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Eliminate transient vacuums by air injection

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Eliminate Transient Vacuums by Air Injection
POWER MAGAZINE 12/02/2018 | Michael F. Czyszczewski, PE

Most operators know that air should be kept out of a heat exchanger’s cooling water supply line. Air
can collect in pockets and block flow, increasing velocities, increasing system resistance, decreasing
effective heat transfer surface area, and degrading pump performance.
It may come as a surprise to hear that intentionally injecting air into the system is sometimes beneficial.
Air injection is an effective way to reduce or prevent the damaging effects of a water hammer caused
by transient vacuums. This article will discuss why and where vacuums can form, and how to size air
injection valves to prevent problems.
If the pressure in a pipeline drops to the water’s vapor pressure (approximately 0 psia [absolute
pressure]), the water will begin to vaporize. This is known as “full vacuum,” which is as low as the
pressure can go. Cavitation, which is the implosion of small vapor bubbles, will occur, and can lead to
pipe and valve internal damage. Prolonged vaporization could allow water vapor to collect into a cavity
large enough to break the water column. Afterward, when the pressure recovers or the vapor within the
cavity flash condenses, the ends of the water column will violently snap back together, generating large
pressure shock waves. Unexpected vacuum conditions also can cause piping to catastrophically
implode.

How Transient Vacuums Form

A transient (that is, short time and temporary) vacuum can form during transitions between operating
modes. When a pipe’s steady flow is interrupted by a rapidly closing valve, the pressure decreases on
the downstream side (a down-surge), and builds on the upstream side (an up-surge). This generates a
negative pressure pulse (shock wave), which travels downstream, and a positive pulse, which travels
upstream. These pressure pulses travel at sonic velocity, and will in turn transmit inverted reflections
back toward the valve whenever they reach a flow splitter (branch connection) or a flow area change.
Eventually the system will be filled with rapidly traveling positive and negative pressure pulses, adding
and subtracting as they pass each other. The magnitude of the pulses created are directly related to the
flow’s change in velocity (that is, deceleration) while the valve is closing. A down-surge combined
with negative pressure pulses can temporarily drop the pressure in some areas to full vacuum.
Similarly, a rapidly stopping pump will create a large down-surge and pressure pulses will form based
on how quickly the pump decelerates when tripped.
These transient events are a form of “water hammer,” and are recognized by characteristic hammer-like
noise accompanied by violent pipe shaking. In most cases, water hammer can be prevented by simply
slowing down the initiating event.
Unfortunately, this is not always an option. For example, some valves must act quickly when
responding to a demand change or a component’s failure.

Air Valves
Air injection is considered the most reliable method of water hammer protection against transient
vacuums. The air will raise the pipe pressure as high as the outside pressure, thus stopping the
vaporization process. Afterward, the trapped air pocket will act like a spring to cushion and prevent a
violent collision between two separated water columns trying to rejoin. After the transient conditions
are over, the injected air can be safely vented.

POWER Magazine December 2018 1

 Many air valve designs have been developed for the
purpose of injecting or releasing air. The options can
be confusing, and they are frequently misapplied.
However, the valves generally fall into one of three
main categories (Figure 1): Air/vacuum valves, air-
release valves, and combination valves. These
categories can be further broken down into various
sub-designs.

Air/Vacuum Valves. These valves have two

functions: To open to admit large amounts of air
when vacuums form during pipe draining, and to
expel large amounts of air when the pipe is being
filled. The air flow in and out is controlled by a
1. Air valves. There are three main categories of air single large orifice that typically ranges in size from
valves: the air/vacuum valve, the air release valve, 1 inch to 20 inches, but sizes as large as 40 inches are
and the combination valve. Source: Michael
available. A dropping float is used to open the valve
Czyszczewski
to admit air when pipe pressure at the valve drops
below atmospheric pressure. The air is expelled when
the pipe pressure recovers and water enters the valve, lifting the float and closing the valve. In normal
conditions when the pipe is pressurized, the valve is closed. These valves are prone to slamming shut
during pipe-filling procedures, which can create a secondary pressure transient. Two subgroups of
air/vacuum valves include the following:
 Vacuum Breakers. This design is a variant with only the air inlet capability. The valve will quickly
admit large amounts of air whenever the pressure inside the pipe where it is installed drops below
the spring-controlled cracking pressure. When the pipe pressure recovers, the valve closes, trapping
the air inside. The opening and closing pressure is about –0.2 psig (gauge pressure).
 Well Service Air Valves. These valves are intended to be installed at the discharge of vertical
turbine pumps. A small diameter valve orifice is used to allow air into the pump column after
shutoff to prevent a secondary transient from forming. An air outlet throttling device is provided to
cushion the release of this air at startup.
Air-Release Valves. The dissolved air content in water is on average 2% of its volume. When the
water is depressurized or heated, this “free air” will come out of solution. Air can also become
entrained in water when it enters the pump suction. These valves use a float to slowly open and
continuously remove accumulations of free and entrained air. Orifice sizes of 1/16 inch to 1 inch are
typical. These valves are not used for vacuum control, and they are not intended to be used for pipe
draining and filling. However, this valve is commonly added to a vacuum breaker to provide a means
of slowly removing injected air.
Combination Valves. These valves provide the function of both an air/vacuum valve and an air-release
valve. A non-slam combination valve has an extra orifice that allows the valve to gently close in two
stages when exhausting large amounts of air. This valve is a significant improvement that is strongly
recommended over the standard design.
It is important that vacuum breakers be correctly sized and located, because their failure to perform
could result in a catastrophic pipe failure. The valve opening (orifice) diameter determines the flow
rate. The sizing methodologies typically followed are provided in the American Water Works
Association (AWWA) Manual M51, as well as valve vendor catalogs. The sizing criteria are based on
determining pipe fill rates, pipe break flow rates, dissolved air concentrations, and pipe collapse
pressures. However, equations are not provided for transient vacuum control. A summary of equations
for determining the orifice flow rates and diameters are given in Table 1. The locations where transient
vacuums can form are also summarized in Table 2.

POWER Magazine December 2018 2

Table 1. Air Valve Sizing. Recommended equations to use for sizing air valves for pipe draining, filling and
to prevent pipe collapse. From AWWA M51.

POWER Magazine December 2018 3

Table 2. Where Vacuums Form. The locations and conditions which can create a vacuum.

POWER Magazine December 2018 4

Evaluating Transients and Remedies
The hydraulic transients leading to vacuum
formation are complex; therefore, they are best
evaluated using one of many commercial
incompressible flow pipe water hammer
programs. This software greatly facilitates the
design process by providing graphing and
animation capabilities that make it easier to
understand and visualize the system hydraulics. If
problems are identified, the analyst can then use
the software to troubleshoot the issues and size
any required valves. Simulation software helps
provide more certainty that all significant
transient events are fully evaluated and that the
correct type of valve is installed only where
necessary.
2. Transient pressure spikes. The pressures generatedFor example, consider the case where a vertical
after a pump trip show the creation of transient turbine pump is used to convey water uphill,
vacuums. Source: Michael Czyszczewski through a condenser to a submerged exit at a lake.
In this theoretical case, reverse flow is prevented
by a fast-acting pump discharge check valve. Figure 2 shows the pressure-time history at a point
downstream of the check valve after the pump is powered off. A pump trip would result in an abrupt
down-surge to full vacuum, which creates some cavitation. Full vacuum pressures again form as the
flow reverses and the check valve closes.

Locations for Vacuum Breaker Valves. A plot of vapor formation along the length of the pipe is
shown in Figure 3. The peaks indicate where vacuum breakers may be needed: The pump discharge
(A), an intermediate highpoint between
the pump and condenser (B), and the
condenser outlet (C). The effect of a
vacuum breaker is highly localized to the
general area where it is installed.
Evaluate each area, one area at a time,
starting with the area of greatest vapor
volume (B).
Setting the Cracking Pressure. The
analyst should make two steady-state
runs, one with the pump operating (the
initial state), and one with the pump off
(the resting state), to obtain the pressures
at the proposed valve location.
If the initial and resting state pressure (in
psig) is positive, set the cracking pressure
3. Vacuum locations. The locations along the pipe where vacuum- to atmospheric (0 psig). Actual valves
induced cavitation creates vapor pockets are highlighted here. The will crack open at a pressure differential
most vaporization occurs at an intermediate high point—location
of about 0.25 psid (pressure differential)
B—between the pump and condenser. The vaporization at location
C is not significant. Source: Michael Czyszczewski and will be full open at 2 psid, but this
level of detail is not required in the
model. If the initial or resting state
pressure is negative, this could indicate the presence of a siphon. It is not uncommon to intentionally

POWER Magazine December 2018 5

use the siphon effect to reduce the pumping power required. If a vacuum breaker is placed at this
location, the siphon will be broken. The water column will separate and attempt to drain out of the
piping. Locating a vacuum breaker on a siphon is not recommended and should be avoided.

If the resting state pressure is negative, a vacuum breaker will open and remain open until the system is
restarted and becomes pressurized
again. In order to close the valve
sooner, a cracking pressure lower than
the resting state pressure would be
needed. Theoretically, a vacuum
breaker that uses a compressed spring
to control the pressure at which it
opens should be adjustable. An
electronically operated control valve
using pressure signals would also be
adjustable (but in the event of a power
outage it would not be reliable without
a backup power supply). Although
adjustability is theoretically feasible,
the author is not aware of any
commercial air valve that promotes that
it features an adjustable cracking
4. Vacuum pressures. This chart shows the effect of vacuum breaker pressure. In addition, many of the
orifice diameter on increasing the pipe pressure above full vacuum.
Source: Michael Czyszczewski
software programs discourage using a
negative cracking pressure by making
it difficult to input. Consequently,
specifying a cracking pressure of other than 0 psig is not recommended.
Orifice Size. A vacuum breaker valve should be capable of injecting air at least at the same rate that
the vacuum cavity forms. The valve orifice size determines the air flow rate. The nominal valve size
describes the inlet size, which is not the same as the orifice size. The air flow can be sonic or subsonic.
If the orifice is too small, sonic flow
occurs, which limits the mass flow
rate, is very loud, and prevents the
valve from fully raising the pipe
pressure to atmospheric. Although
cavitation will be prevented, sonic
flow should be avoided. On the other
hand, an orifice that is too large may
not present any operational
problems, but adds to the valve’s
cost. Therefore, specify the smallest
size that does not have sonic flow.

The air flow can be sonic or

subsonic. If the orifice is too small,
sonic flow occurs, which limits the
mass flow rate, is very loud, and
5. Air injection flow rate. This chart shows the effect of various orifice prevents the valve from fully raising
diameters on the vacuum breaker air flow rate. Source: Michael the pipe pressure to atmospheric.
Czyszczewski
Although cavitation will be
prevented, sonic flow should be
avoided. On the other hand, an orifice that is too large may not present any operational problems, but

POWER Magazine December 2018 6

adds to the valve’s cost. Therefore, specify the smallest size that does not have sonic flow.
The process for determining the optimum size is to compare computer simulation pressure and air flow
results from various trial orifice sizes. The effectiveness of orifice diameters of 2, 4, 6, and 8 inches are
illustrated in Figures 4 and 5. The 2- and 4-inch trials show choked sonic flow because they are not
able to raise the pipe pressure to atmospheric. The 6- and 8-inch trials show that full flow and
atmospheric pressure will be attained. Based on these results, a 6-inch orifice would be the most
economical option. Based on the type of valve end connections, orifice size, and system pressure class
required, a suitable valve can be chosen from a manufacturer’s inventory.
If an air-release valve will be provided as a vacuum breaker accessory, its outlet flow orifice can be
included in the model. However, since it does not operate until after the transient is effectively over, the
outflow orifice size is not critical, and is typically not modeled. The valve manufacturers provide
simple charts that recommend which valve size to use based on only the header pipe size and flow rate.
Pick a valve size that will give an outflow rate much lower (roughly 2%) than the vacuum breaker
inflow rate, but high enough to evacuate the air in a reasonable amount of time.

Vertical Turbine Pump Suction. The plot in Figure 3 shows that a vapor cavity formed upstream of
the pump discharge valve (A). After a vertical turbine pump trips and its discharge valve closes, a
vacuum will tend to form in the area between the closed valve and the pump inlet. This vacuum occurs
as the water tries to drain out of the pump. A water hammer will occur upon startup if the vacuum is
allowed to accelerate the water column into the closed valve as shown in Figure 6.

6. Pump suction vacuum. A vertical turbine pump can experience a vacuum on shut-off. When the pump is restarted,
the vacuum can cause a water hammer. The solution is to add a well service air valve near the pump discharge. Source:
Michael Czyszczewski

Air injection during pump shutdown will eliminate the vacuum. However, the injected air must be
removed when the pump is started or it will be conveyed through the system, causing problems.
The well service air valve is specifically designed for this service. A small diameter orifice is used to
allow air into the pump column after shutoff to prevent a vacuum from forming. At startup, a two-stage
air outlet throttling device will prevent the water column from slamming the shut valve by gently
releasing the air. Valve manufacturers provide charts that identify the best valve to use based on the
pump flow rate shown on the pump curve at run-out.

POWER Magazine December 2018 7

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Other Considerations
It is critical that the boundary conditions of the model accurately reflect the physical world. Systems
with an open discharge will experience full or partial gravity drain-out of pipe sections during the
transient. Drain-out can create pipe sections that are only partly water-filled, or outlet conditions that
change from pressurized to atmospheric. Not all commercial software is capable of simulating a
moving and changing boundary condition. Most software assumes the pipe is always full and the flow
is single phase. The analyst must be familiar with the modeling limitations of the software and use
sound judgment to ensure worst-case conditions were considered.
Vacuum breaker valves can fail to operate. Outdoor valves could freeze. Even a partial vacuum can
cause a pipe collapse. Therefore, sections of piping that could experience a transient vacuum if the air
valves fail to open must have their buckling strength checked (refer to equation 2 in Table 1, found
online). If problems are identified, the strength of the pipe sections affected must be increased.
It’s been said that nature abhors a vacuum. However, if you have properly located and sized valves to
inject air and eliminate any transient vacuums that attempt to form, you may feel differently. An
essential tool for gaining this confidence is to make use of computer simulation.

—Michael F. Czyszczewski, PE (mczyszczewski@asme.org) has 40 years of experience with the design

and specification of power plant components.

POWER Magazine December 2018 8