Cache memory. The access time of SRAM is lower and it is
much faster as compared to DRAM but in terms of cost, it is costly as compared to
DRAM.
 DRAM: It stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory . It is used to store binary bits in
the form of electrical charges that are applied to capacitors. The access time of DRAM is
slower as compared to SRAM but it is cheaper than SRAM and has a high packaging
density.
 SDRAM: It stands for Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory . It is faster than
DRAM. It is widely used in computers and others. After SDRAM was introduced, the
upgraded version of double data rate RAM, i.e., DDR1, DDR2, DDR3, and DDR4 was
entered into the market and widely used in home/office desktops and laptops.
 ROM: It stands for Read-Only Memory. The data written or stored in these devices are non-volatile,
i.e, once the data is stored in the memory cannot be modified or deleted. The memory from which
will only read but cannot write it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored
permanently during manufacture only once. ROM stores instructions that are used to start a
computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. It is also used in other electronic items like
washers and microwaves. ROM chips can only store a few megabytes (MB) of data, which ranges
between 4 and 8 MB per ROM chip. There are two types of ROM:
 PROM: PROM is Programmable Read-Only Memory . These are ROMs that can be
programmed. A special PROM programmer is employed to enter the program on the
PROM. Once the chip has been programmed, information on the PROM can’t be altered.
PROM is non-volatile, that is data is not lost when power is switched off.
 EPROM: Another sort of memory is the Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory . It
is possible to erase the info which has been previously stored on an EPROM and write
new data onto the chip.
 EEPROM: EEPROM is Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory . Here,
data can be erased without using ultraviolet light, with the use of just applying the electric
field.
2. Magnetic Storage Devices
 Floppy Disk: Floppy Disk is also known as a floppy diskette. It is generally used on a personal
computer to store data externally. A Floppy disk is made up of a plastic cartridge and secured with a
protective case. Nowadays floppy disk is replaced by new and effective storage devices like USB,
etc.
 Hard Disk: Hard Disk is a storage device (HDD) that stores and retrieves data using magnetic
storage. It is a non-volatile storage device that can be modified or deleted n number of times without
any problem. Most computers and laptops have HDDs as their secondary storage device. It is
actually a set of stacked disks, just like phonograph records. In every hard disk, the data is recorded
electromagnetically in concentric circles or we can say track present on the hard disk, and with the
help of a head just like a phonograph arm(but fixed in a position) to read the information present on
the track. The read-write speed of HDDs is not so fast but decent. It ranges from a few GBs to a few
and more TB.
 Magnetic Card: It is a card in which data is stored by modifying or rearranging the magnetism of
tiny iron-based magnetic particles present on the band of the card. It is also known as a swipe card.
It is used like a passcode(to enter the house or hotel room), credit card, identity card, etc.
 Tape Cassette: It is also known as a music cassette. It is a rectangular flat container in which the
data is stored in an analog magnetic tape. It is generally used to store audio recordings.
 SuperDisk: It is also called LS-240 and LS-120. It is introduced by Imation Corporation and it is
popular with OEM computers. It can store data up to 240 MB.
3. Flash Memory Devices
It is a cheaper and more portable storage device. It is the most commonly used device to store data
because is more reliable and efficient as compared to other storage devices. Some of the commonly
used flash memory devices are:
 Pen Drive: It is also known as a USB flash drive that includes flash memory with an integrated USB
interface. We can directly connect these devices to our computers and laptops and read/write data
into them in a much faster and more efficient way. These devices are very portable. It ranges from
1GB to 256GB generally.
 SSD: It stands for Solid State Drive, a mass storage device like HDD. It is more durable because it
does not contain optical disks inside like hard disks. It needs less power as compared to hard disks,
 is lightweight, and has 10x faster read and writes speed as compared to hard disks. But, these are
costly as well. While SSDs serve an equivalent function as hard drives, their internal components
are much different. Unlike hard drives, SSDs don’t have any moving parts and thus they’re called
solid-state drives. Instead of storing data on magnetic platters, SSDs store data using non-volatile
storage. Since SSDs haven’t any moving parts, they do not need to “spin up”. It ranges from 150GB
to a few more TB.
 SD Card: It is known as a Secure Digital Card. It is generally used with electronic devices like
phones, digital cameras, etc. to store larger data. It is portable and the size of the SD card is also
small so that it can easily fit into electronic devices. It is available in different sizes like 2GB, 4GB,
8GB, etc.
 Memory Card: It is generally used in digital cameras. printers, game consoles, etc. It is also used
to store large amounts of data and is available in different sizes. To run a memory card on a
computer you require a separate memory card reader.
 Multimedia Card: It is also known as MMC. It is an integrated circuit that is generally used in-car
radios, digital cameras, etc. It is an external device to store data/information.
4. Optical Storage Devices
Optical Storage Devices is also secondary storage device. It is a removable storage device. Following
are some optical storage devices:
 CD: It is known as Compact Disc. It contains tracks and sectors on its surface to store data. It is
made up of polycarbonate plastic and is circular in shape. CD can store data up to 700MB. It is of
two types:
 CD-R: It stands for Compact Disc read-only. In this type of CD, once the data is written
can not be erased. It is read-only.
 CD-RW: It stands for Compact Disc Read Write. In this type of CD, you can easily write
or erase data multiple times.
 DVD: It is known as Digital Versatile Disc. DVDs are circular flat optical discs used to store data. It
comes in two different sizes one is 4.7GB single-layer discs and another one is 8.5GB double-layer
discs. DVDs look like CDs but the storage capacity of DVDs is more than as compared to CDs. It is
of two types:
 DVD-R: It stands for Digital Versatile Disc read-only. In this type of DVD, once the data
is written can not be erased. It is read-only. It is generally used to write movies, etc.
 DVD-RW: It stands for Digital Versatile Disc Read Write. In this type of DVD, you can
easily write or erase data multiple times.
 Blu-ray Disc: It is just like CD and DVD but the storage capacity of blu ray is up to 25GB. To run a
Blu-ray disc you need a separate Blu-ray reader. This Blu-ray technology is used to read a disc from
a blue-violet laser due to which the information is stored in greater density with a longer wavelength.

5. Cloud and Virtual Storage

Nowadays, secondary memory has been upgraded to virtual or cloud storage devices. We can store
our files and other stuff in the cloud and the data is stored for as long as we pay for the cloud storage.
There are many companies that provide cloud services largely Google, Amazon, Microsoft, etc. We can
pay the rent for the amount of space we need and we get multiple benefits out of it. Though it is actually
being stored in a physical device located in the data centers of the service provider, the user doesn’t
interact with the physical device and its maintenance. For example, Amazon Web Services offers AWS
S3 as a type of storage where users can store data virtually instead of being stored in physical hard
drive devices. These sorts of innovations represent the frontier of where storage media goes.

Characteristics of Computer Storage Devices

 Data stored in the Memory can be changed or replaced in case of a requirement, because of the
mobility of the storage devices.
 Storage Devices validate that saved data can be replaced or deleted as per the requirements
because the storage devices are easily readable, writeable, and rewritable.
 Storage Devices are easy and convenient to access because they do not require much skill set to
handle these resources.
 The storage capacity of these devices is an extra advantage to the system.
 Storage Devices have better performance and data can be easily transferred from one device to
another.
History of Computers
Before computers were developed people used sticks, stones, and bones as counting tools. As technology advanced
and the human mind improved with time more computing devices were developed like Abacus, Napier’s Bones, etc.
These devices were used as computers for performing mathematical computations but not very complex ones.
Some of the popular computing devices are described below, starting from the oldest to the latest or most advanced
technology developed:
Abacus
Around 4000 years ago, the Chinese invented the Abacus, and it is believed to be the first computer. The history of
computers begins with the birth of the abacus.
Structure: Abacus is basically a wooden rack that has metal rods with beads mounted on them.
Working of abacus: In the abacus, the beads were moved by the abacus operator according to some rules to
perform arithmetic calculations. In some countries like China, Russia, and Japan, the abacus is still used by their
people.
Napier’s Bones
Napier’s Bones was a manually operated calculating device and as the name indicates, it was invented by John
Napier. In this device, he used 9 different ivory strips (bones) marked with numbers to multiply and divide for
calculation. It was also the first machine to use the decimal point system for calculation.
Pascaline
It is also called an Arithmetic Machine or Adding Machine. A French mathematician-philosopher Blaise Pascal
invented this between 1642 and 1644. It was the first mechanical and automatic calculator. It is invented by Pascal
to help his father, a tax accountant in his work or calculation. It could perform addition and subtraction in quick
time. It was basically a wooden box with a series of gears and wheels. It is worked by rotating wheel like when a
wheel is rotated one revolution, it rotates the neighbouring wheel and a series of windows is given on the top of the
wheels to read the totals.
Stepped Reckoner or Leibniz wheel
A German mathematician-philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in 1673 developed this device by improving
Pascal’s invention to develop this machine. It was basically a digital mechanical calculator, and it was called the
stepped reckoner as it was made of fluted drums instead of gears (used in the previous model of Pascaline).
Difference Engine
Charles Babbage who is also known as the “Father of Modern Computer” designed the Difference Engine in the
early 1820s. Difference Engine was a mechanical computer which is capable of performing simple calculations. It
works with help of steam as it was a steam-driven calculating machine, and it was designed to solve tables of
numbers like logarithm tables.
Analytical Engine
Again in 1830 Charles Babbage developed another calculating machine which was Analytical Engine. Analytical
Engine was a mechanical computer that used punch cards as input. It was capable of performing or solving any
mathematical problem and storing information as a permanent memory (storage).
Tabulating Machine
Herman Hollerith, an American statistician invented this machine in the year 1890. Tabulating Machine was a
mechanical tabulator that was based on punch cards. It was capable of tabulating statistics and record or sort data or
information. This machine was used by U.S. Census in the year 1890. Hollerith’s Tabulating Machine Company was
started by Hollerith and this company later became International Business Machine (IBM) in the year 1924.
Differential Analyzer
Differential Analyzer was the first electronic computer introduced in the year 1930 in the United States. It was
basically an analog device that was invented by Vannevar Bush. This machine consists of vacuum tubes to switch
electrical signals to perform calculations. It was capable of doing 25 calculations in a few minutes.
Mark I
In the year 1937, major changes began in the history of computers when Howard Aiken planned to develop a
machine that could perform large calculations or calculations involving large numbers. In the year 1944, Mark I
computer was built as a partnership between IBM and Harvard. It was also the first programmable digital computer
marking a new era in the computer world.
 Generations of Computers

First Generation Computers

In the period of the year 1940-1956, it was referred to as the period of the first generation of computers.
These machines are slow, huge, and expensive. In this generation of computers, vacuum tubes were
used as the basic components of CPU and memory. Also, they were mainly dependent on the batch
operating systems and punch cards. Magnetic tape and paper tape were used as output and input
devices. For example ENIAC, UNIVAC-1, EDVAC, etc.
Second Generation Computers
In the period of the year, 1957-1963 was referred to as the period of the second generation of
computers. It was the time of the transistor computers. In the second generation of computers,
transistors (which were cheap in cost) are used. Transistors are also compact and consume less
power. Transistor computers are faster than first-generation computers. For primary memory, magnetic
cores were used, and for secondary memory magnetic disc and tapes for storage purposes. In second-
generation computers, COBOL and FORTRAN are used as Assembly language and programming
languages, and Batch processing and multiprogramming operating systems were used in these
computers.
For example IBM 1620, IBM 7094, CDC 1604, CDC 3600, etc.
Third Generation Computers
In the third generation of computers, integrated circuits (ICs) were used instead of transistors(in the
second generation). A single IC consists of many transistors which increased the power of a computer
and also reduced the cost. The third generation computers are more reliable, efficient, and smaller in
size. It used remote processing, time-sharing, and multiprogramming as operating systems.
FORTRON-II TO IV, COBOL, and PASCAL PL/1 were used which are high-level programming
languages.
For example IBM-360 series, Honeywell-6000 series, IBM-370/168, etc.
Fourth Generation Computers
The period of 1971-1980 was mainly the time of fourth generation computers. It used VLSI(Very Large
Scale Integrated) circuits. VLSI is a chip containing millions of transistors and other circuit elements
and because of these chips, the computers of this generation are more compact, powerful, fast, and
affordable(low in cost). Real-time, time-sharing and distributed operating system are used by these
computers. C and C++ are used as the programming languages in this generation of computers.
For example STAR 1000, PDP 11, CRAY-1, CRAY-X-MP, etc.
Fifth Generation Computers
From 1980 – to till date these computers are used. The ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology
is used in fifth-generation computers instead of the VLSI technology of fourth-generation computers.
Microprocessor chips with ten million electronic components are used in these computers. Parallel
processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software are also used in fifth-generation
computers. The programming languages like C, C++, Java, .Net, etc. are used.
For example Desktop, Laptop, NoteBook, UltraBook, etc.

List of Input Devices

Given below is the list of the most common input devices along with brief information about each of them.
1. Keyboard
 A simple device comprising keys and each key denotes either an alphabet, number or number commands which
can be given to a computer for various actions to be performed
 It has a modified version of typewriter keys
 The keyboard is an essential input device and computer and laptops both use keyboards to give commands to the
computer
2. Mouse
 It is also known as a pointing device
 Using mouse we can directly click on the various icons present on the system and open up various files and
programs
 A mouse comprises 3 buttons on the top and one trackball at the bottom which helps in selecting and moving the
mouse around, respectively
 In case of laptops, the touchpad is given as a replacement of the mouse which helps in the movement of the
mouse pointer
 3. Joy Stick
 It is a device which comprises a stick which is attached at an angle to the base so that it can be moved and
controlled
 Mostly used to control the movement in video games
 Apart from a computer system, a joystick is also used in the cockpit of an aeroplane, wheelchairs, cranes, trucks,
etc. to operate them well
4. Light Pen
 It is a wand-like looking device which can directly be moved over the device’s screen
 It is light-sensitive
 Used in conjunction with computer’s cathode ray tube
5. Microphone
 Using a microphone, sound can be stored in a device in its digital form
 It converts sound into an electrical signal
 To record or reproduce a sound created using a microphone, it needs to be connected with an amplifier
6. Scanner
 This device can scan images or text and convert it into a digital signal
 When we place any piece of a document on a scanner, it converts it into a digital signal and displays it on the
computer screen
7. Barcode Reader
 It is a kind of an optical scanner
 It can read bar codes
 A source of light is passed through a bar code, and its aspects and details are displayed on the screen

List of Output Device

The commonly used output devices have been listed below with a brief summary of what their function is and
how they can be used.

1. Monitor
 The device which displays all the icons, text, images, etc. over a screen is called the Monitor
 When we ask the computer to perform an action, the result of that action is displayed on the monitor
 Various types of monitors have also been developed over the years
2. Printer
 A device which makes a copy of the pictorial or textual content, usually over a paper is called a printer
 For example, an author types the entire book on his/her computer and later gets a print out of it, which is in the
form of paper and is later published
 Multiple types of printers are also available in the market, which can serve different purposes
3. Speakers
 A device through which we can listen to a sound as an outcome of what we command a computer to do is called a
speaker
 Speakers are attached with a computer system and also are a hardware device which can be attached separately
 With the advancement in technology, speakers are now available which are wireless and can be connected using
BlueTooth or other applications
4. Projector
 An optical device which presents an image or moving images onto a projection screen is called a projector
 Most commonly these projectors are used in auditoriums and movie theatres for the display of the videos or
lighting
 If a projector is connected to a computer, then the image/video displayed on the screen is the same as the one
displayed on the computer screen
5. Headphones
 They perform the same function as a speaker, the only difference is the frequency of sound
 Using speakers, the sound can be heard over a larger area and using headphones, the sound is only audible to
the person using them
 Also known as earphones or headset
Software and its Types
Software is a collection of instructions, data, or computer programs that are used to run machines and carry out
particular activities. It is the antithesis of hardware, which refers to a computer’s external components. A device’s
running programs, scripts, and applications are collectively referred to as “software” in this context.
What is a Software?
In a computer system, the software is basically a set of instructions or commands that tell a computer what to do. In
other words, the software is a computer program that provides a set of instructions to execute a user’s commands
and tell the computer what to do. For example like MS-Word, MS-Excel, PowerPoint, etc.
Types of Software
It is a collection of data that is given to the computer to complete a particular task. The chart below describes the
types of software:

Above is the diagram of types of software. Now we will briefly describe each type and its subtypes:
1. System Software
 Operating System
 Language Processor
 Device Driver
2. Application Software
 General Purpose Software
 Customize Software
 Utility Software
System Software
System software is software that directly operates the computer hardware and provides the basic functionality to the
users as well as to the other software to operate smoothly. Or in other words, system software basically controls a
computer’s internal functioning and also controls hardware devices such as monitors, printers, and storage devices,
etc. It is like an interface between hardware and user applications, it helps them to communicate with each other
because hardware understands machine language(i.e. 1 or 0) whereas user applications are work in human-readable
languages like English, Hindi, German, etc. so system software converts the human-readable language into machine
language and vice versa.
 Types of System Software
It has two subtypes which are:
1. Operating System: It is the main program of a computer system. When the computer system ON it is the first
software that loads into the computer’s memory. Basically, it manages all the resources such as computer
memory, CPU, printer, hard disk, etc., and provides an interface to the user, which helps the user to interact
with the computer system. It also provides various services to other computer software. Examples of operating
systems are Linux, Apple macOS, Microsoft Windows, etc.
2. Language Processor: As we know that system software converts the human-readable language into a machine
language and vice versa. So, the conversion is done by the language processor. It converts programs written in
high-level programming languages like Java, C, C++, Python, etc(known as source code), into sets of
instructions that are easily readable by machines(known as object code or machine code).
3. Device Driver: A device driver is a program or software that controls a device and helps that device to perform
its functions. Every device like a printer, mouse, modem, etc. needs a driver to connect with the computer system
eternally. So, when you connect a new device with your computer system, first you need to install the driver of
that device so that your operating system knows how to control or manage that device.
Features of System Software
Let us discuss some of the features of System Software:
 System Software is closer to the computer system.
 System Software is written in a low-level language in general.
 System software is difficult to design and understand.
 System software is fast in speed(working speed).
 System software is less interactive for the users in comparison to application software.
Application Software
Software that performs special functions or provides functions that are much more than the basic operation of the
computer is known as application software. Or in other words, application software is designed to perform a specific
task for end-users. It is a product or a program that is designed only to fulfill end-users’ requirements. It includes
word processors, spreadsheets, database management, inventory, payroll programs, etc.
Types of Application Software
There are different types of application software and those are:
1. General Purpose Software: This type of application software is used for a variety of tasks and it is not limited to
performing a specific task only. For example, MS-Word, MS-Excel, PowerPoint, etc.
2. Customized Software: This type of application software is used or designed to perform specific tasks or
functions or designed for specific organizations. For example, railway reservation system, airline reservation
system, invoice management system, etc.
3. Utility Software: This type of application software is used to support the computer infrastructure. It is designed
to analyze, configure, optimize and maintains the system, and take care of its requirements as well. For
example, antivirus, disk fragmenter, memory tester, disk repair, disk cleaners, registry cleaners, disk space
analyzer, etc.
Features of Application Software
Let us discuss some of the features of Application Software:
 An important feature of application software is it performs more specialized tasks like word processing,
spreadsheets, email, etc.
 Mostly, the size of the software is big, so it requires more storage space.
 Application software is more interactive for the users, so it is easy to use and design.
 The application software is easy to design and understand.
 Application software is written in a high-level language in general.
Difference Between System Software and Application Software
Now, let us discuss some difference between system software and application software:

System Software Application Software

It is designed to manage the resources of the computer It is designed to fulfill the requirements of the user
system, like memory and process management, etc. for performing specific tasks.

Written in a low-level language. Written in a high-level language.

 System Software Application Software

Less interactive for the users. More interactive for the users.

System software plays vital role for the effective Application software is not so important for the
functioning of a system. functioning of the system, as it is task specific.

It is independent of the application software to run. It needs system software to run.

Computer Virus Definition

A computer virus is an ill-natured software application or authored code that can attach itself to other programs, self-
replicate, and spread itself onto other devices. When executed, a virus modifies other computer programs by inserting its
code into them. If the virus’s replication is successful, the affected device is considered “infected” with a computer virus.

The malicious activity carried out by the virus’s code can damage the local file system, steal data, interrupt services,
download additional malware, or any other actions the malware author coded into the program. Many viruses pretend to be
legitimate programs to trick users into executing them on their devices, delivering the computer virus payload.

Types of Computer Viruses

Every computer virus has a payload that performs an action. The threat actor can code any malicious activity into the virus
payload, including simple, innocuous pranks that don’t do any harm. While a few viruses have harmless payloads, most of
them cause damage to the system and its data. There are nine main virus types, some of which could be packaged with
other malware to increase the chance of infection and damage. The nine major categories for viruses on computers are:

Boot Sector Virus

Your computer drive has a sector solely responsible for pointing to the operating system so that it can boot into the
interface. A boot sector virus damages or controls the boot sector on the drive, rendering the machine unusable. Attackers
usually use malicious USB devices to spread this computer virus. The virus is activated when users plug in the USB
device and boot their machine.

Web Scripting Virus

Most browsers have defenses against malicious web scripts, but older, unsupported browsers have vulnerabilities allowing
attackers to run code on the local device.

Browser Hijacker

A computer virus that can change the settings on your browser will hijack browser favorites, the home page URL, and
your search preferences and redirect you to a malicious site. The site could be a phishing site or an adware page used to
steal data or make money for the attacker.

Resident Virus

A virus that can access computer memory and sit dormant until a payload is delivered is considered a resident virus. This
malware may stay dormant until a specific date or time or when a user performs an action.

Direct Action Virus

When a user executes a seemingly harmless file attached to malicious code, direct-action viruses deliver a payload
immediately. These computer viruses can also remain dormant until a specific action is taken or a timeframe passes.
 Polymorphic Virus

Malware authors can use polymorphic code to change the program’s footprint to avoid detection. Therefore, it’s more
difficult for an antivirus to detect and remove them.

File Infector Virus

To persist on a system, a threat actor uses file infector viruses to inject malicious code into critical files that run the
operating system or important programs. The computer virus is activated when the system boots or the program runs.

Multipartite Virus

These malicious programs spread across a network or other systems by copying themselves or injecting code into critical
computer resources.

Macro Virus

Microsoft Office files can run macros that can be used to download additional malware or run malicious code. Macro
viruses deliver a payload when the file is opened and the macro runs.

How Do Computer Viruses Work?

At their core, computer viruses are discreet programs that hitch a ride on other files or applications. In most cases, their
primary objective is to replicate and spread like wildfire.

Computer viruses function as malicious software programs designed to infect other programs by modifying them in some
way. In doing so, a virus will attach itself to an unsuspecting file or application in order to spread.

The Infection Process

A virus can attach itself to any legitimate program or document that supports macros to execute its code, such as an email
attachment or a file download from a website. Once the file is opened or downloaded, the virus springs into action and
starts executing.

Hiding in Plain Sight

Computer viruses can be quite crafty to remain hidden from both users and antivirus software alike. Viruses employ
stealth techniques such as polymorphism, which changes their appearance, or encryption methods.

The Damage Done

Once activated, a virus may wreak havoc on your computer system. It can steal sensitive data, corrupt files, slow down
performance, and even crash your entire system. It can spread from system to system after a user takes action that either
intentionally or accidentally facilitates it.

It’s important to note that viruses are just one type of malware, and many other types of malicious software can harm your
computer or steal your personal information.

How Do Viruses Spread?

Computer viruses spread through various channels, and being aware of these channels is essential to protect yourself and
your organization from infection.
 Email Attachments

One method of virus transmission is through email attachments. Hackers often disguise their malicious code as seemingly
harmless files, such as documents or images unsuspecting users open without a second thought. For example, Ursnif
banking Trojan campaigns are known to spread via email attachments posing as invoices or financial statements.

Internet Downloads

Viruses can also hide in software installers, media files, or even browser extensions that you download from the web. It’s
important to be cautious when downloading files from unknown sources or sketchy websites. A notorious case was the
Download.com scandal, where popular applications were bundled with adware and other unwanted programs by default.

File Sharing Networks

File sharing networks like torrent sites and peer-to-peer platforms can easily transmit viruses. Innocent-looking movie
torrents or cracked software may carry hidden payloads designed to compromise your device upon installation. For
example, The Pirate Bay used a browser-based cryptocurrency miner, so when someone visited the website, their
computer was used to mine cryptocurrency without their knowledge or consent.

Removable Media

Viruses can attach to removable media, such as USB drives and CDs/DVDs, infecting any computer they’re plugged into.
The infamous Stuxnet worm is a prime example of a virus that spreads through removable media.

To protect yourself and your organization from computer viruses, always exercise caution and employ robust
cybersecurity measures like up-to-date antivirus software and regular system scans. Remember, knowledge is power,
especially when preventing viruses and cyber-attacks.

How to Remove a Computer Virus

Removing a computer virus can be a challenging task, but there are several steps you can take to get rid of it. Common
steps to remove a computer virus include:

1. Download and install antivirus software: Assuming you don’t already have antivirus software installed,
download and install a real-time and on-demand solution, if possible. A real-time malware scanner scans for
viruses in the background while you use the computer. You must start the on-demand scanner whenever you
want to scan your device.
2. Disconnect from the internet: Some computer viruses use the internet connection to spread, so it’s best to
disconnect from the internet when removing a virus from your PC to prevent further damage.
3. Delete any temporary files: Depending on the type of virus, deleting temporary files can also delete the virus, as
some viruses are designed to initiate when your computer boots up.
4. Reboot your computer into safe mode: To help mitigate damages to your computer while you remove a virus,
reboot your device in ‘Safe Mode.’ This will inhibit the virus from running and allow you to remove it more
effectively.
5. Run a virus scan: Run a full scan using your antivirus software, opting for the most thorough or complete
scanning option available. If possible, cover all your hard drive letters during the scan.
6. Delete or quarantine the virus: Once the virus is detected, your antivirus software will give you the option to
delete or quarantine the virus. Quarantining the virus will isolate it from the rest of your computer to prevent it
from causing further damage.
7. Reboot your computer: Assuming you’ve effectively removed the virus, your computer can be rebooted. Simply
turn on the device as you would do so normally without initiating the “Safe Mode” option.
8. Update your browser and operating system: To complete the virus removal process, update your operating
system and web browser to the latest version possible. Browser and OS Updates often contain fixes for
particular vulnerabilities and exploits.

Given the general nature of this process, the outcome may vary from virus to virus and device to device. If you are unsure
if you’ve effectively removed a virus from your computer, contact an IT or computer professional for assistance.
What is Cyber Security?
The technique of protecting internet-connected systems such as computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic
systems, networks, and data from malicious attacks is known as cybersecurity. We can divide cybersecurity into
two parts one is cyber, and the other is security. Cyber refers to the technology that includes systems, networks,
programs, and data. And security is concerned with the protection of systems, networks, applications, and
information. In some cases, it is also called electronic information security or information technology
security.

Types of Cyber Security

Every organization's assets are the combinations of a variety of different systems. These systems have a strong
cybersecurity posture that requires coordinated efforts across all of its systems. Therefore, we can categorize
cybersecurity in the following sub-domains:

o Network Security: It involves implementing the hardware and software to secure a computer network
from unauthorized access, intruders, attacks, disruption, and misuse. This security helps an organization
to protect its assets against external and internal threats.
o Application Security: It involves protecting the software and devices from unwanted threats. This
protection can be done by constantly updating the apps to ensure they are secure from attacks.
Successful security begins in the design stage, writing source code, validation, threat modeling, etc.,
before a program or device is deployed.
o Information or Data Security: It involves implementing a strong data storage mechanism to maintain
the integrity and privacy of data, both in storage and in transit.
o Identity management: It deals with the procedure for determining the level of access that each
individual has within an organization.
o Operational Security: It involves processing and making decisions on handling and securing data
assets.
o Mobile Security: It involves securing the organizational and personal data stored on mobile devices
such as cell phones, computers, tablets, and other similar devices against various malicious threats.
These threats are unauthorized access, device loss or theft, malware, etc.
o Cloud Security: It involves in protecting the information stored in the digital environment or cloud
architectures for the organization. It uses various cloud service providers such as AWS, Azure, Google,
etc., to ensure security against multiple threats.
o Disaster Recovery and Business Continuity Planning: It deals with the processes, monitoring, alerts,
and plans to how an organization responds when any malicious activity is causing the loss of
operations or data. Its policies dictate resuming the lost operations after any disaster happens to the
same operating capacity as before the event.
o User Education: It deals with the processes, monitoring, alerts, and plans to how an organization
responds when any malicious activity is causing the loss of operations or data. Its policies dictate
resuming the lost operations after any disaster happens to the same operating capacity as before the
event.
 Types of Cyber Security Threats
A threat in cybersecurity is a malicious activity by an individual or organization to corrupt or steal data, gain
access to a network, or disrupts digital life in general. The cyber community defines the following threats
available today:

Malware

Malware means malicious software, which is the most common cyber attacking tool. It is used by the
cybercriminal or hacker to disrupt or damage a legitimate user's system. The following are the important types
of malware created by the hacker:

Phishing

Phishing is a type of cybercrime in which a sender seems to come from a genuine organization like PayPal,
eBay, financial institutions, or friends and co-workers. They contact a target or targets via email, phone, or text
message with a link to persuade them to click on that links. This link will redirect them to fraudulent websites to
provide sensitive data such as personal information, banking and credit card information, social security
numbers, usernames, and passwords. Clicking on the link will also install malware on the target devices that
allow hackers to control devices remotely.

Man-in-the-middle (MITM) attack

A man-in-the-middle attack is a type of cyber threat (a form of eavesdropping attack) in which a

cybercriminal intercepts a conversation or data transfer between two individuals. Once the cybercriminal
places themselves in the middle of a two-party communication, they seem like genuine participants and can get
sensitive information and return different responses. The main objective of this type of attack is to gain access
to our business or customer data. For example, a cybercriminal could intercept data passing between the
target device and the network on an unprotected Wi-Fi network.

Ransomware
In a ransomware attack, the victim's computer is locked, typically by encryption, which keeps the victim from using
the device or data that's stored on it. To regain access to the device or data, the victim has to pay the hacker a
ransom, typically in a virtual currency such as Bitcoin. Ransomware can be spread via malicious email attachments,
infected software apps, infected external storage devices and compromised websites.
 Exploit kits

An exploit kit is a programming tool that enables a person without any experience writing software code to

create, customize and distribute malware. Exploit kits are known by a variety of names,
including infection kit , crimeware kit , DIY attack kit and malware toolkit . Cybercriminals use these

toolkits to attack system vulnerabilities to distribute malware or engage in other malicious activities, such

as stealing corporate data, launching denial of service attacks or building botnets.

What is the Internet?

The Internet is a short form for an interconnected network. It has become a vital
part of our lives, helping us connect with people worldwide. The Internet is made
of a large number of independently operated networks. It is fully distributed with
no central control. Each independently-operated system is motivated to ensure
that there is end-to-end connectivity of every part of the network.
The Internet is simply a ire that runs underground and allows two computers to
communicate with each other. A server is a particular computer that is connected
directly to the Internet. When we talk about specific web pages, they are simply
files that are stored on the server’s hard drive. Every server has a unique
protocol address or an IP address. IP addresses are essential for computers to
find each other.

A short note of the history of the Internet will help you understand when, where,
and how the Internet was developed.
History of the Internet
The first question that pops into your mind is probably, “Who started the
internet?”. The Internet was developed by Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf in the 1970s.
They began the design of what we today know as the ‘internet.’ It was the result
of another research experiment which was called ARPANET, which stands for
Advanced Research Projects Agency Network. This was initially supposed to be
a communications system for the Defense Team of the United States of America
- a network that would also survive a nuclear attack. It eventually became a
successful nationwide experimental packet network. But when was the first
Internet started? It is believed that on 6 August 1991, when the World Wide Web
opened to the public.
How Does the Internet Work?
Computers that we use every day are called clients because they are indirectly
connected to the Internet through an internet service provider. When you open a
webpage on your computer, you connect to the webpage, and then you can
access it. Computers break the information into smaller pieces called packets,
which are reassembled in their original order.
If we put the right address on a packet and send it to any computer which is
connected as part of the internet, each computer would figure out which cable to
send it down next so that it would get to its destination. With several computers
on a network, it may create confusion even with unique addresses. This transfer
of messages is handled by the Packet Routing Network, and hence a router is
required to set up.
The Transfer Control Protocol is another system that makes sure no packet is
lost or left behind because it might create a disrupted message at the receiving
end.
The below are the steps for how the message is transferred.
1. First, Computer1 sends a message by IP address to Computer2
2. The message sent by Computer1 is broken into small pieces- packets.
3. These small pieces- packets are transferred concerning Transfer Protocol
so that the quality is maintained.
4. Finally, these small pieces- packets reach Computer2 and are
reassembled at their IP address.
The Internet works in a more complex manner than these above-given steps, but
this might give a basic idea of how the internet works.
Father of the Internet: Tim Berners-Lee
Tim Berners-Lee was the man, who led the development of the World Wide Web,
the defining of HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol), HTML (hypertext markup
language) used to create web pages, and URLs (Universal Resource Locators).
The development of WWW, HTTP, HTML and URLs took place between 1989
and 1991. Tim Berners-Lee was born in London and he graduated in Physics
from Oxford University in 1976. Currently, Tim Berners-Lee is the Director of the
World Wide Web Consortium, the group that sets technical standards for the
web.
Tim Berners-Lee, Vinton Cerf is also named as an internet daddy other than Tim
Berners-Lee. After being out for 10 years from high school, he began co-
designing and co-developing the protocols and structure of what became the
internet.
Evolution of the Internet
Although the Internet was developed much earlier, it only became popular in
households in the 1990s. The emergence of the Internet can be tracked by how
many businesses and homes started changing the way they worked and started
connecting their laptops and other devices to the Internet. However, the concept
of hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) as we know it today, was created only
during this time. This meant that people could access the same web pages on
their devices now and share information.
There has been a dramatic growth in the number of internet users since its
inception. As a result, the number of computer networks that are connected has
grown exponentially too. It started with only connecting less than ten computers
initially. Today, 440 million computers can be connected directly, making life
easier for people across the globe. Sharing information and knowledge has
become extremely easy for those that have access to the Internet. The country
with the highest number of internet users is China, with 1.4 billion users, followed
by India with 1.3 billion and the United States of America with a little over 0.3
billion users.

The Two Main Types of Computer Networks

There are different computer network types, depending on how large they are
and how much geographical area they cover. The most common types are Local
Area Network (LAN) and Wireless Local Area Network (WAN).

Local Area Network: This is a group of devices such as computers, servers,

switches, and printers that are located in the same building. These are near each
other. The most common use of LAN is in houses or offices. A common type of
LAN is an Ethernet LAN, where two or more computers are connected to the
Internet through switches.

Wireless Local Area Network: This is a local area network that uses wireless
communication instead of wired communication. In WLAN, two computers use
wireless communication to form a local area network. A wifi router is very
common in this case. There are no cables involved in this case.
Advantages of Internet
The internet has become a popular name since the introduction of its easy
installation and setup. The Internet was first invented for only military and
government uses. But now, it is found in every house across the world. The
following are the advantages of the internet.
 It is a great medium of sharing and has increased connectivity.
 With the internet, banking has now become easier. Long tiresome waiting
lines have been eliminated since the introduction of e-banking platforms.
 E-commerce websites are one of the great advantages of the internet. One
can buy groceries, clothes, household items, and much more with the
internet.
 The Internet is also a great source of entertainment. One can watch videos
and movies, listen to music, and play games, without any hassle.
 Social media platforms like Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter have brought
the world closer.
 The education system has also transformed. With the internet, any student
across the world can attend online classes.
The most powerful motivator for the Internet to work is the fact that knowledge
and information have to be shared amongst people. The article provided useful
information about the internet such as its history, working and evolution etc.
The Internet standards describe a framework known as the Internet protocol suite (also
called TCP/IP, based on the first two components.) This is a suite of protocols that are ordered into a
set of four conceptional layers by the scope of their operation, originally documented
in RFC 1122 and RFC 1123. At the top is the application layer, where communication is described in
terms of the objects or data structures most appropriate for each application. For example, a web
browser operates in a client–server application model and exchanges information with the Hypertext
Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and an application-germane data structure, such as the HyperText Markup
Language (HTML).
Below this top layer, the transport layer connects applications on different hosts with a logical
channel through the network. It provides this service with a variety of possible characteristics, such
as ordered, reliable delivery (TCP), and an unreliable datagram service (UDP).
Underlying these layers are the networking technologies that interconnect networks at their borders
and exchange traffic across them. The Internet layer implements the Internet Protocol (IP) which
enables computers to identify and locate each other by IP address and route their traffic via
intermediate (transit) networks.[75] The Internet Protocol layer code is independent of the type of
network that it is physically running over.
At the bottom of the architecture is the link layer, which connects nodes on the same physical link,
and contains protocols that do not require routers for traversal to other links. The protocol suite does
not explicitly specify hardware methods to transfer bits, or protocols to manage such hardware, but
assumes that appropriate technology is available. Examples of that technology include Wi-
Fi, Ethernet, and DSL.

As user data is processed through the protocol stack, each abstraction

layer adds encapsulation information at the sending host. Data is transmitted over the wire at the link level between
hosts and routers. Encapsulation is removed by the receiving host. Intermediate relays update link encapsulation at
each hop, and inspect the IP layer for routing purposes.

Internet protocol

Conceptual data flow in a simple network topology of two hosts (A and B)

connected by a link between their respective routers. The application on each host executes read and write
operations as if the processes were directly connected to each other by some kind of data pipe. After the
establishment of this pipe, most details of the communication are hidden from each process, as the underlying
principles of communication are implemented in the lower protocol layers. In analogy, at the transport layer the
communication appears as host-to-host, without knowledge of the application data structures and the connecting
routers, while at the internetworking layer, individual network boundaries are traversed at each router.

The most prominent component of the Internet model is the Internet Protocol (IP). IP enables internetworking and, in
essence, establishes the Internet itself. Two versions of the Internet Protocol exist, IPv4 and IPv6.
IP Addresses

A DNS resolver consults three name servers to resolve the domain name
user-visible "www.wikipedia.org" to determine the IPv4 Address 207.142.131.234.

For locating individual computers on the network, the Internet provides IP addresses. IP addresses are used by the Internet
infrastructure to direct internet packets to their destinations. They consist of fixed-length numbers, which are found within the
packet. IP addresses are generally assigned to equipment either automatically via DHCP, or are configured.
However, the network also supports other addressing systems. Users generally enter domain names (e.g.
"en.wikipedia.org") instead of IP addresses because they are easier to remember, they are converted by the Domain Name
System (DNS) into IP addresses which are more efficient for routing purposes.
Uses of Internet
The Internet is a global networking system that can be used on most devices nowadays and has become an
essential part of our lives. In today's technological era, most of the companies are getting their operations done
over the Internet. There are various uses of the Internet by which companies and individuals are making their
daily tasks more productive and more comfortable.

Here, we have discussed the major uses of the Internet that play a vital role in daily life:

Online Booking & Orders

The Internet has made it a lot easier for people to book tickets for buses, trains, flights (domestic and
international) directly using their devices from anywhere. People can also book a taxi by choosing their current
location, and they will be picked up or dropped at a specified location. Now no one needs to wait in long
queues for their turn to book tickets at the ticket counter.

Besides, people can order a wide variety of products at home using the Internet and devices. It can range from
grocery products to ready to eat, fashionable clothes to medicines. Most items can be ordered at home and
received directly at the door.

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Cashless Transactions

Most countries are promoting cashless transactions and digital payments. This helps people not carry much
cash. People can pay their bills through debit or credit cards using POS devices. These devices are connected to
the payment gateway on the Internet. Besides, People can also use their smartphone and the Internet for
processing transactions on UPI (Unified Payment Interface). It does not even require them to carry their cards.
The UPI payment method is continuously evolving and is expected to cover most transactions in the near
future.

Education

Most of the devices nowadays are connected through the Internet. The Internet has the availability of broad
educational content on any topic with different types. People can study the relevant topic just by spending a
couple of minutes over the Internet. Internet Search engines help people quickly find the relevant study
material in multiple formats (such as images, videos, documents, etc.). This helps eliminate the need to go to
the library to read several books to find the desired information.

Besides, the Internet has also enabled students to participate in their classes through video conferencing, where
students can connect with their teachers or professionals anywhere in the world.

Online Banking & Trading

The way of banking has changed after the introduction of the Internet. The Internet has made banking online
where people can manage their bank accounts while sitting at home or traveling abroad. Nowadays, most of
the features of banking are right in people's hands. With the help of online banking, people can securely
transfer the money from one account to another, change their ATM pins, apply for the physical or virtual credit
cards, update credit card limits, enable or disable international transactions, track their transactions, and many
more. Also, they can even raise an online complaint or contact to bank's support staff.

Apart from this, the Internet has made it a lot easier for people to trade in the Stock market from anywhere.
People can easily buy, sell, or manage stocks online.

Research

The Internet is playing a significant role in the field of research. Before the use of the Internet, it was quite hard
to look for information about anything. People had to go through hundreds of books for references to find the
desired information. However, the Internet has made it a lot easier, and anyone can find the required
information at some clicks only. In research, people can study about the success and failed research and work
further for the improvements. Uses of the Internet in research have incredibly beneficial for the researchers.

Electronic Mail

Email or electronic mail is one of the first significant uses of the Internet. The email has enabled faster
communication between people on the Internet. Using email, people can quickly share information, data files,
such as images, audio, video, and other types of files. The use of email has significantly reduced paper use,
which was the primary source of communication in the olden days. Anyone can have a free email address and
can easily communicate with others. This has also reduced the load on the physical mail system, although it is
still in use.

Job Search

Getting a job is a lot easier than before. Any person can view relevant job information using the Internet. Earlier,
people had to go through each company individually to know if a position was vacant or not. However, the
Internet has enabled people to find employment sitting at home to suit their interests. Many websites provide
details about job availability. Once people submit their resumes, these websites keep informing about vacancies
through email. Besides, each well-known company has its website, where the company posts about the vacancy
opening. So, just sitting at home, people can search, apply for jobs and even give their interviews and see or
know their results.
 Social Networking

Social networking sites have connected people around the world. Social networking is an essential part of the
Internet. With the help of the Internet, people have got the ability to form social groups where they can share
information, thoughts and ideas about anything. The social networking platform is the largest source of
content, covering everything from informative content to entertainment. The best thing is that people don't
have to pay anything to use these services. This helps businesses develop their community and promote their
products.

Collaboration

Due to the Internet, communication has become easier and better. You can easily connect with anyone on the
Internet, either texting, calling or video calling. It has created new cooperation opportunities for the people.
There are several online chat software and websites that help people create group discussions or meetings. It
helps businesses to have a hassle-free discussion. Therefore, people do not always need to travel long distances
to attend meetings. This helps people avoid unnecessary travel and save time for productive use.

Besides, there are many cloud-based software and websites that offer people to work on the same project
simultaneously at the same time. People from different places can easily connect and support their specialties
using the Internet.

Entertainment

The Internet is the most effective means of entertainment. There are various options available on the Internet,
which people can try, such as watching movies, playing online games, listening to songs, etc. The Internet has
also made it easy for people to download entertainment items to their local storage. Using the Internet, people
can also share their videos, songs, pictures online with others. Also, nowadays, people can watch live TV or
sports on the Internet.

E-Commerce

The Internet is not just limited to ordering things; it can also be used to sell products. Many e-commerce
websites allow businesses and individuals to sell their products. Products are purchased by these e-commerce
companies, stored in their warehouses, packaged in their brand packaging, and distributed by themselves. E-
commerce companies charge some commission to distribute goods to customers. Also, they offer great
discounts and offers to customers. The best thing is that customers do not have to go to physical stores.

Besides, sellers can also create their website and list their products there. They can refer to all information about
the product, answer customer questions and provide online payment options to their customers. All these
things are possible on the Internet.

File Transfer

The Internet has made file transfer between systems or devices easier. With FTP (File Transfer Protocol), data
can be securely exchanged over the Internet. FTP is mainly beneficial when large files need to be transferred
because email allows sharing files with limited size. FTP is the best way to exchange information between two
stakeholders. This method is still quite popular and in use.

Navigation

The navigation mechanism is one of the most beneficial uses of the Internet. Once a user put the location in the
online maps (such as Google maps), it provides all the details about that location. Users can even find the best
route to visit that particular location. The map also provides the distance between the locations. The best thing
 about navigation is that it will provide the shortest possible route with less traffic. One can also search for any
specific place like the nearest hotel, restaurants, banks, ATM, etc. Apart from this, a person can share a live
location with others using the Internet and the navigation technique.

Advertising

Because most people use the Internet, it is the best means of promoting something or advertising. There are
options for paid promotion as well as free promotion. There are many advertising platforms on the Internet that
help promote products or businesses online. These platforms advertise products on other related websites
using banners, videos, email etc. They charge for these advertisements according to distance, keywords and
audience etc. However, one can also use social media platforms to create online groups or communities and
advertise freely.

Real-time updates

The Internet is helping people to keep up with what is happening around the world. Many news and
information websites provide real-time updates on various categories, such as politics, history, news, geology,
leisure, sports, technology, marketing, and more. One can easily select the category of interest and stay
connected with updates. The presence of e-newspapers and magazines is updating people and helping to cut
paper usage.

What are the types of ecommerce?

Ecommerce takes as many different forms as there are various
ways to shop online channels. A few common business models
that shape the world of ecommerce are:

 B2C – Businesses sell to individual consumers (end-users).

The most common model with many variations.
 B2B – Businesses sell to other businesses. Often the buyer
resells products to the consumer.
 C2B – Consumers sell to businesses. C2B businesses allow
customers to sell to other companies.
 C2C – Consumers sell to other consumers. Businesses create
online marketplaces that connect consumers.
 B2G – Businesses sell to governments or government
agencies.
 C2G – Consumers sell to governments or government
agencies.
 G2B – Governments or government agencies sell to
businesses.
 G2C - Governments or government agencies sell to
consumers.
What is Network Topology?
Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are interconnected to each other.
There are two types of topology: physical and logical topology.

Types of Network Topology

Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network. There are six types of network
topology which are Bus Topology, Ring Topology, Tree Topology, Star Topology, Mesh Topology, and Hybrid
Topology.

1) Bus Topology

o The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected through a single cable
known as a backbone cable.
o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly connected to the backbone
cable.
 o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over the network. All the
stations available in the network will receive the message whether it has been addressed or not.
o The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard networks.
o The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other topologies.
o The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the message is broadcast to all the
stations.
o The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access).

CSMA: It is a media access control used to control the data flow so that data integrity is maintained, i.e., the
packets do not get lost. There are two alternative ways of handling the problems that occur when two nodes
send the messages simultaneously.

o CSMA CD: CSMA CD (Collision detection) is an access method used to detect the collision. Once the
collision is detected, the sender will stop transmitting the data. Therefore, it works on "recovery after the
collision".
o CSMA CA: CSMA CA (Collision Avoidance) is an access method used to avoid the collision by
checking whether the transmission media is busy or not. If busy, then the sender waits until the media
becomes idle. This technique effectively reduces the possibility of the collision. It does not work on
"recovery after the collision".

Advantages of Bus topology:

o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable without passing through a
hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
o Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that
support upto 10 Mbps.
o Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation and troubleshooting
techniques are well known, and hardware components are easily available.
o Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.

Disadvantages of Bus topology:

o Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of cabling.
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults. If any
fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
o Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the signals of both the nodes
collide with each other.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the network.
o Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues. Repeaters are used to
regenerate the signal.

2) Ring Topology
 o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.
o The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit to the next node.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having no termination point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
o The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
o Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed from one node to
another node.
o Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

Working of Token passing

o A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to computer until it reaches the
destination.
o The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data.
o The data is passed from one device to another device until the destination address matches. Once the
token received by the destination device, then it sends the acknowledgment to the sender.
o In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.

Advantages of Ring topology:

o Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network without bringing the network
down.
o Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network operation and monitoring are
available.
o Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the installation cost is very low.
o Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not dependent on the single
host computer.

Disadvantages of Ring topology:

o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults. If any
fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
 o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the network.
o Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes. Adding new devices
increases the communication delay.

3) Star Topology

o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected to the central hub,
switch or a central computer.
o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached to the server are known
as clients.
o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star topology.
o Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.

Advantages of Star topology

o Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star topology as compared to bus
topology. In a bus topology, the manager has to inspect the kilometers of cable. In a star topology, all the
stations are connected to the centralized network. Therefore, the network administrator has to go to the
single station to troubleshoot the problem.
o Network control: Complex network control features can be easily implemented in the star topology.
Any changes made in the star topology are automatically accommodated.
o Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own cable, therefore failure in
one cable will not affect the entire network.
o Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are cost-effective.
o Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the open ports on the hub.
o Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
o High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet 100BaseT is one of the most
popular Star topology networks.

Disadvantages of Star topology

o A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then all the connected nodes will not
be able to communicate with each other.
o Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant amount of routing is required.
4) Tree topology

o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.
o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected with each other in
hierarchical fashion.
o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes are the descendants of
the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission. Thus, it forms a parent-child
hierarchy.

Advantages of Tree topology

o Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to provide broadband
transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long distances without being attenuated.
o Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network. Therefore, we can say that tree
topology is easily expandable.
o Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments known as star
networks which can be easily managed and maintained.
o Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
o Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
o Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

Disadvantages of Tree topology

o Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult to troubleshoot the
problem.
o High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
o Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus cable will damage the
overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult to reconfigure.

5) Mesh topology
 o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are interconnected with each
other through various redundant connections.
o There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central point of
communication.
o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication failures are a critical
concern.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
o Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;

Where n is the number of nodes that represents the network.

Mesh topology is divided into two categories:

o Fully connected mesh topology

o Partially connected mesh topology

o Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is connected to all the computers available
in the network.
o Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain computers are connected to
those computers with which they communicate frequently.

Advantages of Mesh topology:

Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown will not affect the
communication between connected computers.
Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.

Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the communication between other devices.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

o Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a router and more
transmission media than other topologies.
o Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to maintain and manage. If the
network is not monitored carefully, then the communication link failure goes undetected.
o Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces the efficiency of the network.

6) Hybrid Topology

o The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.

o A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer the data.
o When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as Hybrid topology and if similar
topologies are connected with each other will not result in Hybrid topology. For example, if there exist a
ring topology in one branch of ICICI bank and bus topology in another branch of ICICI bank, connecting
these two topologies will result in Hybrid topology.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
o Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the functioning of the rest of the
network.
o Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices without affecting the
functionality of the existing network.
o Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the requirements of the
organization.
o Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a way that the strength of the
network is maximized and weakness of the network is minimized.
Disadvantages of Hybrid topology
o Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design of the Hybrid network. It is
very difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid network.
o Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as these hubs are different from
usual Hubs used in other topologies.
o Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling,
network devices, etc.