Inspection, Testing and Commissioning of Electrical Switchboards,

Circuit Breakers, Protective Relays, Cables and PLCs

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 Presents

Inspection, Testing and Commissioning

of Electrical Switchboards,
Circuit Breakers, Protective Relays,
Cables and PLCs

Revision 1

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First published 2011

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 Contents
1 Fundamentals of Switchgear 1
1.1 Single Line Diagram 1
1.2 Typical Construction – LV/MV and HV 2
1.3 Active and Passive Network Components 5
1.4 Circuit Breaker Utilisation 5
1.5 Fuse Switches 6
1.6 HV Fuses in Combination with and as an Alternative to
Circuit Breakers 6
1.7 Auto-reclosers and Auto-reclose operations 7

2 Specifications of Switchgear 9
2.1 Switchgear ratings – Highest System and Impulse Withstand
Voltages, Load and Short Circuit Currents 9
2.2 Simple and Complex Protection Schemes 14
2.3 Switchgear Ancillaries, Measurement CTs, VTs and Relays 14
2.4 Cable Terminations 17
2.5 Indoor and Outdoor Operation of Switchgear 19

3 Short Circuit Testing 21

3.1 Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Ratings 21
3.2 Make and Break Operations 22
3.3 Understanding Test Oscillograms 25
3.4 Case Study – Specification for a 132kV Switchboard 26

4 Switchgear Diagnostics, Testing and Maintenance 41

4.1 Asset Records 41
4.2 Condition Based Maintenance (CBM) 42
4.3 Reliability Centered Maintenance (RCM) 43
4.4 Switchgear Inspection Methodologies 45
4.5 Diagnostic Techniques 47
4.6 Principles of Circuit Breaker Maintenance 59
4.7 Oil Testing 65
4.8 Maintenance of Vacuum Circuit Breakers and SF6 69
4.9 Switchgear Defects and Defect Control 71
4.10 Switchgear Installations 73

5 Power System Protection Principles and Relays 79

5.1 Principles of Protection and Need for Protective Apparatus 79
5.2 Types of Faults 81
5.3 Types of Protection Systems 84
5.4 Types of Protective Relays 85
5.5 Electromechanical and Static Relays 86
5.6 Numerical Relays 95
6 Configuration of Numerical Relays 103
6.1 Introduction 103
6.2 Setting Approach in Conventional Relays 103
6.3 Configuring Numerical Relays 104
6.4 Configuration Security Through Passwords 109
6.5 Protection Settings as Part of a Configuration 110
6.6 Methods Adopted for Setting Numerical Relays 116
6.7 Examples of Front Panel Configuration Sequence 117
6.8 Configuration Exercises for Typical Relays/Simulation
Software 122

7 Cabling Commissioning and Periodic Testing 125

7.1 Review of Codes for Testing 125
7.2 Drum Length Checks 127
7.3 Post Installation Checking 128
7.4 Pre-commissioning and Periodic Tests 129
7.5 Tests as Tools for Condition Monitoring and Early Failure
Alarm 129
7.6 HV Tests Using DC and Very Low Frequency AC 130
7.7 Partial Discharge Tests and Mapping of Results 133
7.8 Dielectric Dissipation Factor Measurements 137
7.9 Micro Destructive and Non-Destructive Tests for Life
Assessment 140
7.10 Operation and Maintenance of Cables 140

8 Cable Failure Modes and Fault Detection 141

8.1 Types of Failures 141
8.2 Reasons for Failures 142
8.3 Fault Location 146
8.4 Electrical Tests for Detection of Cable Faults 147
8.5 Safety Issues in Fault Detection 151
8.6 Analysis of Failures 153

9 Switchboard installation, inspection and commissioning 157

9.1 Receiving, Handling and Storage 157
9.2 Inspection 158
9.3 Installation 159
9.4 Type, Routine, Acceptance and Pre-comissioning Tests 161
9.5 High Voltage Equipment Test Techniques 162
9.6 Commissioning Procedures 163

10 Interface to Control Equipment (PLCs) 165

10.1 Overview of PLC 165
10.2 PLC I/O Modules 167
10.3 Pre-Commissioning Tests 170
10.4 Commissioning Procedures 171
10.5 Typical Faults 173
11 Case Studies of Typical Problems 175
11.1 Improper Circuit Breaker Trip Unit and Relay Settings 175
11.2 Motor Overload Protection 176
11.3 Medium Voltage Distribution System Installation Problems 177
11.4 Switchboard Metering Problems 178
11.5 Emergency Distribution Problems 178
11.6 Noisy Transformers 179
11.7 Incorrect Earthing and Neutrals 180
 1
Fundamentals of Switchgear

In this chapter, we will learn about one of the basic, but most important components of any electrical
system, namely the Switchgear. As a preparatory step towards the understanding of switchgears, we
will review the use of electrical single line diagrams and the types of components that make up
electrical systems. We will also study the various applications of switchgear in the later part of this
chapter.

Learning objectives
• Single line diagrams
• Typical construction – LV/MV and HV
• Active and passive network components
• Circuit breaker utilization
• Fuse switches
• HV fuses in combination with and as alternatives to circuit breakers
• Auto-reclosers and auto-reclose operations

1.1 Single line diagram

Electrical systems are mostly made up in the form of three phase configuration. However trying to
represent three phase systems in drawings as actual three phase connections may not only be laborious
but also make the drawing quite difficult to understand. This is where the concept of single line
diagram comes into being. The term 'Single line diagram' simply means that the three phase nature of
the circuits and components is ignored. Figure 1.1 shows a typical example of a high voltage
distribution network, represented as a single line diagram, complete with transformer infeeds, cable
and overhead circuits, distribution substations, circuit breakers and other network switchgear.
2 Inspection, Testing and Commissioning of Electrical Switchboards, Circuit Breakers, Protective Relays, Cables and PLCs

Figure 1.1
Typical network as a single line diagram

1.2 Typical construction – LV/MV and HV

Circuit breakers come in a variety of types. The prominent types being:
• Bulk oil circuit breaker
• Minimum oil circuit breaker
• Air blast circuit breaker
• Vacuum circuit breaker
• SF6 circuit breaker

Figure 1.2 shows the construction of a typical bulk oil type circuit breaker. Such breakers used oil as
the insulation medium and were very heavy and bulky. They also posed serious fire hazards and oil
 Fundamentals of Switchgear 3

pollution problems. With the advancements in technology such breakers have over a period of time
been gradually replaced with more compact and versatile vacuum and SF6 breakers.

Figure 1.2
Bull oil circuit breaker

Figure 1.3 shows the typical construction of a minimum oil circuit breaker. Similar to bulk oil breaker,
oil is used as the insulation medium in this breaker. However, as the name implies, much lesser
quantity of oil is used in this type of breaker. Porcelain is used for the construction of the body and
minimum oil circuit breakers have much smaller foot prints than the bulk oil breakers.

Figure 1.3
Small oil volume circuit breaker (one phase shown)

Figure 1.4 shows the typical construction of an air blast circuit breaker. High pressure air is used as
insulation and arc extinguishing medium. Disadvantages of this type of breaker are the need for a
compressed air plant and associated pipe lines.
4 Inspection, Testing and Commissioning of Electrical Switchboards, Circuit Breakers, Protective Relays, Cables and PLCs

Figure 1.4
Basic air blast circuit breaker

Figure 1.5 shows the construction details of a vacuum interrupter. Vacuum is used for interrupting and
extinguishing the arc at the time of the breaker operation. The ceramic cartridge contains the fixed and
moving electrodes maintained under high vacuum conditions. Owing to the sealed nature of the
interrupter, the vacuum breaker is impervious to external dust and pollution conditions.

Figure 1.5
Vacuum interrupter

Figure 1.6 depicts the construction details of a typical SF6 gas insulated breaker with a vacuum
interrupter. SF6 gas under pressure is used as the insulation medium and this enables the breaker to be
constructed quite small and compact. The pressure of the gas needs monitoring on a continuous basis
and the purity of the gas has to be checked periodically to maintain the effectiveness of the breaker.
 Fundamentals of Switchgear 5

Figure 1.6
Vacuum interrupter in SF6 enclosure switchgear, with rated three position disconnector (isolator)

1.3 Active and passive network components

Network components may be divided into two broad categories, those that are continuously in use
whenever electricity is being supplied, called the ACTIVE components and those called upon to
function only when required to do so, the PASSIVE components.

ACTIVE components comprise transformers, cables, overhead lines and metering equipment and may
be considered the main revenue earning elements. PASSIVE components compose mainly switchgear
in its various forms, together with switchgear's ancillaries, current and voltage transformers and
protection relays. These components perform no revenue earning function and may be considered as an
added cost, and to be minimized wherever possible.

1.4 Circuit breaker utilisation

In an ideal network having perfect reliability and no maintenance or repair requirement, there is no
need to break the electric circuits; however, this is impossible; therefore switchgear has to be installed.
However, we should be careful not to install more switchgear than is absolutely required and the
switchgear that is installed should have no more functionality than is necessary.

The two most common forms of medium voltage switchgear are automatic circuit breakers and non-
automatic, load breaking, fault making switches. The main function of a circuit breaker is to
automatically interrupt fault current, although an important secondary function is to close onto a fault
and thereby make fault current. This function may be required during for example, fault location. The
automatic disconnection of faults by circuit breakers allows the remainder of the network to continue in
operation, after the faulty branch has been disconnected. Without this feature, network operation would
be 'all or nothing'.

In theory all the switchgear shown in Figure 1.1 could be implemented by circuit breakers, but this
choice would be very expensive and result in an excessive maintenance burden. In practice, circuit
6 Inspection, Testing and Commissioning of Electrical Switchboards, Circuit Breakers, Protective Relays, Cables and PLCs

breakers are normally located only at the beginning of the cable, overhead line or mixed circuit, where
they serve to disconnect faults either phase to phase or phase to neutral/earth (or both).

1.5 Fuse switches

Historically, circuit breakers were also utilized at each distribution substation, to control and protect
the transformer, although fuse switches may nowadays implement this function. Figure 1.7 shows the
cross section of a typical switchfuse unit.

Figure 1.7
Fuse switch in cross section

1.6 HV fuses in combination with and as alternative to circuit

breakers
Medium voltage fuses are available up to a current rating equivalent to a three phase rating of
approximately 1.5 MVA and offer a cost-effective means of transformer protection. Generally they are
combined with a three phase disconnector and a 'trip all phases' device, so that if one fuse fails, the
disconnector trips and the supply to the transformer are fully disconnected. If this device were not
fitted, the transformer may be subjected to 'single phasing' and a corresponding low LV side voltage.

The use of fuses over circuit breaker has the advantage of lower cost of installation and very fast
disconnection (typically less than half a cycle) in the event of a fault. However the disadvantage is the
amount of time needed to replace the blown fuse and inability to close or open the circuit from a
remote location.
 Fundamentals of Switchgear 7

Where fuses are used in conjunction with reclosing type circuit breakers, the satisfactory operation of a
circuit breaker in association with fuses depends upon the degree of co-ordination obtained, requiring
that the time/current characteristic of the re-closed circuit breaker be graded with those of the fuses to
give optimum discrimination. The first trips must be short enough that the fuses are not degraded,
whilst the second and third must be long enough to allow the fuses to operate.

1.7 Auto-reclosers and auto-reclose operations

In networks comprising substantial lengths of overhead line, many of the faults that occur are transient
in nature. These are caused for example by wind blown debris bridging conductors, insulator flashover,
etc. The reliability of the supply may be considerably improved by arranging for the controlling circuit
breaker to re-close automatically after a fault occurs. This ensures that for transient faults, the
restoration time is measured in seconds, rather than the hours it might take for an engineer to travel to
the substation and re-close the circuit breaker manually.

On overhead line networks, most transformers and spur lines are protected by medium voltage
expulsion type fuses and it will be necessary for the protection/re-close relay of the circuit breaker
controlling the circuit to grade with these fuses. This ensures that where a fault on a connected
transformer or spur line is permanent, the circuit breaker will close for long enough to allow the fuse to
blow, before the circuit is re-energized. Fitting the circuit breaker with a timing mechanism to provide,
for example, two instantaneous trips and two delayed trips fulfils these requirements. The timing
sequence adopted varies according to local conditions, but Figure 1.8 shows a typical arrangement.

Figure 1.8
Typical auto re-close sequence

The timing sequence is described as follows. At the instant when the fault occurs, the circuit breaker
trips immediately and remains open for 1 second. This period is intended to allow for any ionized gases
to clear. The circuit breaker then attempts a first re-closure. If the fault is still present, the circuit
breaker trips again and remains open for a further 1 second. The second re-closure then occurs, but this
time, if the fault is still present, tripping is delayed. This is because the system assumes that the fault
lies beyond a fuse or fuses and it therefore allows sufficient time for the fuse(s) to rupture. If fault
current still persists, a third re-closure is attempted, again with delayed tripping.

After this, the system assumes that the fault is permanent and 'locks out'. It must be re-set either
manually or over a telecontrol system. If the fault is cleared at any time during the sequence, the
system re-sets itself automatically, ready for the next fault and re-closure sequence.

It should be appreciated that whilst re-closing is not a problem for vacuum and SF6 circuit breakers, oil
circuit breakers have a very limited re-closing capability, depending upon the fault level. Normally, the
8 Inspection, Testing and Commissioning of Electrical Switchboards, Circuit Breakers, Protective Relays, Cables and PLCs

number of re-closures that may be performed by an oil circuit breaker is programmed into the
controlling auto re-close relay and when that limit is reached, further auto-reclosing is prevented until
the circuit breaker has been maintained. The advice of manufacturers should be obtained when
deciding upon the number of re-closures a particular design of oil circuit breaker may perform.

A disadvantage of re-close type circuit breakers is that, where the controlled network comprises both
overhead line and cable, the supply to cable supplied customers will be adversely affected by re-
closing operations caused by faults on the overhead network. In practice, this means that the customers
on the cable network will experience momentary losses of supply, which they would not experience if
the network were not re-closed. In addition, in the case of cable and plant faults, the additional fault
closures may well cause additional damage. This effect can be reduced by good network design, where
the cabled part of the network is controlled by a circuit breaker not fitted with auto-reclose, whilst the
overhead line part of the network is controlled by the pole mounted auto recloser. Originally, oil filled
pole-mounted reclosers were used for this purpose, but vacuum and SF6 designs are now available.

The type of recloser shown in Figure 1.9 has great operational advantages in that the maintenance
requirements are low and the unit may be regarded as almost maintenance free, at least so far as the
user is concerned, being limited to simple replacement of the primary battery at perhaps 5-year
intervals. The vacuum interrupters will provide hundreds of reclosers; eventually, replacement will be
required but this is a return to factory operation. A further advantage is that the bushings are
elastomeric and less readily damaged than porcelain, either during installation or in service.

In these units the control system is normally sited in a lockable metal box close to ground level,
remotely from the recloser proper and connected to it by a multicore (umbilical) cable. Because the
protection system is microprocessor controlled, any number of possible reclosure strategies may be
implemented, exactly as the operator requires and in addition, the unit is easily re-programmed to suit
changing operational circumstances.

Figure 1.9
Vacuum interrupter in SF6 auto-recloser