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Edible ferns and fern–allies of North East India: a study on potential wild
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DOI: 10.1007/s10722-016-0372-5

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Edible ferns and fern–allies of North East
India: a study on potential wild vegetables

S. D. Yumkham, L. Chakpram, S. Salam,

M. K. Bhattacharya & P. K. Singh

Genetic Resources and Crop

Evolution
An International Journal

ISSN 0925-9864

Genet Resour Crop Evol

DOI 10.1007/s10722-016-0372-5

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 Author's personal copy
Genet Resour Crop Evol
DOI 10.1007/s10722-016-0372-5
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Edible ferns and fern–allies of North East India: a study
on potential wild vegetables
S. D. Yumkham . L. Chakpram .
S. Salam . M. K. Bhattacharya . P. K. Singh
Received: 30 July 2015 / Accepted: 27 January 2016
Ó Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2016
Abstract The North East India houses around 130
ethnic tribal communities which exhibits unique
tradition, dialect and culture. These communities
collect edible plants from wild forming a common
practice for livelihood and subsistence even today. Of
the varieties of plant consumed, ferns and fern–allies
also constitute an important food supplement. An
inventory survey was conducted in order to assess the
wild edible ferns and fern–allies which are used as
vegetables by various ethnic communities of North
East India. Altogether, twenty-three (23) ferns and
fern–allies are found to be edible, and used in
preparing various cuisines. Four species viz. Diplaz-
ium esculentum (Retz.) Sw., Huperzia phlegmaria (L.)
Rothm., Huperzia squarrosa (G. Forst.) Trevis. and
Nephrolepis cordifolia (L.) C. Presl were cultivated in
small scale for consumption and horticultural pur-
poses, while the rest of the species were directly
harvested from wild habitat. Role of these ferns in
S. D. Yumkham (&)
L. Chakpram
P. K. Singh
Ethnobotany and Plant Physiology Laboratory, Centre of
Advanced Studies in Life Sciences, Manipur University,
Canchipur 795 003, India
e-mail: rifle_yumkham@rediffmail.com
S. Salam
Department of Botany, Nagaland University, Lumani,
Mokokchung 798601, Nagaland, India
M. K. Bhattacharya
Department of Botany and Biotechnology, Karimganj
College, Karimganj 788710, Assam, India
local cuisines, other reported uses and bioactive
components were discussed. The study also empha-
sises on future development of ferns and its allies as
potential vegetables in North East India.
Keywords Ferns
Fern–allies
North East India

Wild vegetables
Introduction
From the days of plant gathering to modern era, the
sole objective of plant exploitation by men is for
livelihood and subsistence. Most food consumed by
men in the form of fruits, vegetables, medicines etc.
has its origin in plants, either from wild or cultivated.
Their mode and techniques of usage in local or
regional cuisines may be diversified and unique,
depending on the culture, community, geographical
boundary, availability of resources etc. With growing
research in food ethnobotany, the documentation of
wild edible plants less frequently consumed has also
increased considerably over the years. One of such
group of plants less acquainted and undocumented is
the ferns and its allies.
The term Pteridophytes is used as an informal way
to refer ferns and fern–allies, and represent vascular
cryptogams that reproduces through spores. Accord-
ing to Groombridge and Jenkins (2002), the number of
the described taxa includes 13,025 species from all
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 Author's personal copy
over the world. In another estimate by Hassler and
Swale (2002), the total figure is 12,838 species. India
harbours about 67 families, 191 genera and more than
1000 species (Dixit 2000). Maximum number of
diversity is observed in Himalayas, Eastern and
Western Ghats. The entire North East India comes
under Himalayan zone, and diversity of Pteridophytes
is expected to be very high. It comprises of eight
states—Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Megha-
laya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura. Geo-
graphically, this zone is also very unique because it
borders Myanmar and served as a corridor between
South and Southeast Asian region, which again comes
under the Indo–Burma biodiversity hotspot (Myers
et al. 2000; Mittermeier et al. 2004). It has an area of
262,230 km2 and constitutes about 8 % of the total
India’s geographical area. The altitude varies from
almost sea level to over 7000 m A.S.L. Rainfall
average comes around 10,000 mm and served as a
main criteria for the luxuriant growth of plants
including ferns and fern–allies.
Many ethnic communities reside together in this
region accounting to a total population of 40 million,
and represents 3.1 % of the total Indian population
(Chakrabortya et al. 2012). A good sum of around 130
tribal communities resides in North East Region (Dutt
and Dutt 2005). Ethnic prominent communities
include Tangkhul, Meiteis, Hmar, Paite, Bodo, Rabha,
Karbi, Deuri, Assamese, Mizo, Hmar Chakma,
Tripuris Chakma, Khasi, Kuki etc. These communities
use plants from wild for making local cuisines, either
in raw or in cooked form. Their knowledge on various
plants also differs according to the practice, culture
and taboos. A cuisine is a culture specific style of
cooking which is associated with cultural tradition and
practices. Many North Eastern cuisines of India
feature locally fermented traditional dry fishes, known
differently in local dialects like Berma in Tripuri,
Ngari in Manipuri, Puthi maas/Sidol in Assamese and
Nagamese, Tungtap in Khasi etc., fermented bamboo
shoots, soya beans, meats and fishes (Jeyaram et al.
2009; Kakati and Goswami 2013). Of the many plants
used in this region as vegetables, ferns and fern–allies
also play a prominent role in many cuisines, though
lacking behind in terms of popularity when compared
with other seeded plants. Each of these cuisines is
prepared using unique style, cooking traditions, prac-
tices and also cultural differences. Literatures related
to ethnobotany and traditional cuisines in North East
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Genet Resour Crop Evol
India highlighted only few edible ferns (Gogoi and
Das 2002; Sen and Ghosh 2011; Srivastav et al. 2009;
Salam et al. 2011). Inventory reports on edible ferns
even from mainland India is still undocumented.
Hence, a comprehensive and exclusive elaborative
work on wild edible ferns and fern–allies and their
contribution in cuisines of North Eastern India is much
awaited.
In the present paper, an attempt is made to assess
the wild edible ferns and fern–allies used in North East
India by different ethnic communities. This group of
plants is less represented in the Indian flora, and
researchers belittled their importance for years inspite
of their great potential as vegetables. The traditional
cuisines, bioactive components and other relevant
information on fern uses will be discussed briefly.
Methodology
The study was conducted during the year 2010 to 2013
in the seven North Eastern (NE) States of India
(Sikkim excluded), viz, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,
Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tri-
pura. It was based on the information gathered from
the local inhabitants between the age group of
20–70 years. The interviewees comprised mostly of
female residents, who were actively engaged in
cooking in their respective household. From amongst
the ethnic groups in NE India, ten (10) ethnic tribes,
viz, Misimi, Meitei, Tangkhul, Garo, Tripuri–Bengali,
Bodo, Mizo, Hmar, Paite and Nagamese were selected
to assess the edible ferns and fern–allies. Semi-
structured questionnaire was adopted for data collec-
tion related to ethnobotany. All the traditional com-
mon cuisines consumed by the ten ethnic communities
and differences in cultural practices observed among
the tribes were also noted. Prior Informed Consent
(PIC) was obtained from the local people, women
vendors, tribal chiefs and herbal healers/practitioners/
dealers etc. Voucher specimens were deposited at
Manipur University Museum of Plants (MUMP).
Classification of specimen is based on Smith et al.
(2006). The list of wild edible fern and fern–allies
along with their respective families, sources, parts
used, other ethnobotanic uses, earlier reports on
presence of bioactive components based on available
literature etc. are highlighted in Table 1. All the
species are arranged alphabetically.
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Genet Resour Crop Evol

Table 1 List of wild and cultivated ferns and fern-allies used in preparation of cuisines in NE India by ten ethnic communities
Species with family Source and Relevant findings/ Other uses and properties Reported bioactive components
parts used uses

Ampelopteris Wild; young Used as vegetable Relieves constipation i.e. used as Phenolics, flavanoids,
prolifera (Retz.) fronds aperients (Benniamin 2011) triterpenoids (Bharti and
Copel. Pravesh 2012)
(Thelypteridaceae)
Fig. 2a)
Angiopteris evecta Wild; swollen Partially boiled Antibacterial property, rhizome Triterpenes, phytosterols,
(G. Forst.) Hoffm. rhizome and used as an extract used against scabies, phenols, saponins (Patil et al.
(Marattiaceae) ingredient in styptic and antihelmintic 2013)
(Fig. 2b) preparing (Vasudeva 1999)
vegetable salad
Azolla pinnata R. Br. Wild; whole Used in the Anti–insecticidal and Phenols, carbohydrates,
(Azollaceae) plant burnt to preparation of antimicrobial (Mithraja et al. saponins (Mithraja et al.
(Fig. 2c) obtain Oot, Khaar and 2011) 2011)
NaHCO3 Karchi
Blechnum orientale Wild; young Used as vegetable Antimicrobial activity, broad– Flavanoids, terpenes, phenols
L. (Blechnaceae) fronds, spectrum bactericide (Mithraja (Lai et al. 2010; Patil et al.
(Fig. 2d) rhizomes et al. 2012) 2013)
Ceratopteris Wild; young Used as vegetable Paste mixed with turmeric applied Alkaloids, arbutin, tannin found
thalictroides (L.) fronds in infected skin and wounds in the green parts (van der
Brongn. (Karthik et al. 2011) Burg 2004)
(Pteridaceae)
(Fig. 2e)
Dicranopteris Wild; young Partially boiled Possess anti-inflammatory and Flavonoids, saponins, tannins,
linearis (Burm. f.) fronds and used as an antioxidant activities (Lai and steroids, triterpenes (Zakaria
Underw. ingredient in Lim 2011); young rachises eaten et al. 2007)
(Gleicheniaceae). preparing after boiling in Uttarakhand
(Fig. 2f) vegetable salad (Upreti et al. 2009)
Diplazium Cultivated; Used as Juice taken to relieve cough and Total phenolic
esculentum (Retz.) young fronds vegetable for cold; antioxidative activities (3.7 ± 2.9 GAE/mg), vitamin
Sw. (Woodsiaceae) preparing higher than alpha-tocopherol E, a-tocopherol (Nanasombat
(Fig. 2g) cusines such as (Karthik et al. 2011) and Teckchuen 2009)
Palai Sak
Huperzia phlegmaria Cultivated; Crushed into fine Used in treatments of Alzheimer, Alkaloids Huperzine A,
(L.) Rothm. young powder after Parkinson etc. (Singh and Singh lycophlegmariols A–D,
(Lycopodiaceae) sporophyll, drying and used 2010) hupermine A, lycodoline
(Fig. 2h) spores as herbal tea (Wittayalai et al. 2012;
Hirasawa et al. 2014)
Huperzia squarrosa Cultivated; Crushed into fine Alkaloids used in brain diseases Huperzine A, Huperzine B, N–
(G. Forst.) Trevis. young powder after like Alzheimer, failure of motor methyl–huperzine B,
(Lycopodiaceae) sporophyll, drying and used nerves, dementia etc. (Sun et al. Huperzinine, Lycoporine A,
(Fig. 2i) spores as herbal tea 1999) Carina-tumine A (Ma 1997)
Isoetes debii Sinha Wild; whole Used for preparing Roasted rhizome of allied species Not available
(Isoetaceae) plant Pakori Isoetescoromandelina L. used in
(Fig. 2j) cough and cold (Abhyankar and
Upadhyay 2011)
Lygodium japonicum Wild; young Crushed into fine Antibacterial action against Kaempferol, p-coumaric acid,
(Thunb.) Sw. leaves powder after Staphylococcus, Pseudomonas, hexadecanoic acid,
(Lygodiaceae) drying and used Salmonella; anti-oxidation daucosterol, beta-sitosterol
(Fig. 3a) as herbal tea properties (Zhu et al. 2009) (Zhang et al. 2005)
Marsilea minuta L. Wild; whole Used as vegetable Eaten as sushnisaag in Jharkhand Phenols, flavonoids,
(Marsileaceae) plant (Prafulla and Singh 2012); xanthoproteins, coumarins
(Fig. 3b) enhance lactation after child (Mithraja et al. 2011)
birth (Shahidullah et al. 2009)

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Genet Resour Crop Evol

Table 1 continued
Species with family Source and Relevant findings/ Other uses and properties Reported bioactive components
parts used uses

Microsorum Wild; young Used as vegetable Leaves extract used as purgative, Flavanoids, hydroxycinnamic
punctatum (L.) fronds diuretic and healing wounds acids, proanthocyanidins
Copel. (Sharma and Pegu 2011) (Chai et al. 2015)
(Polypodiaceae)
(Fig. 3c)
Nephrolepis Cultivated; Partially boiled Used as diuretic, contraceptive, Tannins, saponins, cardiac
cordifolia (L.) underground and used as an liver and skin disorders glycosides (Oloyede et al.
C. Presl tuber ingredient in (Christensen 1997; Dhiman 2013)
(Davalliaceae) preparing 1998)
(Fig. 3d) vegetable salad
Nephrolepis Wild; young Partially boiled Possess antimicrobial activities Phenols
biserrata (L.) fronds and used as an and used in boils, abscesses and (127.28 ± 1.57 mg GAE/g)
C. Presl ingredient in blisters (Baltrushes 2006) (Shah et al. 2015)
(Davalliaceae) preparing
(Fig. 3e) vegetable salad
Ophioglossum Wild; whole Partially boiled Leaves extracts of rhizomes used High level of glutamic acid,
reticulatum L. sporophyll and used as an as snakebites antidote in aspartic acid (Yeoh and Wee
(Ophioglossaceae) ingredient in Tanzania (Amoroso and Ong 1998)
(Fig. 3f) preparing 2003)
vegetable salad
Ophioglossum Wild: whole Partially boiled Glycosylated and acylated Flavonoid oligoglycosides
vulgatum L. sporophyll and used as an flavonols present and helps in (Clericuzio et al. 2012)
(Ophioglossaceae) ingredient in scratch-wound healing assays
(Fig. 3g) preparing (Clericuzio et al. 2012)
vegetable salad
Osmunda regalis L. Wild; young Used for preparing Rhizome extract used as Flavonoids, phenols, steroids,
(Osmundaceae) fronds Pakori aborticacient (Jain 1991); also primary and secondary
(Fig. 3h) used in treatment of bone alcohols, fatty acids.
fractures, rheumatic and arthritic b-sitosterol (Jetter and
pain (Molina et al. 2009) Riederer 2000)
Pteridium aquilinum Wild; young Used for preparing American Indians used root tea for Adenosine, quercetin, rutin,
(L.) Kuhn fronds Pakori stomach cramps, diarrhoea, ponasterone, daucosterol
(Dennstaedtiaceae) smoke for headaches, poultice (Zhang et al. 2004)
(Fig. 3i) root for burns/sores/caked
breasts, wash to promote hair
growth, also used as astringent
and tonic (Foster and Duke
1990)
Salvinia cucullata Wild; whole Used in the Used as biofertilizer; many genus Not available
Roxb. plant, ash preparation of used for removal of Hg, Cr, Ni
(Salviniaceae) used as a Oot, Khaar and and Pb (Banerjee and Sarker
(Fig. 4a) source of Karchi 1997)
NaHCO3
Salvinia natans (L.) Wild; whole Used in the Used as biofertilizers (Singh et al. Glycosides, proteins, free
All. (Salviniaceae) plant, ash preparation of 2001) amino acids, terpenoids
(Fig. 4b) used as a Oot, Khaar and (Shakoor et al. 2013)
source of Karchi
NaHCO3
Sphenomeris Wild; young Crushed into fine Paste used in swelling, sprains; Tannins, flavanoids, saponins
chinensis (L.) fronds powder after dried fronds used as a substitute (Mithraja et al. 2012)
Maxon drying and used for tea leaves in Uttarakhand
(Dennstaedtiaceae) as herbal tea (Upreti et al. 2009)
(Fig. 4c)

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Genet Resour Crop Evol
Table 1 continued
Species with family Source and Relevant findings/
parts used uses
Stenochlaena Wild; young Used in preparing
palustris (Burm. f.) fronds vegetable soup
Bedd. like Kang-soi
(Blechnaceae)
(Fig. 4d)
Results and discussion
The entire NE India, though rich in biodiversity has
been regarded as one of the most backward enclave in
terms of economy and development. Geographically,
it is a compact unit and remains isolated from
mainland India. We found that most of the houses in
outskirts and remote areas are traditional wooden or
thatched huts, and inter village roads were mostly in
deplorable condition (Fig. 1a, b). Inspite of the
diversity in ethnicity in NE India, the mode of living
among the tribes remain more or less similar. Forest
resources remain the source of livelihood and wild
collection of plants for food is a very common practice
here (Fig. 1c).
In the present investigation, twenty-three (23)
species were utilized as edible ferns and its allies.
Many unique traditional cuisines were observed
during the survey, however the recipes were more or
less similar among the communities (Fig. 1d). Seven
(7) main cuisines of the region highlighted the use of
ferns and its allies as vegetables. These cuisines are
Chutneys, Vegetable Salad, Stewed Vegetable Soup,
Bhajii, Khaar, Pakori and Chaai/Herbal tea. Chutneys
are prepared with boiled or raw vegetables along with
different forms of fermented dry fishes like Puntius
sophore (Hamilton), Setipinna phasa (Hamilton),
Gudusia chapra (Hamilton) etc. (Fig. 1e). The
Vegetable Salad is a compulsory item in all cultural
feasts of most of the communities and is prepared by
mixing roasted fermented dry fish, red chilli, salt and
variety of vegetables. Many wild ferns were partially
boiled and mixed with vegetables like Wendlandia
glabrata DC. (Rubiaceae), Oenanthe javanica
(Blume) DC. (Apiaceae), Parkia timoriana (A. DC.)
Merr. (Fabaceae), Neptunia oleracea Lour. (Faba-
ceae) etc. In Meghalaya, it is called Dohkhlieh and
pieces of fried pork are added instead of fermented
fishes. The Stewed Vegetable Soup is a watery cuisine
Other uses and properties Reported bioactive components
Fronds used to treat fever, skin Phosphorus, potassium (Voon
diseases, ulcers and stomach and Kueh 1999; Chai et al.
ache (Compendium of Medicinal 2012)
Plants used in Malaysia 2002)
cooked by adding fermented dry fish with wild
vegetables locally known as Nakham Bitchi in
Meghalaya, Kang-shoi in Manipur, Bwtwi in Tripura
and Chhum Han in Mizoram. Bhajii is a mixture of
vegetables prepared by deep frying. The most com-
mon fern preferred is Diplazium esculentum, and
cuisine prepared from it is sometimes called Palai Sak
in Tripura and Dhekia Saag in Assam. Another item is
the Khaar which is cooked using Sodium bicarbonate
(NaHCO3). In Assam, Manipur and Tripura, filtered
ash water derived from Azolla pinnata, Salvinia
cucullata, S. natans, Pisum sativum L. (Fabaceae),
Musa spp. (Musaceae) etc. are still used instead of
baking soda. The soda ashes are called Oot in
Manipur, Karchi in Meghalaya and Khaar in Assam,
Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura. Pakori is a popular
snack and is locally sold in markets and tea vendors. It
is deep crispy frying of vegetables like potato, spring
onion, Paederia foetida L. (Rubiaceae), Justicia
adhatoda L. (Acanthaceae) etc. after mixing with
paste of chickpea flour. Chaai/Herbal tea is a mixture
of (3–6) herbs taken either as hot drinks or therapeutic
tea. It is prepared by steeping proportionate amount of
herbs in boiling water, and either salt or sugar is added.
Ferns used in such dishes/tea as well as earlier reports
on bioactive components present are highlighted in
Table 1.
Each state highlighted different form of cuisines,
recipes and food preservation methods like fermenta-
tion, smoking, salting, drying, etc. However, most of
the cuisines resemble one another in that they were
usually simple, devoid of oil and spices, and often
prepared by steaming or boiling, which is in fact an
effective method of nutritive value preservation.
Commercial activities and cultivation of ferns are
very limited and restrict to few species like D.
esculentum, Nephrolepis cordifolia, Huperzia squar-
rosa and H. phlegmaria. Besides these few plants in
market, the rest of the species were directly harvested
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Genet Resour Crop Evol

Fig. 1 a A typical wooden hut of Tangkhul b a bamboo woman selling Huperzia spp. in Manipur h–j different forms of
intervillage bridge c a tribal woman collecting wild plants d a traditional baskets used for collection and transportation of
display of traditional Meitei dishes e various forms of fermented plants in NE region k a man engaged in making basket
fish f a woman selling Diplazium esculentum in Nagaland g a

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Genet Resour Crop Evol

Fig. 2 a Ampelopteris prolifera b Angiopteris evecta c Azolla pinnata d Blechnum orientale e Ceratopteris thalictroides
f Dicranopteris linearis g Diplazium esculentum h Huperzia phlegmaria i Huperzia squarrosa j Isoetes debii

from wild habitat by plant collectors/pickers (Fig. 1f–
g). There were no techniques or protocols on how to
harvest these plant resources from forest. Plant
collectors used traditional baskets like Luk, Thumok,
Sam, Khoh etc. made of bamboo and cane for
collecting and transporting of wild vegetables and
other items in the rough hilly terrain (Fig. 1h–k). Poor
connectivity between villages, communication gap
among ethnic tribes, lack of infrastructure, unrest law
and order situation etc. remain some of the most
challenging hurdles in plant resource production and
utilization in NE region.
With the depletion of natural resources, the
tradition of eating wild ferns today has been losing
considerably. The overall net rate of deforestation
in North East India is -0.90 in 2009 to -5.29 in
2011 (Reddy et al. 2013). Some prominent factors
of deforestation in this region are shifting cultiva-
tion, mining, exploitation of bamboo products and
agricultural land conversion (Lele and Joshi 2009).

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Genet Resour Crop Evol

Fig. 3 a Lygodium japonicum b Marsilea minuta c Microsorum for sale e Nephrolepis biserrata epiphytic on Phoenix sylvestris
punctatum d Nephrolepis cordifolia epiphytic on Phoenix Roxb. f Ophioglossum reticulatum g Ophioglossum vulgatum
sylvestris Roxb. and insert photo showing the same at a fernery h Osmunda regalis i Pteridium aquilinum

Effective measures should be taken up by respon- of wild ferns through value addition, preservation,
sible authorities to ensure a healthy natural habitat, packaging and processing. Harvesting requires
and develop a protocol for sustainable utilization instant monitoring and management of local

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Genet Resour Crop Evol

Fig. 4 a Salvinia cucullata b Salvinia natans c Sphenomeris chinensis, insert showing powdered form for making herbal tea d one of
the author collecting Stenochlaena palustris

strategies by taking into account the communities/
users/harvesters involved. Modern farming tech-
niques familiar to the locals can be developed to
fully meet the demands of these underutilized
plants and thus developing these wild species into
cultivated ones, and at the same time making ferns
and fern–allies a compatible vegetable variety.
Acknowledgments We are deeply grateful to all the elderly
people, women vendors and folks who kindly shared their
knowledge, time and labour during the course of study. We
thanked Tam Nagu (Arunachal Pradesh), Dipti Baruah (Assam),
Tamar (Manipur) and Deepak Vashum (Nagaland) who had
guided us selflessly.
Compliance with ethical standards
Conflict of interest The corresponding author on behalf of the
co-authors declares that there is no potential conflict of interest
concerning this paper.

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