PLANT DISEASES TRANSMITED BY INSECTS AND THEIR

MANAGEMENT
1
K.K. Sharma 2Pankaj Sharma and 3Bhupendra Kharayat
1
Research Associate,Vivekanand Parvatiya Krishi Anusandhan Sansthan-Almora, 2Astt.
Plant Pathologist, PAU, Ludhiana (Punjab)

From the beginning insects are known to cause serious damage to the crops because
they not only damage the crops but also act as reservoir of several pathogens and
transmit these pathogens to the plants and cause further damage to the crops here we
have mentioned some important disease transmitter and their control.

There is a long list of insects that transmit pathogens of several plant diseases such as
viruses, bacteria, phytoplasma and fungi. These insects are known as vectors. . Vectors of
plant viruses are taxonomically very diverse and can be found among arthropods,
nematodes, fungi, and plasmodiophorids., particularly aphids, white flies, mealy bugs
thrips etc., the most common being aphids with more than 200 vector species identified.
Out of about 620 plant viruses, known 200 are transmitted by aphids. More than half of
the nearly 550 vector transmitted virus species recorded so far are disseminated by aphids
(55%), 11% by leafhoppers, 11% by beetles, 9% by whiteflies, 7% by nematodes, 5% by
fungi and plasmodiophorids, and the remaining 2% by thrips, mites, mirids, or
mealybugs. Next to aphids white flies and thrips are also known to transmit plant disease.
Following tables summarizes the insect vectors transmitting plant virus disease.
Insect order Insect (vector) Plant viruses
Hemiptera Aphids
Aphis gossypii Papaya mosaic virus, cucumber mosaic, chilli
mosaic
Aphis craccivora Cowpea mosaic Papaya mosaic
Myzus persicae Cucumber mosaic, potato mosaic , tomato
mosaic,
Pentalonia Banana bunchy top, Cardamom mosaic
nigronervosa
Rophalosiphum Sugarcane mosaic, Maize dwarf mosaic,
maidis barley yellow dwarf
Plant hopper
Nilaparvata lugens.  maize mosaic, oat sterile dwarf, rice stripe,
sugarcane Fiji disease and grassy stunt virus
 of rice
Leaf hopper
Graminella nigrifrons maize chlorotic dwarf virus, sugar beet curly
top virus, blueberry stunt, phony peach,
Pierce's disease of grapes, elm yellows,
Nephotettix virescens rice tungro spherical virus
Mealybugs cacao swollen shoot virus, grapevine leaf roll
associated viruses, cocoa mottle leaf virus
Homoptera Whiteflies
Bemisia tabaci Yellow mosaic of cowpeas, roses, soybeans
and tomatoes, okra yellow vein mosaic, leaf
curl of cotton, potato, tobacco, tomato and
other crops
Thysanopter Thrips
Thrips tabaci, Tomato spotted wilt
a
Frankliniella fusca,
Scirtothrips dorsalis
Diptera Leafminer
Liriomyza sp. tobacco mosaic virus and sowbane mosaic
virus.
Coleoptera Beetles
Diabrotica squash mosaic virus
undecimpunctata
howardi, Acalymma
vittata

Mode of transmission
Different modes of transmission of phytoviruses have been characterized depending on
the retention time, sites of retention, and internalization of virions by insect vectors.
Nonpersistent viruses are retained by their vectors for less than a few hours whereas
semipersistent viruses are retained for days, weeks, or even years. Viruses in these two
categories are acquired from infected plants and inoculated within seconds or minutes to
recipient plants. In addition, they do not require a latent period, e.g. time interval between
acquisition and transmission, and do not replicate in the vector. Nonpersistent and
semipersistent viruses are specifically associated with the epicuticle that lines the stylets
(mouthparts) or the foreguts of their arthropod vectors, respectively, or the cuticle lining
of the feeding apparatus of their nematode vectors. Since the cuticle, including the lining
of the mouthparts and foregut, is shed during molting, acquired viruses are lost at each
molt. Collectively, the nonpersistent and semipersistent viruses are referred to as
noncirculative because they are not internalized by vectors. In other words, they do not
enter the hemocoel (vector body cavity) or cross any vector cell membrane.
Persistent viruses, once acquired from infected plants, are associated with the vector for
the remainder of their lifetime. They require long acquisition times (hours to days) and
long latent periods (one day to several weeks). Successful transmission of persistent
viruses requires an internalization of the ingested viruses that are actively transported
across several cell membranes. Thus, they are found in the hemocoel of vectors and
retained by vectors after molting. Ultimately, they must associate with the vector salivary
system to be transmitted into a new host. Persistent viruses are referred to as circulative.
They can be further divided into propagative, e.g. viruses that replicate in their arthropod
vectors in addition to their plant hosts, and nonpropagative viruses, e.g. viruses that
replicate only in their plant hosts but not in their vectors.

Whiteflies (family Aleyrodidae)

There are more than 1100 whitefly species in the world. Bemisia tabaci, commonly
known as sweet potato white flies is one of the most injurious insect pests spreading
several kinds of plant viruses. Adult flies are small, approximately 25
mm in length, with a pale yellow body and two pair of white wings and
covered with a white waxy powder. At least wings are held in an
inverted ‘V’position. Their compound eyes are red in color. Adult female oviposit
preferentially on young foliage. Eggs are pear shape deposits in the mesophyll tissue or
inner tissue of leaves. Eggs are white when first laid and become brownish before
hatching. They are generally laid on the under side of leaves. Female laid eggs from 28-
300 depending on host temperature. White flies pass through 4 nymphal instars and
complete its development within 15-70 days depending upon conditions. The first
nymphal instar is known as crawler and last is known as pupa. Adult life span ranges
from 6 -50 days. B. tabaci may reproduce parthenogenetically. Virgin female produce
only haploid males.
Management
1. Agitate plant outside to dislodge adult whitefly, then quickly bring plant inside and
remove eggs on undersides of leaves with a damp sponge.
2. Place reflective polyethylene mulches on planting beds before seeding or
transplanting to significantly reduce rate of colonization by whiteflies and delay the
buildup of damaging numbers of whiteflies by 4 to 6 weeks.
3. Whitefly traps (sticky yellow cards trap adults attracted to the color)
4. Insecticidal soap or horticultural oils will kill nymphs
5. Predator insect (Encarsia formosa, Delphastus pusillus) or Lacewing (Chrysopa
rufilabris)
6. Spray insecticide (imidachloprid, acetemaprid, fenpropathrin, spiromesifen)

Aphids (superfamily Aphidoidea)

Aphids are cosmopolitan in distribution, popularly known as plant lice ant-cows are tiny
sap sucking insects they constitutes a large group of phytophagous insects due to their
polyphagous nature, parthenogenesis, viviperity, and rapid rate of
growth and development, transmitter of viral disease etc. in favorable
conditions they rapidly attain pest status in agro-ecosystem.
Aphids show great variation in color they are either yellow, brown red, green black pink
or purple and various shades of these colors. Most of the aphids are air borne twice a
year, once in winter (November to Januarary) and the other during spring (March to
April).
The aphid attacks all parts of the plants including roots. Some of them directly damage
the plants by sucking their nutrients which cause general devitalization of plants. They
also affect the plant growth indirectly by blocking the stomatal opening via honey dew.
Deposition of honey due on the leaves also allow the growth of fungus (Black mold).
Management
1. Spray insecticidal soap/dishwashing liquid and oils to clog the aphids’ breathing
holes and kill them.
2. Use of natural enemies s (lady beetle, hover flies, lace wings and parasitic wasps)
3. Spray insecticides (imdachloprid, acetamaprid, metasystox)
Leafhoppers (family Cicadellidae) and Planthoppers (superfamily Fulgoroidea)
Leafhoppers and planthoppers are a group of small insects which remove plant sap from
the xylem and phloem tissues of the plant with piercing-sucking
mouthparts. Common hosts are cereals, peanuts, potatoes, vegetables,
soybeans, forages crops. Severely damaged plants dry and take on the
brownish appearance of plants that have been damaged by fire. Hence, hopper damage is
called "hopper burn". These insects are severe pests in Asia where they not only cause
direct damage, by removing plant sap, but are also vectors of about 20 plant diseases
(viruses, phytoplasmas and spiroplasmas). Most leafhoppers are green-
brown in color and average approximately 3-4 mm in length. Nymphs are
generally lighter green in color Leafhoppers typically overwinter as
adults however, some of them as eggs and some as immature forms.. Adults emerge in
the spring, mate and lay 1-6 eggs daily inside the veins on the underside of infested plants
that hatch to nymphs in 8-10 days which pass through several molts before becoming
adults in 10-14 days (somewhat similar to immature but lack wings).
Management
1. Treatment for leafhoppers should be initiated when injury symptoms observed in the
field.
2. Judicious use of selective insecticides like carbamates
3. Recent trend in rice IPM has been toward the integration of insect resistant varieties
with the conservation of natural control agents.
4. Predacious arthropods, including insects and spiders, indigenous predators and
parasitoids, entomogenous fungi (Metarhizium anisopliae)

Mealybugs (family Pseudococcidae)

Mealybugs are important as virus vectors primarily on some perennial plants in the
tropics and subtropics. They move slowly on plants and therefore are not as efficient
virus vectors as others. Heavy cotton like, white, waxy buildup on the
terminals, stems, and branches of infested host plants may indicate a
severe mealybug infestation and are known vectors of several plant
viruses including cocoa swollen shoot virus and cocoa mottle leaf virus. The adult female
is about 3 mm long and wingless with white, flocculent wax covering the dorsal surface. 
The female's body and body fluid are both reddish secretes white cotton like irregular egg
mass (300 to 600 eggs). They move from plant to plant, mostly as crawling nymph (first
instar nymphs)s through leaves of adjacent plants being in contact with each other; by
ants tending the mealybugs and moving them from plant to the other; and occasionally by
one wind. In tropical climates, it takes about 30 days to complete 1 generation.

Management
1. Sanitation and removal of weed hosts
2. Use of chemical insecticides
3. Biological control is the use of natural enemies parasites like Anagyrus kamali,
predaceous beetle (Cryptolaemus montrouzieri) against pest organisms to reduce
their population densities.

Thrips (family Thripidae)

These are tiny winged insects, usually less than 1/16” in size, with a long, slender body.
Eggs usually hatch in 3 to 4 days, maturing within about 20 days. Adults and nymphs
scrape plant tissue and suck the juices released. Damage to plants
includes browning of flower petals or leaf discoloration or deformity.
The presence of thrips on flowering plants is often signaled by “pollen
trails”, as these insects also feed on pollen. The “Ficus” thrips (Cuban Laurel Thrips)
produces a tell-tale folded leaf, with eggs laid inside the fold. Thrips do no usually kill a
plant, but their activities may introduce viruses that can kill. Thrips are most damaging in
early stages of crops; plants might have difficultly recovering.
Management
1. Sanitation is important because thrip population tend to build up on weeds
2. Hard spray of water may dislodge thrips
3. Blue sticky traps near plants may trap insects
4. Garlic plants or garlic spray may repel thrips
5. Use of Predator insects such as Pirate bug (Orius insidiosis), Amblyseius cucumeris,
or Lacewing (Chrysopa rufilabris)
6. Selected insecticides (Metasystox, Acetemaprid) should be used that minimize impact
on beneficial.

Leafminer flies (family agromyzidae)

Leafminers are insects that have a habit of feeding within leaves or
needles, producing tunneling injuries. Several kinds of insects have
developed this habit, including larvae of moths (Lepidoptera), beetles
(Coleoptera), sawflies (Hymenoptera) and flies (Diptera). Most of these insects feed for
their entire larval period within the leaf. Some will also pupate within the leaf mine,
while others have larvae that cut their way out when full-grown to pupate in the soil.
Areas mined by insects die and dry out. Although injuries produced by leafmining insects
can be unattractive, it is rare for them to significantly affect plant health. Also, most
leafminers have important natural controls which normally check populations before too
much injury is done to plants.Several Liriomyza species of leafmining flies make long
serpentine mines through leaves of flower and vegetable garden plants and are capable of
transmitting tobacco mosaic virus and sowbane mosaic virus. 
Management
1. Normally these insects are very well controlled by natural enemies.
2. No controls for the vegetable leafminers are recommended. Many insecticides have
poor activity against these insects and often insecticide applications will make
problems worse, by differentially destroying natural enemies.
3. Spinach leafminers pose different problems as they appear on edible crops. In gardens
the most simplest and most effective means of controlling this insect is to regularly
check the plants for the presence of eggs, which can be hand crushed.

Beetles (family Chrysomelidae)

Leaf beetles: Leaf beetles spread many plant viruses including broad bean mottle, turnip
yellow mosaic and rice yellow mottle.  
Cucumber Beetles (Spotted cucumber beetle, Diabrotica undecimpunctata howardi and
Striped cucumber beetle, Acalymma vittata)
Cucumber, cantaloupes, winter squash, pumpkin, gourd, summer squash and
watermelon are preferred by adult striped cucumber beetles. The spotted
cucumber beetle has a wider host range and, in addition to cucurbits, may be found on
bean, pea, potato, beet, tomato, eggplant, and cabbage. Adult cucumber beetles are
oblong-oval in shape with beaded antennae, about 2 mm long , black head have bright
yellowish-green 6 mm long body with, legs (spotted cucumber beetle) and pale yellow, 3
mm long with 3 black stripes down its back (striped cucumber beetle) Wings are marked
with 12 black spots. Oval orange-yellow eggs are found in clusters of 25 to 50 on
undersides of host leaves. Cucumber beetle larvae have a yellow-white, somewhat
wrinkled body with 3 pairs of brownish legs near the head and a single pair of prolegs
near the tip of the abdomen. When fully grown, spotted cucumber beetle larvae are 13 to
19 mm long; striped cucumber beetle larvae are only 10 mm long and have a more
flattened abdomen.Pupae are white, tinged with yellow and 6 to 8 mm long. Striped and
spotted cucumber beetle adults feed on the foliage and stems of cucurbits all season long.
Larvae injure plants by feeding on roots and tunneling through stems. Adult cucumber
beetles. They also help spread squash mosaic virus in addition harboring bacterial wilt
organism (Pseudomonas lachrymans) in winter and transmit it during the growing
season.
Management
1. Early plowing-dicing removes vegetation and discourages egg-laying of cucumber
beetles.
2. The use of resistant varieties is perhaps the most important control tactic.
3. A foliar insecticide applied at the cotyledon stage will retard cucumber beetle feeding
and encourage plant establishment. Where insects are abundant, additional foliar
applications may be needed to prevent beetles from spreading bacterial wilt and
squash virus.