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Scientific Cultivation of Ginger (Zingiber officinalis)

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 32 Chapter

Scientific Cultivation of Ginger (Zingiber officinalis)

Manpreet Jaidka1, Ramanjit Kaur2 and Seema Sepat2

1
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India
2
Division of Agronomy, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India

Introduction
Ginger (Zingiber officinalis Roscue) belongs to family–Zingiberaceae. It is a slender monocotyledonous rhizomatous
perennial herb, leaves are linear, sessile, glabrous, flowers are yellowish green, spikes are cylindrical and fruits
are oblong capsules. Rhizomes are white to yellowish brown in colour, laterally flattened and irregularly branched.
Few scales gave a covering to the growing tips. Rhizomes are smooth and if broken some fibrous elements of the
vascular bundles comes out from the cut-ends. It is one of the important spices all over the world and India is the
largest producer, consumer and exporter of the world. It is marketed in different forms such as raw ginger,
bleached dry ginger, ginger candy, ginger powder, ginger oil, ginger squash, ginger beer, ginger flakes etc.

Historical Background and Origin

It has been used as a spice and medicine in India and China since ancient times. It was the first oriental spice
known in Europe and having been obtained by the Greeks and Romans from Arab traders, who kept a secret of
their origin of the spice in India. It was known to Discorides and Pliny in the first century A. D., the former
frequently refers to it in his De Materia Medica describing its warming effects on the stomach and as an aid to
digestion and antidote to poisons. The Sanskrit name Singhabera give rise to Green Lingiberi and later Latin
Lingiber. It is mentioned in Koran. In Arabian nights it has been referred for its aphrodisiac properties. India
enjoys from times immemorial a unique position in the production and export of ginger. Ginger was originated
in Southern China. On world level, it grows in Jamaica, Nigeria, China, Taiwan, Australia, Japan etc. In India, it
is grown in the states like Kerala, North Eastern States, Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh, Odisha, West Bengal, Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra.

Composition
Ginger contains upto 3% of an essential oil that causes the fragrance of the spice. The main constituents are
sesquiterpenoids with –zingiberene as main component. Lesser amounts of other sesquiterpenoids and small
monoterpenoid fraction have also been identified. The pungent taste of gigneris due to non-volatile phenyl

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propanoid and diarylheptanoids; latter are more pungent and form from the former when ginger is dried. Cooking
ginger transforms gingerol into zingerone, which is less pungent and has a spicy-sweet aroma. None of these
pungent chemicals are related to capsaicin, the principal hot constituent of chile pepper.

Medicinal Uses
Medical research has shown that ginger root is an effective treatment for nausea. Powdered dry ginger root is
made into capsules for medicinal use. The Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database states that ginger is
likely safe for use in pregnancy when used orally in amounts found in foods. Ginger ale and ginger beer have
been recommended as “stomach settlers” for generations in countries where the beverages are made. Ginger
water was commonly used to avoid heat cramps in the United States in the past. It is also valued for its manifold
medicinal properties in gastritis, dyspepsia, flatulence, cold and cough. Like other herbs, ginger may be harmful
because it may interact with other medications like warfarin, a physician or pharmacist be consulted before
taking the herb as a medicinal agent on a long-term basis. Its fresh and dried rhizomes are used as a spice.

Climate and Soil

Ginger requires a warm and humid climate. The plant thrives well from the sea level to an altitude of 1500 m in
the Himalayas; the optimum elevation being 300 and 900 m. A well distributed rainfall (150-300 cm) during
growing season and dry spells during land preparations as well as before harvesting is required for large scale
cultivation of the crop. In areas receiving less of rainfall, crop needs regular irrigations. During its resting period,
cold climate does not affect the crop. It can be grown on a wide range of well-drained soils of at least 30 cm depth;
heavy literite loam of Anantapur (A P), red literite of Kottayam and Malabar regions and clayey-loam of Wynad
(Kerala) are found suitable for the crop. It is grown on rich, black and clayey soils under tank irrigation in
Maharashtra, Karnataka and AP.

Major Varieties
Several cultivars of ginger are grown in different growing regions in India and are generally named from the
region in which they are mostly cultivated as in table 1.

Table 1. Some of the area-wise commonly cultivated varieties of ginger in India

Cultivar Area of cultivation
Thingpui, Jorhat, Nadia, Maran Assam
Burdwan West Bengal
Wynad local, Wynad Manantody, EmadKuruppampadi Kerala
Karakkal Karnataka
Narasapattam Andhra Pradesh
China Exotic from China
Rio-de-Janeiro Exotic from Brazil

Table 2. Improved varieties of Ginger

Variety Mean Yield (t/ha) Maturity (days) Dry recovery (%) Source
IISR-Varada 22.6 200 20.7 IISR Calicut
IISR-Mahima 23.2 200 23 IISR Calicut
IISR Rajatha 22.4 200 19 IISR Calicut
Suprabha 16.6 229 20.5 HARS
Suravi 17.5 225 23.5
Himagiri 13.5 230 20.6 YSPU, HP

Sowing time/Season
In South India, the crop is mainly grown as a monsoon crop from April-May to December but it is grown as an
irrigated crop in north central India. In Himachal Pradesh, the crop is planted during April-May, as in south

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India, though early planting is advisable. In Eastern India, planting is done in March. In trials conducted at
Ambalavayal, Kerala, it was noticed that planting of ginger during the first week of April resulted in 100-200%
higher yield than the local practice of planting in May or June. The observation has also been confirmed by the
trials carried out at Naya Bunglo in Assam. In trials at Dadahoo (HP), it was observed that in the Himalayas at an
altitude of 1050 m, 13-64 % higher yield can be obtained by planting crop up to the end of April. At lower
elevations in hills the period of planting could be up to May-June.

Land Preparation
Preparation of land commences with the receipt of early summer showers. In Kerala and neighboring areas, the
land is given about 6 ploughings along with planking and the soil is brought to a fine tilth. Two distinct methods
of cultivation are adopted in this region (i) the Malabar system and (ii) South Kanara system. In first one, raised
beds (3m ×1m) are laid out at a distance of 30-45 cm away from each other. Small shallow pits for planting are
then made on the beds at a spacing of 15 or 20 × 22cm. the beds are similar in slopy areas. A handful of cattle
manure is applied to each of the pits. In case of irrigated areas, ridges are formed 40 cm apart. In areas prone to
rhizome rot disease and nematode infestations, soil solarization of beds for 40 days using transparent polythene
sheet is recommended.

Propagation and Seed Rate

Ginger is always propagated by portions of the rhizomes known as seed rhizomes. The rate of seed rhizomes
varies from 900 to 1400 kg/ha. Higher rate of seed rhizomes at 2250- 2750 kg/ha was found to give better results
in some areas in HP. According to the CPCRI, the seed rate recommended is 1500- 1800 kg/ha for Kerala.

Selection and Preservation of Seed

When the crop is 6-8 months old and still green, mark healthy and disease-free plants in the field. Select best
rhizomes, free from pest and disease from the marked plants. To avoid damage to buds, handle seed-rhizomes
carefully. Soak the selected rhizomes for 30 minutes in a solution of Mancozeb and Malathion to give terminal
concentration of 0.3 % for the former and 0.1 % for the latter. Dry the treated rhizomes in shade by spreading on
the floor. According to CPCRI Package of Practices, the seed pieces with 1 or 2 good buds are treated with 0.25 %
Agallol solution or 0.3 % Dithane M-45 solution for 30 minutes, drained and planted in rows 20-25 cm apart at a
distance of 15-20 cm within row and covered with soil.
Store treated rhizomes in pits dug in shade, the floor of which is lined with sand or saw dust. It is advisable to
spread layers of leaves of Glycosmis pentaphulla. Cover pits with coconut fronds. Examine stored rhizomes at
monthly intervals and remove rhizomes which show signs of rotting. This helps to keep inoculum level low.
Provide 1 or 2 holes in pits for better aeration. Before planting, seed-rhizomes should also be treated similarly.

Method of Planting/Spacing
The optimum spacing for planting of ginger is 25-45 cm between rows and 15-20 cm between plants. The seed-
rhizomes should be 20-30 g in weight with at least 2 sprouted eye buds. It is placed 3.5- 5.0 cm deep in pit and soil
is pressed over it; this is followed by light irrigation. Mulching the beds twice with green manure is an important
part of cultivation in Malabar system. No beds are laid out in South Kanara system. A mixture of manure and
burnt earth is applied in the form of 5 cm thick ridge in between rows, 100-120 cm apart from each other. The
seed-rhizomes, each 30-40 g in weight with about half a dozen sprouted eye buds are placed at a distance of 30
cm in rows and earthed up to make ridges 15-20 cm high. The rate of seed-rhizomes is comparatively lower in
this system, being 600 kg/ha. The field is given a light irrigation soon after sowing. As the crop grows, it is given
two more applications of burnt earth. Bigger seed rhizomes, ridge planting and manuring with ash is said to
facilitate development of large thick rhizomes.

Mulching
In ginger, mulching of the beds is very important and in a season two mulchings are given, first immediately
after planting and second about 45 days after planting. The first mulch conserves moisture and helps rhizomes in
germination. Quick rotting green leaves at the rate of about 25 t/ha are used in each mulching. Mulching with dry

193
leaves at the rate of about 9 t/ha gave good results in Himachal Pradesh. Mulching with green leaves of Strychnos
nux-vomica and Cassia auriculata is done in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Wherever green leaves are not available, the
seeds of sunnhemp, greengram, horsegram, common sesbania and cluster bean are sown on ridges or along the
border of beds and the plants mulched into the soil with onset of rains. The sesbania plants used for providing
shade to growing crop are usually up to a height of 1.2m to provide some manure. In West Bengal and Gujarat,
oil-cake at the rate of 400 kg/ha in 3equal doses is applied to the crop.

Crop Rotation and Inter cropping

Ginger is rotated with other crops in Kerala like tapioca, chillies, dry paddy in rainfed area and ground nut,
vegetables maize in irrigated areas. In Karnataka, ginger is also cultivated mixed with ragi, red gram and castor.
Ginger is also known as an inter-crop in coconut, arecanut, coffee, litchi and orange plantations. In hilly areas
especially H.P, ginger crop being shade loving crop, farmers are oftenly growing tomato, chillies, maize, tobacco
and amaranthus along with ginger. The ginger crop is not cultivated on the same piece of land for at least 2-3
years and rotated with other crops like paddy depending on the severity of diseases like rhizome rot, yellow
ginger and pest maggots and nematodes, ginger is also cultivated as an inter-crop in apple, pear and citrus
young orchards and young forest plantations. In North-Eastern states, ginger is grown under shifting cultivation
system.

After-care or Post Planting Care

The seed rhizomes sprout 15-30 days after planting. The beds are kept moist till the onset of rains. When the crop
is grown under irrigation, it is given 25-40 irrigations depending upon the rainfall. A fortnightly irrigation during
the post monsoon months ensures better yield.

Manure and Fertilizers

Ginger is an exhaustive crop and requires heavy manuring. The manure and fertilizer doses vary from place to
place according to soil type, locality, variety, and initial fertility status of soil in different ginger growing areas. At
the time of land preparation or planting, well decomposed FYM or compost @ 25-30 t/ha is to be applied. It may
be applied either by broadcasting over the beds prior to planting or applied in planting pits at the time of sowing.
Application of neem cake at 2 t/ha at the time of planting helps in reducing the incidence of rhizome rot of ginger
and increase the yield. AICRP on spices have given a general recommendation of 100 kg N, 50 kg each of P2O5
and K2O for whole of the country and the same is followed in H.P also. 1/3 N, full P2O5 and half or full of K2O
shoud be applied at the time of planting; 1/3 N one month or 40-60 days after planting and half K2O can be given
at this time; remaining 1/3 N 2-3 months after planting.

Weed Management
Two or three weedings are required depending upon the intensity of weeds. Weeding is done just before fertilizer
and mulching. While doing hoeings, care should be taken that rhizomes are not get disturbed, injured or exposed.
The use of chemical weedicides have not been tried in ginger except a report of Mishra and Mishra (1981) from
Bihar who reported that pre-emergence application of 2,4-D @ 1 kg/ha or atrazine is as effective as four weedings.

Irrigation
Proper drainage channels are to be provided to drain-off excess or stagnant water. The ginger crop grown under
irrigation conditions is watered immediately after sowing. Usually ginger crop needs frequent irrigations where
the soil has less water retention capacity. During rainy season there is no need for irrigation. In hilly areas, in
rainfed conditions, if rains are well distributed, 2-3 irrigations are sufficient at fortnightly interval or as and
when required. The total water requirement of ginger crop ranges between 1320-1520 mm during the crop cycle.
The rhizomes from rainfed crop have more fibre than irrigated one raised under lower elevations.

Earthing up
Earthing-up helps in pulverizing the soil leading to proper aeration, suppresses the weed growth and covers the
growing rhizomes, besides provide support to the growing stem. At least two earthing ups should be done first
after 50 days at the time of mulching and second after 75 days of planting.

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Maturity Indices
The stage of maturity of rhizomes has a significant influence on its quality and suitability for consumption and
processing for preserved, seed ginger and dried ginger. The appropriate stage and maturity indication will depend
upon the purpose for which it is to be harvested.
(i) Preserved ginger: In this case the main indications are when there is minimum of crude fibre, maximum of
volatile oil, oleoresin and starch. The rhizomes are harvested for the direct sale or manufacture of preserved
ginger at immature stage i.e. green immature and green mature.
 Green immature: The rhizomes are tender, succulent, fibreless and on breaking the rhizomes break easily
after 5-6 months of planting. It should not be watery but attained solidity and mild in pungency
 Green mature: The rhizomes have fully developed mature, hard skin, on breaking fibre formation is
there and the leaves start turning yellow and stem lodges. The rhizomes are more fibrous and pungent.
(ii) Dry ginger: The crop maturity is indicated by yellowing of leaves and withering of stem. The rhizomes are
fully mature after 7-8 months and become more fibrous, skin hard and are more pungent.
(iii) Seed ginger: The rhizomes are allowed to remain in the field for 3-4 weeks more and the skin of rhizome
ripe, thickened and leaves and pseudo stem completely dries and falls down.

Plant Protection Measures

Diseases: Ginger is prone to several diseases, some of which may cause heavy losses. Some common diseases
are:
Soft rot or rhizome rot: Rhizome or soft rot is a soil borne disease found all over the ginger growing regions and
is caused by Pythium aphanidermatum. P. vexansa and P.myriotylum are also reported to be associated with the
disease. The fungus multiplies with build up of soil moisture with the onset of south west monsoon. Younger
sprouts are the most susceptible to the pathogen. The infection starts at the collar region of the pseudo stem and
progresses upward as well as downward. The collar region affected pseudo stem becomes water soaked and the
rotting spreads to the rhizomes resulting in soft rot. At a later stage rot infection also noticed. Foliar symptoms
appear as light yellowing of the tips of lower leaves which gradually spreads to the leaf blades. In early stages of
the disease, the middle portion of leaves remain green while the margins become yellow. The yellowing spreads
to all leaves of the plant from the lower region upwards and is followed by drooping, withering and drying of
pseudo stems. Treatment of seed rhizomes with Mancozeb 0.3% for 30 minutes before storage and once again
before planting reduces the disease incidence. Cultural practices like selection of well-drained soil is important
for managing the disease, stagnation of water predisposes the plant to infection. Seed rhizomes are to be selected
from disease free gardens, since the disease is also seed borne. Application of Trichoderma harzianum along with
neem cake @ 1kg/bed helps in preventing the disease. In case the disease is located, removal of affected clumps
and drenching the affected and surrounding beds with Mancozeb 0.3% checks the spread of the disease.
Bacterial wilt: Caused by Ralstonia solanace-arum is also a soil and seed borne disease that occurs during south
west monsoon. Water soaked spots appear at the collar region of the pseudo stem and progresses upwards and
downwards. The first conspicuous symptom is mild drooping and curling of leaf margins of the lower leaves
which spreads upward. Yellowing starts from the lower most leaves and gradually progresses to the upper
leaves. In the advanced stages, the plants exhibit severe yellowing and wilting symptoms. The vascular tissues of

195
the affected pseudo stems show dark streaks. The affected pseudo stem and rhizome when pressed gently, extrudes
milky ooze from the vascular strands. The cultural practices adopted for managing soft rot are also same for
bacterial wilt. Seed rhizomes must be taken from disease free field for planting. The seed rhizomes may be
treated with Streptocycline 200ppm for 30 minutes and shade dried before planting. Once the disease is noticed,
all beds should be drenched with Bordeaux mixture 1% or copper oxychloride 0.2%.
Leaf spot: This is caused by Phyllosticta zingiberi and the disease is noticed
on the leaves from July to October. The disease starts as water soaked spot
and later turns as a white spot surrounded by dark brown margins and
yellow halo. The lesions enlarge and adjacent lesions coalesce to form
necrotic areas. The disease spreads through rain splashes during intermittent
showers. The incidence of the disease id severe in ginger grown under
exposed conditions. The disease can be controlled by spraying Bordeaux
mixture 1% or Mancozeb 0.2%.

Nematode Pests
Root knot (Meloidogyne spp.), burrowing (Radopholus simili) and lesion (Pretylenchus spp.) nematodes are important
pests of ginger. Stunting, chlorosis, poor tillering and necrosis of leaves are the common aerial symptoms.
Characteristic root galls and lesions that lead to rotting are generally seen in roots. The infested rhizomes have
brown, water soaked areas in the roots and in the outer tissues. Nematode infestation aggravates rhizome rot
disease. The nematodes can be controlled by treating infested rhizomes with hot water for 10 minutes, using
nematode free seed rhizomes and solarizing ginger beds for 40 days. In areas where root knot nematode population
is high, the resistant variety IISR Mahima may be cultivated. Pochonia chlamydosporia, a nematode bio control
agent can be incorporated in ginger beds at the time of harvesting.

Insect Pests
Shoot borer: The shoot borer (Conogethes punctiferalis) is the most serious pest of ginger. The larvae bore into
pseudo stem and feed on internal tissues resulting in yellowing and drying if leaves. The presence of a hole on
stem through which frass is extruded, withered and yellow central shoot is a characteristic symptom of pest
infestation. The adult is a medium sized moth with a wing so an of about 20 mm; the wings are orange- yellow
with minute black spots. Fully grown larvae are light brown with sparse hairs. The pest population is higher in
the field during September-October.
The shoot borer can be managed by spraying Malathion0.1% or Monocrotophos 0.075 % at 21 days interval
during July to October. The spraying is to be initiated when first symptom is seen on the top leaves of the pseudo
stem. An integrated strategy involved pruning and destroying freshly infested pseudo stem during July-August
and spraying Malathion 0.1% during September-October is also effective against the pest.
Rhizome scale: The rhizome scale (Aspidiella hartii) infests rhizomes in the field and in storage. Adult (female)
scales are circular and light brown to grey and appear as eructation’s on the rhizomes. They feed on sap and
when the rhizomes are severaly infested, they become shriveled and desiccated. The pest can be managed by
treating the seed material with Quinalphos 0.075% for 20-30minute before storage and also before planting in
case the infestation persists. Severely infested rhizomes are to be discarded before storage.

Minor Pests
Larvae of leaf roller (Udaspes folus) cut and fold leaves and feed from
within. The adults are medium sized butterflies with brownish black
wings with white spots; the larvae are dark green. A spray with Carbaryl
0.1% or Dimethoate 0.05% may be undertaken when the infestation is
severe.
(i) Root grubs occasionally feed on tender rhizomes, roots and base
of pseudo stems causing yellowing and wilting of shoots. The pest
can be controlled by drenching the soil with Chlorpyriphos 0.075%.

196
 Harvesting
The crop is ready to harvest in
about 7-8 months, time after
planting when the leaves turn
yellow and start drying up
gradually. Early harvesting
can also be done keeping in
view the prevailing price and
demand in the market.
However, early harvesting is
also done when the produce is
to be used for processing
because of less fibre and pungency while for drying purpose, harvesting is delayed. The clumps are lifted carefully
with a spade or digging fork or on large scale field is plaoughed and the rhizomes are collected.

Post-harvest Technology
Curing
Ginger is marketed both in peeled and unpeeled forms.in scraped ginger, the epidermal layer of the fresh rhizomes
is scraped off with a sharpened bamboo-splinter and then rhizomes are washed in water and dried in the sunfor7-
10 days. This produce is uniformly turned during drying. As the essential oil is in the epidermal cells, excessive
or careless scraping results in the loss of oil and depreciated quality of the spice.

Bleaching
In the Middle East countries, which buy a very large part of Indian produce, higher demand is for white, polished
rhizomes free from specks or spots, for this purpose, the raw rhizomes are soaked in water for a day and later in
thick milk of lime. This material is dried in sun and then rubbed with gunny bags pieces to remove the last
remnants of the skin. This treatment imparts a smooth finish to the product.

Grading
The rhizomes prior to storage are graded according to their shape, size, number of fingers, colour, scales etc.

Storage of seed ginger

In order to get good germination, the seed rhizomes are to be stored properly in pits under shade. For seed
materials, big and healthy rhizomes from disease free plants are selected immediately after harvest. For this
purpose, healthy and disease free clumps are marked in the field when the crop is 6-8 months old and still green.
The seed rhizomes are treated with a solution containing 0.1% Quinalphos and 0.3% Dithane M-45 for 30minutes.
In H P, depending on the severity of diseases seed rhizomes are treated twice i.e. before storage and planting
with (0.01% Bavistin+ 0.25% Dithane M-45+1% Chlorpyriphos) solution for two hours.one litre solution is sufficient
for treating one kg seed rhizomes. The same solution is used for treating the pit also. Drain the solution and dry
the rhizomes under shade. The rhizomes are stored in the pits of convenient size in sheds. One quintal of rhizomes
can be stored in one cubic meter pits.

References
Arya P S (2008) Spice Crops of India; 247-59.
Bhattacharjee S K (2001) Handbook of Medicinal Plants; 381-82.
Pruthi J S (1993) Major Spices of India; 244-283.
Muralia S and Pathak A K (2007) Medicinal and Aromatic Plants; 241-43.
Thomas R P (2013) Spices: Cultivation and Uses; 58-63.

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