Dynamics of Mechanical Systems – prof. S. Bruni eng. A.

Zuin

Exercise session nr. 2

The second exercise session deals with the writing of the equation of motion of non-linear mechanical systems
with one degree of freedom and with their linearization around a given static position. Both the second order
gravitational stiffness and the second order elastic stiffness will be computed, together with the constraint
forces.

1. Exercise nr. 1
A rigid bar is connected to the ground with a hinge and is kept horizontal in its static configuration by means of
a spring; a slider allows the spring to be always vertical during the vibration of the system. Write the linearized
equation of equilibrium using the Lagrange’s equation. Compute also the constraint forces in the hinge O.

Solution of the exercise:

Step 1 - computation of the d.o.f.: there is only a rigid body and one hinge; the d.o.f. without constraints are
three and the hinge removes two d.o.f.; therefore the constrained system
has one d.o.f.

Step 2 – sign convention: let’s assume the sign convention shown on the
right.

Step 3 – define the system’s independent coordinates: let’s assume the

bar rotation as the independent coordinate.

Step 4 – kinetic energy and potential energy:

The potential energy has two components:

- the elastic potential energy due to the spring elongation;

- the gravitational potential energy due to the vertical component of the center of mass displacement.

1 1
𝑇 = 𝑚𝑣𝐺2 + 𝐽𝜃̇ 2
2 2
1 (1.1)
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑒𝑙 + 𝑉𝐺 = 𝑘ΔL2 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝐺
2
{

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Dynamics of Mechanical Systems – prof. S. Bruni eng. A. Zuin

The gravitational potential energy is given by the

rigid body weight mg multiplied by a physical
coordinate ℎ𝐺 which represents the vertical
component of the center of mass displacement,
measured with respect to an arbitrary reference
plane where the gravitational potential energy is
set to zero (Figure 1.1). The vertical position of the
reference plane is arbitrary because, shifting its
position by h, the gravitational potential energy
changes only by a constant quantity mgh which
will be set to zero deriving the potential energy
with respect to the independent coordinate.
Figure 1.1

It’s important to recall that the sign of the ℎ𝐺 physical coordinate is not arbitrary: ℎ𝐺 is positive when the
center of mass position, moved from its static configuration, is over the reference plane (Figure 1.1).

Step 5 – kinematic relationships:

As the center of mass trajectory is circular with radius equal to L, its velocity is 𝐿𝜃̇ (Figure 1.2). Given a positive
rotation of the bar, the spring increases its length and moves to the left remaining vertical; the dynamic
elongation of the spring is 2𝐿 sin 𝜃 (Figure 1.3):

Figure 1.2 Figure 1.3

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Dynamics of Mechanical Systems – prof. S. Bruni eng. A. Zuin

For what concern the gravitational potential

energy, given a positive rotation  the center
of mass moves from G to G’; the reference
plane position can be set at whatever height,
but if it is placed at the same height of the
hinge, the ℎ𝐺 computation is the easiest: ℎ𝐺 =
𝐿 sin 𝜃, being positive because, for 0 < 𝜃 <
𝜋⁄ , the center of mass lies over the reference
2
plane.

Figure 1.4

Equations (1.2) collect all of the kinematic relationships; as the spring elongation is a non-linear function of the
bar rotation, the static elongation L0, which is unknown, has to be taken into account as well:

|𝑣𝐺 | = |𝐿𝜃̇ |
{ΔL = ΔL0 + 2𝐿 sin 𝜃 (1.2)
ℎ𝐺 = 𝐿 sin 𝜃

Step 6 – Lagrange’s equations: substituting equations (1.2) into (1.1), we get:

1
𝑇 = (𝑚L2 + 𝐽)𝜃̇ 2
2
1 (1.3)
𝑉 = 𝑘(ΔL0 + 2𝐿 sin 𝜃)2 + 𝑚𝑔𝐿 sin 𝜃
2
{

The spring preload L0 can be calculated in two ways:

- zeroing the first derivative of the potential energy with respect to the independent coordinate,
evaluated in the static position because all forces acting on the system are conservative, a theorem by
Dirichlet holds, which states that in the equilibrium position the potential energy is stationary.
- writing a static equation of equilibrium.

𝜕𝑉
a) First approach: |
𝜕𝜃 𝜃0
=0

𝜕𝑉
= 𝑘(∆𝐿0 + 2𝐿 sin 𝜃)2𝐿 cos 𝜃 + 𝑚𝑔𝐿 cos 𝜃 (1.4)
𝜕𝜃

By evaluating the equation (1.4) in the static position (sin 𝜃0 = 0 and cos 𝜃0 = 1) and zeroing, we get:

𝑚𝑔
2𝑘∆𝐿0 + 𝑚𝑔 = 0 → ∆𝐿0 = − (1.5)
2𝑘

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Dynamics of Mechanical Systems – prof. S. Bruni eng. A. Zuin

It’s worth of drawing attention to the negative sign of the spring preload due to the fact that, in the static
configuration, the bar weight compresses the spring (and, according to the sign conventions, a spring
compression is negative). It can be also noticed that the spring static elongation, according to the
dimensional check, is given by the ratio between a force and a stiffness has hence has the correct
dimension of a length.

b) Second approach: static equation of equilibrium

H O Fel

V mg Fel
k

The figure above show the system after having removed the hinge and disconnected the spring from the
bar; the corresponding constraint forces H, V and Fel are applied to each subsystem. The spring static
preload can be computed directly from the expression of the elastic force (𝐹𝑒𝑙 = 𝑘∆𝐿0), while the elastic
force can be derived from the equilibrium of the moments around point O:

𝑚𝑔 𝐹𝑒𝑙 𝑚𝑔
∑ 𝑀𝑂 = 0: − 𝑚𝑔𝐿 − 𝐹𝑒𝑙 2𝐿 = 0 → 𝐹𝑒𝑙 = − → ∆𝐿0 = =− (1.6)
2 𝑘 2𝑘

Equation (1.6) shows that:

- The elastic force is half of the bar weight; that means that the bar weight is transmitted to the ground
half through the hinge and half through the spring, being its center of mass in the middle of the bar;
- The elastic force applied to the bar is upwards directed because of the negative sign.

Coming back to the Lagrange’s equation, deriving the kinetic energy and the potential energy we get the non-
linear equation of motion (the first and the last term of the potential energy derivative are equal and opposite
in sign because of the (1.6)):

𝑑 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
( ) = (𝑚L2 + 𝐽)θ̈ ; =0
̇ (1.7)
{𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 → (𝑚L2 + 𝐽)θ̈ + 2𝑘𝐿2 sin 2𝜃 = 0
𝜕𝑉
= 2𝑘𝐿∆𝐿0 cos 𝜃 + 2𝑘𝐿2 sin 2𝜃 + 𝑚𝑔𝐿 cos 𝜃
𝜕𝜃

The first term of the equations (1.7) is already linear, while the other have to be linearized around the static
position. Writing the first derivative of the potential energy in series of power, we get:

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕2𝑉
= | + 2 | (𝜃 − 𝜃0 ) (1.8)
𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜃0 𝜕𝜃 𝜃
0
𝜕𝑉
And because 𝜕𝜃| = 0 and 𝜃0 = 0,
𝜃0

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Dynamics of Mechanical Systems – prof. S. Bruni eng. A. Zuin

𝜕𝑉 𝜕 2 𝑉
≅ | 𝜃 = 4𝑘𝐿2 𝜃 (1.9)
𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 2 𝜃
0
The linearized equation of motion is therefore:

(𝑚L2 + 𝐽)θ̈ + 4𝑘𝐿2 𝜃 = 0 (1.10)

In more general terms, assuming that the system has 1 d.o.f., the total stiffness ktot for the linearized equation
of motion is:
2
𝜕2𝑉 𝜕∆𝐿 𝜕 2 ∆𝐿 𝜕 2 ∆ℎ𝐺
| = 𝑘 𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑘 ( | ) + 𝑘∆𝐿 0 | + 𝑚𝑔 |
𝜕𝜃 2 𝜃 ⏟ 𝜕𝜃 𝜃0 ⏟ 𝜕𝜃 2 𝜃 ⏟ 𝜕𝜃 𝜃0
2 (1.11)
0 0
𝑘𝑒𝑙,𝐼 𝑘𝑒𝑙,𝐼𝐼 𝑘𝐺

which is given by the sum of three terms:

- 𝑘𝑒𝑙,𝐼 is the first order elastic stiffness (always positive or seldom equal to zero);
- 𝑘𝑒𝑙,𝐼𝐼 is the second order elastic stiffness (positive, equal to zero or negative). As it depends on the
second derivative of the elastic potential energy, it’s zero if the spring static preload is zero or if the
spring elongation is a linear function of the independent coordinate, being in this case zero the second
derivative of the elastic potential energy;
- kG is the second order gravitational stiffness (positive, equal to zero or negative). As it depends on the
second derivative of the gravitational potential energy, it’s zero if the hG quantity is a linear function of
the independent coordinate, being in this case zero the second derivative of the gravitational potential
energy.

It’s easy to verify that, for the system considered here, the second order stiffness are zero (both elastic and
gravitational) and that the first order elastic stiffness is 𝑘𝑒𝑙,𝐼 = 𝑘𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 4𝑘𝐿2 .

Linearized equation of motion – second and faster approach:

The approach, used in the previous solution to linearize the equations of motion, can be summarize as follows:

1. write the non-linear kinematic relationships;

2. derive from the non-linear kinematic relationships the non-linear equation(s) of motion;
3. linearize the non-linear equation(s) of motion

When only the linearized equation(s) are sought, a simplified and faster approach can be followed:

1. write the linearized kinematic relationships;

2. derive from the linearized kinematic relationships all of the terms of the linearized equation(s) of
motion, except for those depending on the second order stiffness;
3. write the second order stiffness using the equations (1.11) and add to the first order one to get the
total stiffness.

In the kinematic relationships expressed by the equations (1.2), the velocity of the center of mass is already
linear, while the spring elongation and the vertical position of the center of mass depend non-linearly from the
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Dynamics of Mechanical Systems – prof. S. Bruni eng. A. Zuin

bar rotation. Among the two that are non-linear, the spring elongation has to be linearized in order to write the
first order stiffness, while the latter doesn’t have to be linearized because from it depends only the
gravitational second order stiffness.

In order to linearize the spring elongation, the linearized trajectory of point A has to be consider instead of the
non-linear one. The linearized trajectory is the line tangent to the non-linear trajectory of point A in the static
configuration (Figure 1.5).

Figure 1.5 Figure 1.6

Taking into account the linearized trajectory (Figure 1.6), the linearized spring elongation, the Jacobian elastic
coefficient and first order elastic stiffness are given by:

𝜕∆𝐿
∆𝐿𝑙𝑖𝑛 = 2𝐿𝜃 → 𝜆𝑒𝑙 (0) = | = 2𝐿 → 𝑘𝑒𝑙,𝐼 = 𝑘𝜆2𝑒𝑙 (0) = 4𝑘𝐿2 (1.12)
𝜕𝜃 𝜃0

In order to derive the expression of the second order stiffness (see second and third term of equations (1.11)),
the non-linear kinematic relationships have to be consider:

𝜕 2 ∆𝐿 𝜕 2 ∆𝐿
∆𝐿 = ∆𝐿0 + 2𝐿 sin 𝜃 → = −2𝐿 sin 𝜃 → | =0 → 𝑘𝑒𝑙,𝐼𝐼 = 0 (1.13)
𝜕𝜃 2 𝜕𝜃 2 𝜃
0

𝜕 2 ℎ𝐺 𝜕 2 ℎ𝐺
ℎ𝐺 = 𝐿 sin 𝜃 → = −𝐿 sin 𝜃 → | =0 → 𝑘𝐺 = 0 (1.14)
𝜕𝜃 2 𝜕𝜃 2 𝜃
0

Equations (1.12), (1.13) and (1.14) allows for the evaluation of the total stiffness of the linearized system ktot.
For what concern the derivatives of the kinetic energy, it’s easy to verify that the first partial derivative with
𝜕𝑇
respect to the independent coordinate 𝜕𝜃 is always zero when the linearized kinematic relationships are used,
𝑑 𝜕𝑇
while the other term 𝑑𝑡 (𝜕𝜃̇) has been already written and it is linear because the velocity of the center of mass
depends linearly from the bar angular velocity 𝜃̇. The linearized equation of motion can be therefore written:

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Dynamics of Mechanical Systems – prof. S. Bruni eng. A. Zuin

𝑑 𝜕𝑇 𝜕2𝑉 (1.15)
( ) + 2 | (𝜃 − 𝜃0 ) = 0 → (𝑚L2 + 𝐽)θ̈ + 4𝑘𝐿2 𝜃 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝜃̇ 𝜕𝜃 𝜃
0

2. Exercise nr. 2
A rigid bar is connected to the ground with a hinge and is kept vertical in its static configuration by means of a
spring; a slider allows the spring to be always horizontal during the vibration of the system. Write the linearized
equation of equilibrium using the Lagrange’s equation. Compute also the constraint forces in the hinge O.

Solution of the exercise:

Step 1 - computation of the d.o.f.: there is only a rigid body and one hinge; the d.o.f. without constraints are
three and the hinge removes two d.o.f.; therefore the constrained system
has one d.o.f.

Step 2 – sign convention: let’s assume the sign convention shown on the
right.

Step 3 – define the system’s independent coordinate: let’s assume the

bar rotation as the independent coordinate.

Step 4 – kinetic energy and potential energy:

Equations (2.1) reports the expression of the kinetic energy, of the potential energy and of the virtual work.
The potential energy has two components:

- the elastic potential energy due to the spring elongation;

- the gravitational potential energy due to the vertical component of the center of mass displacement.

As the non-linear equation of motion hasn’t to be written, we will apply the faster approach described at the
end of the previous exercise. To this end all of the kinematic relationships will be linearized, except for those
used for the computation of the second order stiffness.
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Dynamics of Mechanical Systems – prof. S. Bruni eng. A. Zuin

1 1
𝑇 = 𝑚𝑣𝐺2 + 𝐽𝜃̇ 2
2 2
1 (2.1)
𝑉𝑒𝑙 = 𝑘∆𝐿2 ; 𝑉𝐺 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝐺 ; 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑒𝑙 + 𝑉𝐺
2
{𝛿𝑊 = 𝐶⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝛿𝜃 = 𝐶(𝑡)𝛿𝜃

Step 5 – kinematic relationships:

As in the previous exercise, the center of mass trajectory is circular with radius equal to L; therefore the
modulus of its velocity is 𝐿𝜃̇ . Nevertheless it’s worth showing that the velocity of the point G can be computed
in a more general way:

- writing the horizontal and vertical absolute component (x𝐺 , y𝐺 ) of the position of point G with respect
to the XOY reference system fixed to the ground (being therefore absolute) (Figure 2.1);
- deriving them with respect to time. In this way we get the horizontal and vertical component of the
absolute velocity of point G (ẋ 𝐺 , ẏ 𝐺 ) and the square of its velocity:

x = −𝐿 sin 𝜃 ẋ 𝐺 = −𝐿𝜃̇ cos 𝜃

{ 𝐺 → { → 𝑣𝐺2 = 𝑥̇ 𝐺2 + 𝑦̇ 𝐺2 = 𝐿2 𝜃̇ 2 (2.2)
y𝐺 = 𝐿 cos 𝜃 ẏ 𝐺 = −𝐿𝜃̇ sin 𝜃

Figure 2.1 Figure 2.2 Figure 2.3

The non-linear spring elongation is 2𝐿 sin 𝜃 and the linearized expression is 2𝐿𝜃. As the spring elongation is a
non-linear function of the bar rotation, the second order elastic stiffness could be different form zero, but in
this case it’s easy to verify that the static elongation L0 must be zero and, hence, 𝑘𝐼𝐼 is zero as well: Figure 2.2
shows the forces applied to the bar in the static configuration when the spring and the hinge are removed. The
equation of equilibrium of the moments, referred to the center O, of the forces applied to the bar, solved with
respect to the elastic force, gives the results that the elastic force is zero and, hence, it’s zero also the spring
static elongation (2.3).
∑ 𝑀𝑂𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 0 → −F𝑒𝑙 = 0 → F𝑒𝑙 = 0 → ∆L0 = 0 (2.3)

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Dynamics of Mechanical Systems – prof. S. Bruni eng. A. Zuin

For what concerns the gravitational second order stiffness, the vertical position of the center of mass has to be
computed: if we put the reference plane at the same height of the hinge O, ℎ𝐺 is 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜗 (Figure 2.3).
Equations (2.4) collect all of the kinematic relationships:

𝑣𝐺2 = 𝐿2 𝜃̇ 2
{∆𝐿𝑙𝑖𝑛 = 2𝐿𝜃 (2.4)
ℎ𝐺 = 𝐿 cos 𝜃

Step 6 – Lagrange’s equations: substituting equations (1.2) into (1.1) and recalling also the expressions (1.11)
to compute the second order stiffness, we get:

1
𝑇 = (𝑚L2 + 𝐽)𝜃̇ 2 (2.5)
2

𝜕∆𝐿
𝜆𝑒𝑙 (0) = | = 2𝐿 → 𝑘𝑒𝑙,𝐼 = 𝑘𝜆2𝑒𝑙 (0) = 4𝑘𝐿2 (2.6)
𝜕𝑥 𝑥0

∆𝐿0 = 0 → 𝑘𝑒𝑙,𝐼𝐼 = 0 (2.7)

𝜕 2 ℎ𝐺 𝜕 2 ℎ𝐺 𝜕 2 ℎ𝐺
ℎ𝐺 = 𝐿 cos 𝜃 → = −𝐿 cos 𝜃 → | = −𝐿 → 𝑘 𝐺 = 𝑚𝑔 | = −𝑚𝑔𝐿 < 0 (2.8)
𝜕𝜃 2 𝜕𝜃 2 𝜃 𝜕𝜃 2 𝜃
0 0

𝑘𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑘𝐼 + 𝑘𝐼𝐼 + 𝑘𝐺 = 4𝑘𝐿2 − 𝑚𝑔𝐿 (2.9)

Equation (2.8) states that the gravitation second order stiffness is negative. We will see later in this course that,
when a mass lays in its unstable static configuration for what concern the gravitational force field, its
gravitational stiffness is negative. In this exercise, indeed, as the hinge is below the center of mass, the bar lays
in the so called inverted pendulum configuration, which is an instable configuration unless it is stabilized by the
positive stiffness of the spring: equation (2.9), indeed, states that the total stiffness of the linearized system is
the sum of the first order elastic stiffness and of the gravitation one; the first is always positive, the latter is in
this case negative.

Coming back to the Lagrange’s equation, deriving the kinetic energy and linearizing the first derivative of the
potential energy, we get:

𝑑 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
( ) = (𝑚L2 + 𝐽)θ̈ ; =0
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝜃 ̇ 𝜕𝜃
𝜕2𝑉 (2.10)
| (𝜃 − 𝜃0 ) = 𝑘𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝜃 = (4𝑘𝐿2 − 𝑚𝑔𝐿)𝜃
𝜕𝜃 2 𝜃
0
{𝛿𝑊 = 𝐶(𝑡)𝛿𝜃 = 𝑄𝛿𝜃 → 𝑄 = 𝐶(𝑡)

The linearized equation of motion is therefore:

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Dynamics of Mechanical Systems – prof. S. Bruni eng. A. Zuin

𝑑 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 2 𝑉
( )− + | (𝜃 − 𝜃0 ) = 𝑄 → (𝑚L2 + 𝐽)θ̈ + (4𝑘𝐿2 − 𝑚𝑔𝐿)𝜃 = 𝐶(𝑡) (2.11)
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝜃̇ 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 2 𝜃
0

Constraint forces computation:

Figure 2.4 shows all of the forces/torques applied to the bar:

- elastic force, positive towards right because, according to the
sign convention, the spring elongation is positive when the
spring is put in traction. For a positive rotation of the bar, the
force applied to the spring is therefore directed towards left
(see also Figure 2.2) and that applied to the bar is directed
towards right because of the third Newton’s law.
- Horizontal and vertical component of the inertial force:
according to the sign convention, the horizontal and vertical
component of the center of mass acceleration are positive
towards right and down respectively, so the inertial forces are
directed in their opposite directions.
- Inertial torque, positive in the clockwise direction because the
angular acceleration is positve counterclockwise.
- The external torque C(t) and the weight force mg.

Figure 2.4

The constrain forces H and V are given by the equations of equilibrium of the forces applied to the bar in the
horizontal and vertical direction respectively:

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 → 𝐻 − 𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝐹𝑒𝑙 = 0 → 𝐻 = 𝑚𝑥̈ − 𝑘∆𝐿𝑙𝑖𝑛 (2.12)

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 → 𝑉 − 𝑚𝑦̈ − 𝑚𝑔 = 0 → 𝑉 = 𝑚𝑦̈ + 𝑚𝑔 (2.13)

Linearizing the absolute horizontal and vertical components of the center of mass velocity (ẋ 𝐺 , ẏ 𝐺 , eq. (2.2))
and deriving them with respect to time:

ẋ 𝐺,𝑙𝑖𝑛 = −𝐿𝜃̇ ẍ 𝐺,𝑙𝑖𝑛 = −𝐿𝜃̈

{ → { (2.14)
ẏ 𝐺,𝑙𝑖𝑛 = 0 ÿ 𝐺,𝑙𝑖𝑛 = 0

Equations (2.14) give the important result that in this exercise, if the linearized motion is considered, the
vertical components of the velocity and of the acceleration of the center of mass are both zero because the
linearized center of mass trajectory is a horizontal line tangent to the circular non-linear trajectory.

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Dynamics of Mechanical Systems – prof. S. Bruni eng. A. Zuin

3. Exercise nr. 3
A rigid body can move along an horizontal plane guided by two carts. A spring connects the body with a hinge
O placed at a distance H different from the spring’s undeformed length L0. Thus, the spring has to be put in
traction (L0 > 0) if L0 is less than H, or it has to be compressed (L0 < 0) if L0 is greater than H. Write the
linearized equation of equilibrium using the Lagrange’s equation and discuss in which case the static
configuration is stable.

Solution of the exercise:

Step 1 - computation of the d.o.f.: there is only a rigid body and two carts; the d.o.f. without constraints are
three and each cart removes one d.o.f.; therefore the constrained system
has one d.o.f.

Step 2 – sign convention: let’s assume the sign convention shown on the
right.

Step 3 – define the system’s independent coordinate: let’s assume the

horizontal translation of the mass as the independent coordinate.

Step 4 – kinetic energy and potential energy:

The potential energy is due only on the elastic component because the vertical position of the center of mass is
constant. The kinetic energy has only the translation component because the body doesn’t rotate.

In order to write the linearize equation of motion, we will apply the faster approach linearizing all of the
kinematic relationships except for that used for the computation of the second order stiffness.

1
𝑇 = 𝑚𝑥̇ 2
2
1 (3.1)
𝑉𝑒𝑙 = 𝑘∆𝐿2 ; 𝑉𝐺 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝐺 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐹(𝑡)𝛿𝑥
{𝛿𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝛿𝑥

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Dynamics of Mechanical Systems – prof. S. Bruni eng. A. Zuin

Step 5 – kinematic relationships:

Given a positive displacement of the mass, point A moves to

A’; the spring rotates and increases its length from OA to
OA’. The dynamic spring elongation is the difference
between OA’ and OA:

∆𝐿 = √𝐻 2 + 𝑥 2 − 𝐻 (3.2)

The first derivative of the dynamic spring elongation with

respect to x, evaluated in the static configuration, allows for
the computation of the first order elastic stiffness (3.3), while
its linearization allows for the computation of the second
order stiffness (3.4):

Figure 3.1

𝜕∆𝐿 1 2𝑥 𝜕∆𝐿
= → | =0 → 𝑘𝑒𝑙,𝐼 = 0 (3.3)
𝜕𝑥 2 √𝐻 2 + 𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝑥0

𝑥2
2 √𝐻 2 + 𝑥 2 −
𝜕 ∆𝐿 √𝐻 2 + 𝑥 2 𝜕 2 ∆𝐿 1 𝜕 2 ∆𝐿 𝑘∆𝐿0 (3.4)
= → | = → 𝑘𝑒𝑙,𝐼𝐼 = 𝑘∆𝐿0 | =
𝜕𝑥 2 𝐻 + 𝑥2
2 𝜕𝑥 𝑥2 𝐻 𝜕𝑥 𝑥2 𝐻
0 0

𝜕 2 ℎ𝐺
ℎ𝐺 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 → 𝑘𝐺 = 𝑚𝑔 | =0 (3.5)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑥
0

𝑘∆𝐿0
𝑘𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑘𝑒𝑙,𝐼 + 𝑘𝑒𝑙,𝐼𝐼 + 𝑘𝐺 = (3.6)
𝐻

Equation (3.3) gives a very unusual, but still possible, result: the first order elastic stiffness is zero. This happens
when the spring length doesn’t change in the neighborhood of the static configuration, namely when the first
derivative of the spring elongation, computed in the static configuration, is zero.
Equation (3.6) states that the total stiffness of the linearized system is given only by the second order elastic
stiffness, which it is positive when L0 is positive. Therefore the static configuration is stable if the spring is put
in traction. It’s easy to understand why:

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Dynamics of Mechanical Systems – prof. S. Bruni eng. A. Zuin

As the stiffness of the linearized stiffness is

𝑘∆𝐿0
𝑘𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐻
, the elastic force applied to point A’, when the
𝑘∆𝐿
spring is removed from the system, is 𝐹𝑒𝑙 = 𝐻 0 𝑥. For a
positive value of the displacement x and of the static preload
L0, the elastic force applied to point A’ is directed as shown
in Figure 3.2, with its horizontal component directed towards
left. Therefore the virtual work of the elastic force is
negative, which means that the elastic force works against
the positive x displacement due to the external force F(t).

When L0 is negative, for the same positive x displacement

of the mass, the horizontal component of the elastic force is
directed towards right, its virtual work is positive and, hence,
there isn’t any element in the mechanical system that
equilibrate the external force. In this case the system is
unstable (we will say, later in this course, that this is a
Figure 3.2 divergence type of instability)

Step 6 – Lagrange’s equations: deriving and linearizing equations (3.1), we get:

𝑑 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
( ) = 𝑚ẍ ; =0
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥̇ 𝜕𝑥
𝜕2𝑉 𝑘∆𝐿0 (3.7)
2
| (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) = 𝑘𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝑥 𝐻
0
{𝑄 = 𝐹(𝑡)

and the linearized equation of motion is:

𝑘∆𝐿0
𝑚ẍ + 𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑡) (3.8)
𝐻

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