Akbar and Uzbeks

 In 1511, when Safavids defeated Shaibani Khan (the Uzbek chief), Babur had
regained Samarkand; however, it was only for the short period. Further, Babur had to
leave the city, as the Uzbeks had defeated the Persians.
 Later, Shah Tahmasp, the Safavids monarch also helped Humayun, when he
(Humayun) had defeated and ousted from India by Sher Shah.
 The territorial power of the Uzbeks grew rapidly in the seventies under Abdullah
Khan Uzbek.
 In 1572-73, Abdullah Khan Uzbek seized Balkh which, along with Badakhshan, had
served as a kind of buffer between the Mughals and the Uzbeks.
 After the death of Shah Tahmasp (in 1576), there was political instability in Iran;
hence, by understanding the situation, in 1577, Abdullah Khan II (Uzbek ruler) sent
an embassy to Akbar proposing partition of Iran.
 Akbar ignored this appeal (because of sectarian narrowness). A strong Iran was
essential to keep the restless Uzbeks in their place. At the same time, Akbar had no
desire to get embroiled with the Uzbeks, unless they directly threatened Kabul or the
Indian possessions, which was the key to Akbar's foreign policy.
 Akbar sent a return embassy to Abdullah Uzbek in which he asserted that differences
in law and religion could not be considered as sufficient ground for conquest.
 Abul Fazl mentioned that the Khyber Pass was built in such a way that a wheeled
traffic can also pass through. It was done due to fear of the Mughals, the gates were
usually kept closed.
 Speculating an invasion from Badakhshan, Abdullah Uzbek created trouble among
the tribesmen of the north-west frontier, which was executed by one of his
trustworthy agents, Jalala who was a religious fanatic.
 Because of Abdullah Uzbek’s action, the situation became very serious; therefore,
Akbar had to action. It was during this expedition, Akbar lost one of his best friends,
Raja Birbal.
 In 1585, Abdullah Uzbek suddenly conquered Badakhshan; both Mirza Hakim (his
half-brother) and his grandson sought refuge at Akbar's court and were given suitable
mansabs.
 Immediately after the Uzbek’s attack, Mirza Hakim died and then Akbar annexed
Kabul and made his dominion.
 Abdullah Khan Uzbek sent another embassy to the Akbar’s court; however, at this
time, Akbar was at Attock (on the river Indus). Abdullah Khan revived the earlier
proposal for a joint campaign against the Safavid power, and for opening the way for
pilgrims to Mecca.
 The Ottoman (Turkish) sultan had invaded northern Iran, and the Uzbeks were
threatening Herat in Khorasan.
  Akbar sent a long letter in reply to Abdullah Uzbek's proposal. He disapproved the
Turkish action, and proposed to dispatch an army to Iran led by one of the royal
princes to help.
 Akbar, however, made no serious preparations to support the threat of a campaign in
Iran. Abdullah Uzbek had invaded Khorasan even before Akbar's letter reached him
and captured most of the areas be claimed.
 Most likely, an agreement was made that defined the Hindukush as the boundary.
Further, the Mughals gave their interest in Badakhshan and Balkh, which had been
ruled by Timurid princes till 1585.
 After conquering Qandhar in 1595, Akbar accomplished his objective of establishing
a scientific defensible frontier.
 Akbar remained in Lahore until 1598, and left for Agra only after the death of
Abdullah Khan Uzbek. After the death of Abdullah, the Uzbeks broke up into
contending principalities, and ceased to be a threat to the Mughals for a considerable
time.

Mughal-Persian Relations

 In 1649, the setback in Balkh region led to a revival of Uzbek hostility in the Kabul
region and Afghan tribal unrest in the Khyber-Ghazni region emboldened the
Persians to attack and conquer Qandhar. Collectively, all these were great threat for
Shah Jahan; therefore, he launched three major campaigns, led by princes (of blood)
to recover Qandhar.
 The first attack was launched by Aurangzeb (popular as the hero of Balkh), with an
army of 50,000. Though the Mughals defeated the Persians outside the fort, they
could not conquer it in the face of determined Persian opposition.
 After three years, Aurangzeb made another attempt, but again failed. However, in
1653, the most grandiloquent effort was made by Dara Shikoh, the favorite son of
Shah Jahan.
 Dara Shikoh had made a great attempt and even maintained his strong position, but
ultimately, it was of no avail.
 Because of the repeated attacks and subsequent failures, Mughals lost much more
than the loss of Qandhar as a whole. Failure also stained Mughals’ prestige.
 In 1680, the proud Ottoman (Turkish) sultan sent an embassy to Aurangzeb’s court
and asked for support. This time, Aurangzeb decided not to repeat the futile contest
on Qandhar issue, and hence, agreed for the diplomatic relations with Iran.
Relations with the Portuguese
An Emperor shall be ever Intent on Conquest, Otherwise His enemies shall rise in arms
against him.
Jalal-ud-Din Muhammad Akbar,
At the time of Akbar's ascension in 1556, the Portuguese had established several fortresses
and factories on the western coast of the subcontinent, and largely controlled navigation and
sea-trade in that region. As a consequence of this colonialism, all other trading entities were
subject to the terms and conditions of the Portuguese, and this was resented by the rulers and
traders of the time including Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.
in the year 1572 the Mughal Empire annexed Gujarat and acquired its first access to the sea
after local officials informed Akbar that the Portuguese had begun to exert control in the
Indian Ocean. Hence Akbar was conscious of the threat posed by the presence of the
Portuguese and remained content with obtaining a cartaz (permit) from them for sailing in
the Persian Gulf region.[96] At the initial meeting of the Mughals and the Portuguese during
the Siege of Surat in 1572, the Portuguese, recognising the superior strength of the Mughal
army, chose to adopt diplomacy instead of war. The Portuguese Governor, upon the request
of Akbar, sent him an ambassador to establish friendly relations.[97] Akbar's efforts to
purchase and secure from the Portuguese some of their compact artillery pieces were
unsuccessful and thus Akbar could not establish the Mughal navy along the Gujarat coast.[98]
Akbar accepted the offer of diplomacy, but the Portuguese continually asserted their authority
and power in the Indian Ocean;
Relations with other contemporary kingdoms

Akbar receives an embassy sent by Queen Elizabeth

Vincent Arthur Smith observes that the merchant Mildenhall was employed in 1600 while the
establishment of the Company was under adjustment to bear a letter from Queen Elizabeth to
Akbar requesting liberty to trade in his dominions on terms as good as those enjoyed by the
Portuguese.[126]
Akbar was also visited by the French explorer Pierre Malherbe

Domestic Policy
Mughals with religion
Akbar decreed that Hindus who had been forced to convert to Islam could reconvert to
Hinduism without facing the death penalty.[156] In his days of tolerance he was so well liked
by Hindus that there are numerous references to him, and his eulogies are sung in songs and
religious hymns as well.
Akbar practised several Hindu customs. He celebrated Diwali, allowed Brahman priests to tie
jewelled strings round his wrists by way of blessing, and, following his lead, many of the
nobles took to wearing rakhi (protection charms).[158] He renounced beef and forbade the sale
of all meats on certain days.[1
Akbar regularly held discussions with Jain scholars and was also greatly impacted by some of
their teachings.

Akbar granted full religious independence to the Rajput’s in respect of their religion. They
could build temples, worship in them and celebrate their festivals.

Matrimonial alliances:
In 1562, Akbar married the daughter of Raja Bihari Mai of Amber (modern Jaipur). Akbar’s
son Salim who came to be known as Jahangir was born from this queen.
Attack on Bengal and bihar

Akbar’s next objective was the conquest of Gujarat and Bengal, which had
connected Hindustan with the trading world of Asia, Africa, and Europe. Gujarat had lately
been a haven of the refractory Mughal nobles, and in Bengal and Bihar the Afghans under
Dāʾūd Karrānī still posed a serious threat. Akbar conquered Gujarat. Akbar’s encounters with
the Portuguese aroused his curiosity about their religion and culture. He did not show much
interest in what was taking place overseas, but he appreciated the political and commercial
significance of bringing the other gateway to his empire’s international trade—namely,
Bengal—under his firm control.

Diplomatic policy

To unify the vast Mughal state, Akbar established a centralised system of administration

throughout his empire and adopted a policy of conciliating conquered rulers through marriage
and diplomacy. Mughal India developed a strong and stable economy.

Akbar was probably the first Islamic ruler in India who sought stable political alliances
through matrimony. He married several Hindu Princess including Jodha Bai, from the
house of Jaipur, Heer Kunwari from the house of Amber, and princess from the houses of
Jaisalmer and Bikaner. He strengthened the alliances by welcoming male relatives of his
wives as part of his court and bestowing them with important roles in his administration.
Political significance of these alliances was far-reaching for the Mughal Empire in
securing strong loyalty of these dynasties. This practice brought the Hindu and Muslim
nobilities in close contact securing a better secular environment for the empire. The Rajput
alliances became strongest allies of Akbar’s army which proved crucial in many of his
subsequent conquests like that in Gujarat in 1572.

Akbar and the Uzbeks of Central Asia entered into a treaty of mutual respect under which
the Mughals were not to interfere in Badakshan and Balkh regions and the Uzbeks would
stay away from Kandahar and Kabul. His attempt to make alliance with the newly arrived
Portuguese tradesman proved futile with the Portuguese refuting his friendly advances.
Another contributing factor was Emperor Akbar’s relations with the Ottoman Empire. He
was in regular correspondence with Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. His
contingent of pilgrims to Mecca and Medina were warmly welcomed by the Ottoman
Sultan and the Mughal Ottoman trade flourished during his rule. Akbar also continued to
 maintain excellent diplomatic relationship with the Safavid rulers of Persia, which dated
back to his father’s days with Shah Tahmasp I lending his military support to Humayun
for recapturing Delhi.

Akbar’s Religious Policy

Akbar’s rule was marked by wide religious tolerance and liberal outlook. Akber was
profoundly religious himself, yet he never sought to enforce his own religious views on
anyone; be it prisoners of war, or Hindu wives or the common people in his kingdom. He
gave great importance to choice and abolished discriminatory taxes based on religion. He
encouraged building of temples and even churches his empire. Out of reverence for the
Hindu members of the Royal Family he banned the cooking of beef in the kitchens. Akbar
became a follower of the great Sufi mystic Sheikh Moinuddin Chishti and made several
pilgrimages to his shrine at Ajmer. He craved religious unity of his people and with that
vision founded the sect Din-i-Ilahi (Faith of the Divine). Din-i-Ilahi was in essence an
ethical system that dictated the preferred way of life discarding qualities like lust, slander
and pride. It borrowed heavily from existing religions extracting the best philosophies and
forming an amalgamation of virtues to live by.

Abolition of Jizya:
Akbar removed ‘Jizyaa tax which was levied by the Muslim rulers upon the Non-Muslims.

Aggressive policy towards offending Rajput rulers:

Akbar, being an imperialist, never tolerated opposition. He launched military campaigns
against all those Rajput rulers who did not surrender. He conquered Ranthambhor and
Kalinjar – two important Rajput states. However, Akbar’s campaign against Mewar was not
quite successful.

Conclusion
 The basic foreign policy of Mughals was based on the defence of India, which was
further strengthened by the diplomatic means.
 In spite of the fact that there were (temporary) obstructions over the question of
Qandhar; friendship with Persia was Mughals’ keynote.
 Further, the Mughals had also emphasized on relations of equality with leading Asian
nations with both −
o The Safavids, who claimed a special position by virtue of their relationship
with the Prophet and
o The Ottoman sultans who had assumed the title of Padshah-i-Islam and
claimed to be the successors of the Caliph of Baghdad.
 The Mughals also used their diplomatic foreign policy to promote India's commercial
interests. Kabul and Qandhar were the twin gateways of India's trade with Central
Asia.
 From the discussion above given, it is clear that the Mughals succeeded in
maintaining a controlled frontier in the north-west, based on the Hindukush, on the
one side, and the Kabul-Ghazni line, on the other. However, Qandhar remained as its
outer bastion.