EE 4250: Modern Communication Systems

Lecture #5 – Wave propagation modes

Instructor: Dr. Aurenice Oliveira
Associate Professor – Electrical and Computer Engineering

 Aurenice M. Oliveira EE4250 

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• Today’s topics and textbook sections:

 Textbook Sections 1.2, 1.3, 1.6, 1.8

 Deterministic and Random Waveforms

 Main Elements of Communication Systems

 Wave Propagation Modes

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 Generic Digital Communication System

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Encoding Techniques

DATA SIGNAL

•Digital data  analog signal ASK, FSK, BPSK, etc

•Digital data  digital signal  NRZ, B‐AMI, Manchester, etc

•Analog data  digital signal PCM, Delta modulation

• Analog data  analog signal FM, AM

What is produced What is transmitted Encoding Technique

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 Sec 1.3 – Deterministic and Random Waveforms

• There are two broad classes of waveforms with which we must be concerned
– deterministic and random waveforms
• Deterministic waveform: modeled as a completely specified function of time.
– You are quite familiar with deterministic wave forms.
– An example: w(t) = A cos(ω0t + φ0), where A,ω0 , and φ0 are known constants.

• Random waveform – a wave form which cannot be completely specified as a

function of time, and hence must be modeled using statistical tools.

• Randomness is a more pervasive concern in comm systems than you may yet realize.
 For example – the mapping from symbols, such as letters of the alphabet,
to discrete waveforms, also referred to as “characters”, would in general be perfectly
deterministic and governed by some equation or rule.
 However, the underlying source often refuses to cooperate in making the system
fully deterministic. For example, if human speech is the source, there is a large source
of randomness in the order in which the characters will occur.
 Tools from the theory of probability, random variables, and random processes
are required to analyze the statistical performance of such systems.

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Example of a random system

Below is an example of a non-deterministic system. This system depend on the values of

Probabilities p and .

Example 1:

Solution:

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Tree Diagram with solution for Example 1:

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Sec 1.6 – Communication System

(Textbook Fig.1.1)

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 Sec 1.6 – Communication System

Detail explanation of elements of Fig. 1.1:

• When the message output by the receiver is not identical to the input message
an error is present.

• Such errors can arise from noise in the channel or other non-ideal aspects of the system.

• Generally, the spectra of the message and the output estimate of the message are
concentrated about f = 0, and are hence referred to as “baseband signals”.

● The signal processing block in the transmitter conditions the message for more efficient
transmission, such as low pass filtering to perhaps reduce noise effects,
and modulation to a carrier frequency suitable for the channel.

● The signal processing block may also contain an analog-to-digital conversion (ADC),
which produces a “digital word” representing the message.

● The act of selecting a digital word to represent a source message is called “source coding”.

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Sec 1.6 – Communication System

Detail explanation of elements of Fig. 1.1:

● The signal processing block my also add bits to the data stream which can be used by the
receiver to detect and correct errors caused by the channel – a process referred to as
“channel coding”.

● The “carrier circuit” converts the processed signal into a frequency band that
is appropriate for the transmission medium of the channel.

● For example, if the medium is the atmosphere, RF frequencies of several

hundred MHz to a few GHz are used, if the medium is an optical fiber,
frequencies of a few to several THz are appropriate.

• The signal leaving the carrier circuit is represented by s(t), and it is important
to note (and will be covered later in detail) that the spectrum of s(t) is
centered on the “carrier frequency” fc and the baseband signal has been
converted to a “bandpass signal”.

● The act of mapping the baseband signal m(t) to the bandpass signal s(t) is called “modulation”.

 Aurenice M. Oliveira EE4250 

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 Sec 1.6 – Communication System
Detail explanation of elements of Fig. 1.1:

● The channel may be either wired or wireless.

● Wired and wireless channels have very different characteristics, and can cause different
types of degradation to s(t), including noise, attenuation, dropouts, crosschannel interference, etc.

• For example, wireless comm systems are affected by “multipath” effects –

i.e., the signal arriving at the receiver may have a component due to a clear
line-of-sight path to the receiver, and randomly delayed, and likely lower power
copies of itself resulting from reflections along the way such as from metal in
buildings, etc.

● Due to the wide range of possibilities for signal interference, some of which could have
dire consequences such as unintentional interference with comm for emergency services
like police and rescue, air traffic control, etc., the government of basically every nation
regulates the spectrum and the types of modulation that can be used in the various bands.

● Government regulations specify the modulation type, bandwidth, power, and types of
information that can be transmitted over designated bands.

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Sec 1.7 – Frequency Allocation in US and elsewhere

● Government regulations specify the modulation type, bandwidth, power, and types of
information that can be transmitted over designated bands.

• The frequency assignments and technical standards are generally set by

international agreement by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU).
This is pretty much why the cell phone you bought almost anywhere pretty much
works when you get off the plane almost anywhere (though you might need a new SIM card),
Note: True for GSM systems not for CDMA, for instance.

●Each member of the ITU – over 200 countries are members – has sovereignty over the
spectral usage and standards actually adopted, but must also abide by the overall
frequency plan and standards adopted by the ITU. In this country the agency charged
with this responsibility is the Federal Communications Commission (FCC).

●Table 1-2 provides an outline of the general spectral allocations and uses.

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General spectral allocations and uses

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General spectral allocations and uses

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 General spectral allocations and uses

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ISM Radio Bands

• The industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) radio bands are radio bands
(portions of the radio spectrum) reserved internationally for the use of radio frequency (RF)
energy for industrial, scientific and medical purposes other than telecommunications.
• Examples of applications in these bands include radio-frequency process heating,
microwave ovens, and medical diathermy machines.
The powerful emissions of these devices can create electromagnetic interference and
disrupt radio communication using the same frequency, so these devices were limited to
certain bands of frequencies.

• In general, communications equipment operating in these

bands must tolerate any interference generated by ISM applications, and users have no
regulatory protection from ISM device operation.

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 Example of spectrum usage for vehicular communication

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Sec 1.8 – Propagation of Electromagnetic (EM) Waves

• In wireless comm systems antennas are used to “launch” the modulated signals into
the atmosphere (atmospheric channel).

• The characteristics of the atmospheric channel are highly dependent on frequency. As

the frequency increases, atmospheric conditions such as water vapor content, and the
degree of ionization at higher altitudes.

• The EM spectrum has three broad bands that have one of three dominant propagation
characteristics:
o ground wave
o sky wave
o line-of-sight (LOS)

• Refraction index of the ionosphere is dependent on frequency (f), and free-electron density (N)

“N” typical values depend on time of day, season, number

of sunspots, etc 10^10 < N < 10^12
If n < 1 waves will bent according to Snell’s law
If n  1 very little refraction by the ionosphere

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 Sec 1.8 – Propagation of Electromagnetic (EM) Waves

(a) Diffraction (bent) causes the wave to hug the surface of

the Earth. f < 2 MHz
n < 1 waves will bent according to Snell’s law

(b) Wave reflects alternately from ionized plasma and

the surface of the Earth. 2 MHz < f < 30 MHz
Snell’s law

Refraction index will vary with altitude over the appropriate

range so that wave will be bent back to Earth

(c) f > 30 MHz, which includes cellular phone bands.

Electromagnetic wave propagate in straight line.
Practical result is that point-to-point comm is
short range, and numerous relays needed to
extend the range.
n  1 very little refraction by the ionosphere

 Aurenice M. Oliveira EE4250 

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Total internal reflection

Total internal reflection is an optical phenomenon that happens when a ray of

light strikes a medium boundary at an angle larger than a particular critical angle
with respect to the normal to the surface.

The critical angle is the angle of incidence above which the

total internal reflection occurs. Critical angle is found with Snell’s Law.

If n1 > n2 (n = refractive index) and angle is greater than the critical angle,
no light can pass through and all of the light is reflected.

(Fig.) The larger the angle to the normal, the smaller

is the fraction of light transmitted, until the angle
when total internal reflection (blue line) occurs.

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 Total internal reflection

If n1 > n2 (n = refractive index) and incident angle is greater than the critical angle,
no signal can pass through and all of the signal is reflected.

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Different types of waves and their behavior

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 Propagation of Electromagnetic (EM) Waves

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Sec 1.8 – Propagation of Electromagnetic (EM) Waves

● Ground-wave propagation involves diffraction of low frequency waves from the surface of the
Earth resulting in these waves tending to follow the surface of the Earth in their propagation.

● This propagation mode is used in AM radio broadcasting.

● A key question – What is the lowest frequency for which this mode might exist?

● The answer depends upon how long you are willing to make the antenna – as a general rule,
the lower the frequency, the longer the antenna.

● For efficient radiation, the antenna needs to be at least 1/10th the wavelength in length.
● Example: 10kHz carrier has a wavelength of

● This case would seem to require an antenna 3 km in length – probably a bit impractical!

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 Sec 1.8 – Propagation of Electromagnetic (EM) Waves

• Sky wave propagation is dominant in the 2-30 MHz band.

• Long distance coverage is realized by bouncing the wave at the top end from the ionosphere,
and at the lower end, from the Earth's surface.

• Note that the actual behavior in the ionosphere is somewhat more complicated that a
reflection from a perfectly mirrored surface since the ionosphere is actually a diffuse plasma
rather than a mirror.

• The actual path of the wave is curved, arcing back towards the Earth.

• A number of interesting effects result, as discussed on page 15 of the book.

• Frequencies lower than about 30 MHz can not be used to communicate with satellites,
as the signals will simply not penetrate the ionosphere reliably.

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Sec 1.8 – Propagation of Electromagnetic (EM) Waves

• Line-of-sight (LOS) propagation dominates for frequencies higher than 30 MHz.

• These frequencies travel essentially straight through the atmosphere, and

will penetrate the ionosphere.

• Thus, this band is good for communicating with satellites, and LOS comm on,
or near the surface of the Earth.

• For better efficiency, LOS comm systems generally use tall antennas to increase the area
on the ground that has a clear LOS to the antenna. This is where cell towers have
proliferated everywhere!

• Assuming an spherical Earth, the distance to the horizon is given by:

d = (2h)1/2 , d in miles and h in feet

h = antenna height

(See more details on textbook page 16)

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LOS Propagation Distance Proof

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Mathlab Example

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 Wireless Channel Modeling

In Wireless Channel Modeling

http://www.ee.iitm.ac.in/~giri/pdfs/EE5141/Jakes-Simulation.pdf

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In Wireless Channel Modeling

http://www.ee.iitm.ac.in/~giri/pdfs/EE5141/Jakes-Simulation.pdf

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 Total Attenuation

• Total attenuation in free space is stochastic and can be computed as a combination

of a deterministic component plus random components.

• Attenuation in wired medium (cables) are frequency dependent and usually are
represented by an exponential function. The attenuation unit is dB/ft or db/m.

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Path Loss

Path Loss (L) in dB can be computed using 2 different but equivalent formulas:

1) L = 10 n log10 (d) + C

n = path loss exponent (value between 2 and 4)

d = distance between transmitter and receiver
C = constant accounting for system loses

2) Radio and antenna engineers use the following simplified formula (derived from the Friis Transmission
Formula) for the signal path loss between the feed points of two isotropic antennas in free space:

L = 20 log10 (4d/)

d = distance between transmitter and receiver

 = wavelength

(Source: wiki)

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In Wireless Channel Modeling

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