JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA

Name- Saima gous

Roll no-51

Enrollment ID-201901961

Subject-Sociology-II

Paper code-BLW 201

Year-Ist year,2nd Semester

Course-B.A.L.L.B(H)Regular,Faculty of Law.

1.What do you mean by social change and explain different factors and theories of social
change?

INTRODUCTION-Change is the internal law. History and science bear ample testimony to the
fact that change is the law of life. Stagnation is death. Change is the law of nature.What is today
shall be different from what it would be tomorrow. The social structure is subject to incessant
change. Individuals may strive for stability, societies may create the illusion of permanence , the
quest for certainty may continue unabated, yet the fact remains that society is an everchanging
phenomenon, growing, decaying, renewing and accomodating itself to changing conditions and
suffering vast modifications in the course of time.

MEANING-Social change refers to the modifications which take place in life pattern of people.
It occurs because all societies are in a constant state of disequilibrium. The word ‘change’ denotes
a difference in anything observed over some period of time. Hence, social change would mean
observable differences in any social phenomena over any period of time.

Social change is the change in society and society is a web of social relationships. Hence, social
change is a change in social relationships. Social relationships are social processes, social patterns
and social interactions. These include the mutual activities and relations of the various parts of
the society. Thus, the term ‘social change’ is used to describe variations of any aspect of social
processes, social patterns, social interaction or social organization.For the present purpose it
should suffice to examine definitions that are frequently used to conceptualise change.Some are-:

“Social change is a term used to describe variations in, or modifications of any aspect of social
processes, social patterns, social interaction or social organization”.- Jones

“By Social change is meant only such alternations as occur in social organization – that is, the
structure and functions of society”-Kingsley davis

“By social change, I understand a change in social structure, e.g., the size of the society, the
composition or the balance of its parts or the type of its organization”. -Morris Ginsberg

“Social change is either change in the structure or quasi- structural aspects of a system of change
in the relative importance of coexisting structural pattern”.- H.M Johnson

“Social change involves alternations in the structure or functioning of societal forms or processes
themselves”. - Anderson and Parker

“Social change may be defined as the process in which is discernible significant alternation in the
structure and functioning of a particular social system”. - B. Kuppuswamy

Factors of Social change-:

1.Demographic Factor- Demography plays an important role in the process of social change.
The term “demography” has been derived from two Greek words, ‘Demos’ and ‘Graphs’ meaning
the “people” and to “draw” or “write” respectively. The dictionary meaning of demography is the
scientific study of human population, primarily with respect to their size, structure and their
development.In the study of social change demographic factors have been viewed from two
different angles. They are the qualitative and quantitative. Qualitatively speaking it refers to
physical potentialities, mental abilities etc. that are determined by genetic order, though the
hereditary quality of successive generation play some role in cultural determination, it cannot be
ascribed the place of a deterministic cause of social change. But the demographic factor in its
quantitative aspect has been playing the most decisive role in causing social change.

The quantitative view of demography takes into account, the size, composition and density of
human population that are determined by natural reproduction, migration and social mobility. This
aspect has been acknowledged by many past as well as modern thinkers. There are three important
factors that determine the rise, fall or density of population. They are:
(a) High Fertility (High Birth rate)
(b) Low Morality (Low Death Rate)
(c) Migration.
Population increases due to illiteracy, popularity of child marriage, widow remarriage, polygamy,
craze for a male child, poverty and also because of lack of proper implementation of family
planning programmes. The fall in death rate has also affected the growth of population.

There are many causes of low mortality or low death rate. They are modern education and
scientific knowledge to hygiene, better sanitation and therapeutic and preventive medicines, the
increase of productivity which raises the standard of living, control of natural calamities, control
of nutrition of mother, maternity facilities etc.
Thus, we find that demography plays a significant role in the socio-economic and political
transformation of society. It certainly brings drastic changes not only in the micro- structures but
also in macro-structures.

2.Biological factor-Biological factor plays an important role in the causation of social change.
An ordinarily biological factor refers to those which are concerned with the genetic constitution
of the human beings.A biological factor includes both non-human beings such as animals, birds,
herbs, insects, plants etc. and human beings. Human beings use animals, birds, plants and herbs
according to the direction of his own culture. At the same time human beings protect themselves
from different harmful elements. If there is increase or decrease of these animals, birds, plants
etc. it will bring a number of changes in human society.Rapid decline of useful animals, birds and
plants will also create a number of problems in human society and influences social change.
Similarly rapid increase or decrease of population also brings a number of changes in society.
Different biological process like human procreation, fertility and mortality also influence the rate
of change in a society. Size, density, Migration, immigration etc. bring a number of changes in
society.Similarly the nature and quality of human beings in a society influences the rate of social
change. Sociologist like pareto opines that the biological evolution of mankind brings social
changes. Elites in a society are determined by inherited biological instincts. Besides composition
of population also influences social change.

Besides the process of natural selection, social selection also affects the rate and speed of social
change. The process of natural selection works through twin alternatives like adaptation and
annihilation.

3.Cultural factors- In sociology the word ‘Culture’ denotes acquired behavior which are shared
by and transmitted among the members of the society.It includes all that man has acquired in the
mental and intellectual sphere of his individual and social life. It is the expression of our nature,
in our modes of living and thinking, in our everyday intercourse, in art, in literature, in recreation
and enjoyment.

According to White, “Culture is a symbolic, continuous, cumulative and progressive

process.”Culture plays a very significant role in social change. No culture even remains constant.
It always keeps on changing. So it is treated as an important source or instrument of social change.
The very nature of culture makes it dynamic. The terms like continuous, cumulative adoptive,
transmissive etc. signify the elements of dynamism within the culture. Besides, there are host of
other internal and external variables that interact upon the culture and cause changes within it.

Several sociologists have highlighted the determining role of culture effecting social change.
Some of the important effects are-:

(i) Culture gives speed and direction to social change: If the culture is too much conservative,
then its rate of change becomes too low and vice versa. People whether accept change or not
depends upon their attitudes and values which are the products of the culture.

(ii) Culture shapes economy and is effective towards economic growth: Culture not only gives
direction to technology but it shapes the economy which is too much effective towards economic
growth.

(iii) It keeps the social relationship intact: It makes people think not of their own but also of
the others. By regulating the behavior of the people and satisfying their primary drives pertaining
to hunger, shelter and sex, it has been able to maintain group life.
4.Technological factor- The technological factors also play important role in causing social
change.In the study of sociology, technology has a wider connotation. It implies an appropriate
organization and systematic application of scientific knowledge to meet the human requirements.
Technology is a product of utilization. When the scientific knowledge is applied to the problems
of life, it becomes technology. Technology is fast growing. Modern age is the “Age of
Technology”.

According to W.F. Ogburn, “Technology changes society by changing our environments to

which we in turn adopt. This change is usually in the material environment and the adjustment
that we make with these changes often modifies customs and social institution initiates a
corresponding social change.''
5.Economic factor- Economic factor influence the quality and direction of social change.It can
be explained by theoretical evidence such as-
Marxian view- Karl Marx is the chief architect of the economic theory of social change. He
believes that social change is basically the result of economic factors. The mode of production
determines the social, cultural, religious and political aspect of society.Thus, he traced the
development of society from agricultural to feudalism to capitalism and finally, to socialism. A
revolution carried out by the workers against the capitalist would end the ills of capitalism and
lead to the establishment of a socialist society.
Theories of Social change-
1.Evolutionary theory-
The notion of evolution came into social sciences from the theories of biological evolution. With
the advent of Darwinian Theory of biological evolution, society and culture began to be regarded
as undergoing the same changes and demonstrating the same trends. It was conceived that society
and culture were subject to the same general laws of biological and organism growth. Some
thinkers even identified evolution with progress and proceeded to project into the future more and
more perfect and better-adapted social and cultural forms. Charles Darwin (1859), the British
biologist, who propounded the theory of biological evolution, showed that species of organisms
have evolved from simpler organisms to the more complicated organisms through the processes
of variations and natural selection. After Darwin, ‘evolution’, in fact, became the buzz word in all
intellectual inquiry and Darwin and Spencer were the key names of an era in the history of
thought.
Herbert Spencer (1890), who is known to be the forerunner of this evolutionary thought in
sociology, took the position that sociology is “the study of evolution in its most complex form”.
For him, evolution is a process of differentiation and integration.
2. Cyclical Theory:
Cyclical change is a variation on unilinear theory which was developed by Oswald Spengle and
Arnold J. Toynbee . They argued that societies and civilisations change according to cycles of
rise, decline and fall just as individual persons are born, mature, grow old, and die. According to
German thinker Spengler, every society has a predetermined life cycle—birth, growth, maturity
and decline. Society, after passing through all these stages of life cycle, returns to the original
stage and thus the cycle begins again. A variant of cyclical process is the theory of a well-known
American sociologist P.A. Sorokin (Social and Cultural Dynamics, 1941), which is known as
‘pendular theory of social change’. He considers the course of history to be continuous, though
irregular, fluctuating between two basic kinds of cultures: the ‘sensate’ and the ‘ideational’
through the ‘idealistic’. According to him, culture oscillates like the pendulum of a clock between
two points.
Thus, a society can grow and survive if it can constructively respond to the challenges. Cyclical
theory of change or sometimes called ‘rise and fair theory presumes that social phenomena of
whatever sort recur again and again, exactly as they were before in a cyclical fashion.
3. Economic (Mandan) Theory :
Owing largely to the influence of Marx and Marxism, the economic theory of change is also
known as the Marxian theory of change. The Marxian theory rests on this fundamental assumption
that changes in the economic ‘infra-structure’ of society are the prime movers of social change.
For Marx, society consists of two structures—’infra-structure’ and ‘super-structure’. The ‘infra-
structure’ consists of the ‘forces of production’ and ‘relations of production’.
According to Marx, productive forces constitute ‘means of production’ (natural resources, land,
labour, raw material, machines, tools and other instruments of production) and ‘mode of
production’ (techniques of production, mental and moral habits of human beings) both and their
level of development determines the social relation of production, i.e., production relations. These
production relations (class relations) constitute the economic structure of society—the totality of
production relations. Thus, the socio-economic structure of society is basically determined by the
state of productive forces. For Marx, the contradiction between the constantly changing and
developing ‘productive forces’ and the stable ‘production relations’ is the demiurage of all social
development or social change.
4. Conflict Theory:
Social theorists in the nineteenth and early twentieth century’s were concerned with conflict in
society. But, the label of conflict theorists is generally applied to those sociologists who opposed
the dominance of structural-functionalism. These theorists contend that in functionalism there is
no place of change and as such it cannot explain change.
They have neglected conflict in favour of a unitary concept of society which emphasises social
integration. By contrast to functionalist approach, conflict theorists contend that institutions and
practices continue because powerful groups have the ability to maintain the status quo. Change
has a crucial significance, since it is needed to correct social injustices and inequalities.
The modem conflict theory is heavily influenced by the ideas of karl Marx. It may be regarded as
the offshoot of his economic theory of social change which states that economic change only
occurs and produces other change through the mechanism of intensified conflict between social
groups and between different parts of the social system. Conflict would ultimately transform
society. While Marx emphasised economic conflict. Max Weber based his arguments on conflict
about power. Ralf Dahrendorf (1959), although critical of Marxist notions of class, tried to
reconcile the contrast between the functionalist and conflict approaches of society. The simple
point is that conflict may lead to impasse not to change. It should be emphasised that social
conflict is often as much the product of social change as the cause. And it is commonly a great
obstacle to certain types of change.
5. Technological Theory:
When the average person speaks of the changes brought about by ‘science’, he is generally
thinking of ‘technology’ and the manifold wonders wrought thereby. The ‘technology’ refers to
the application of knowledge to the making of tools and the utilisation of natural resources.
It is believed that Marx has attached great importance to technology in his scheme of mode of
production, which forms the main basis for the change in society. For Marx, the stage of
technological development determines the mode of production and the relationships and the
institutions that constitute the economic system. This set of relationships is in turn the chief
determinant of the whole social order. The production and use of food, shelter, clothing and
commodities, physical structures, and fabrics all are also aspects of society’s technology. The
most important aspect of technology in that a man thinks rationally and objectively about things
and events. Man has become more pragmatic in his outlook. He is more disciplined (time-
oriented) in his working habits. New forms of transportation and communication, which have
contributed to significant changes in social life, are all due to the change in technology.
Though technology is an important factor of change, it does not mean that technological change
alone can produce social changes of all types. Nor technological change always a necessary
condition for other social changes. It may be that certain technological conditions are necessary
before other factors can produce certain changes, but these need not precipitate social change.
2.Write an elaborate essay on Sustainable development, and explain environment issues and
different environment movements in India?
The most widely used term ‘Sustainable Development’ was first coined by ‘Cocoyoc Declaration’
in 1970. Since then, the term has gained publicity and popularity. The word is now considered
‘panacea’ or medicine to combat all development-related problems—national or international.
Sustainable development is defined as “development which meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. Sustainable
development does not mean a return to a pre-industrial or pre-technological era. It calls for
continued economic growth and for business and industry to play a key role in achieving
sustainable livelihoods for all perople–alleviating poverty and improving living standards while
maintaining the integrity of the global environment.
Sustainable development is the need of the present time not only for the survival of mankind but
also for its future protection. Unlike the other great revolutions in human history the Green
Revolution and the Industrial Revolution the ‘sustainable revolution’ will have to take place
rapidly, consciously and on many different levels and in many different spheres,
simultaneously.On the technical level, for example, it will involve the sustainable technologies
based upon the use of non-renewable, fossil fuels for technologies that take advantage of
renewable energies like the sun, wind and biomass. On the political and economic levels, it will
involve, among other things, the overhauling of development and trade practices which tend to
destroy the environment, and the improvement of indigenous peoples, a fairer distribution of
wealth and resources within and between nations. On the social plane, it will involve a renewed
thrust towards universal primary education and health care, with particular emphasis on the
education and social liberation of women. On the environmental level, we are talking about
massive afforestation projects, renewed research into and assistance for organic farming practices
and biopest control, and the vigorous protection of biodiversity. Economic growth, social
development and environment protection are the three pillars of Sustainable development.
Sustainability has different meanings for different contexts. For example, while developed
countries are grappling with lifestyle sustainability, the developing countries are tackling issues
of livelihood sustainability. Sustainable development in this environment therefore, calls for
cooperation of all countries both industrialized and developing. That cooperation must be based
on the foundation of the right to development and the need for an equitable distribution of burden.
ENVIRONMENT ISSUES-
1.Pollution – It is one of the main causes of an environmental issue because it poisons the air,
water, soil and noise. As we know that in the past few decades the numbers of industries have
rapidly increased. Moreover, these industries discharge their untreated waste into the water
bodies, on soil, and in air. Most of these wastes contain harmful and poisonous materials that
spread very easily because of the movement of water bodies and wind.
2.Greenhouse Gases – These are the gases which are responsible for the increase in the
temperature of the earth surface. This gases directly relates to air pollution because of the pollution
produced by the vehicle and factories which contains a toxic chemical that harms the life and
environment of earth.
3.Climate Changes – Due to environmental issue the climate is changing rapidly and things like
smog, acid rains are getting common. Also, the number of natural calamities is also increasing
and almost every year there is flood, famine, drought, landslides, earthquakes, and many more
calamities are increasing.
4.Poverty-India has often been described a rich land with poor people. The poverty and
environmental degradation have a nexus between them. The vast majority of our people are
directly dependent on the nature resources of the country for their basic needs of food, fuel shelter
and fodder. About 40% of our people are still below the poverty line. Environment degradation
has adversely affected the poor who depend upon the resources of their immediate surroundings.
Thus, the challenge of poverty and the challenge environment degradation are two facts of the
same challenge. The population growth is essentially a function of poverty. Because, to the very
poor, every child is an earner and helper and global concerns have little relevance for him.
5.Agricultural growth- The people must be acquainted with the methods to sustain and increase
agricultural growth with damaging the environment. High yielding varieties have caused soil
salinity and damage to physical structure of soil.
6.Development and forest- Forests serve catchments for the rivers. With increasing demand of
water, plan to harness the mighty river through large irrigation projects were made. Certainly,
these would submerge forests; displace local people, damage flora and fauna.Forests in India have
been shrinking for several centuries owing to pressures of agriculture and other uses. Vast areas
that were once green, stand today as wastelands. These areas are to be brought back under
vegetative cover.
7.Reorientation of institutions- The people should be roused to orient institutions, attitudes and
infrastructures, to suit conditions and needs today. The change has to be brought in keeping in
view India’s traditions for resources use managements and education etc. Change should be
brought in education, in attitudes, in administrative procedures and in institutions. Because it
affects way people view technology resources and development.
Environment movements in India-
1.Bishnoi movement- Bishnoi is a religious sect found in the Western Thar Desert and northern
states of India. It was founded by Guru Maharaj Jambaji in the Marwar (Jodhpur) desert region
of western Rajasthan, India. It is non-violent community of nature worshippers. This movement
was started by sage Sombaji against deforestation. After that Amrita Devi forwarded the
movement. The 363 people from the Bishnoi community were killed in the protest. When the king
of this region came to know the protest and killing then he rushed to the village and apologized,
and declared the region as protected area. It is noteworthy that this legislation is still exists today.
2.Chipko movement- It was launched from Gopeshwar in Chamoli district, Uttarakhand in
1973.The movement was to prevent illegal cutting of trees in the Himalayan region (Uttarakhand).
Sunderlal Bahuguna and Chandi Prasad Bhatt were the leaders of this movement. The most
notable characteristics of this movement were the involvement of women.
3.Appiko movement- In 1983, on the lines of Chipko Movement, Pandurang Hegde launched a
movement which is come to known as Appiko Movement in Karnataka. Its main objectives were
afforestation as well as development, conservation and proper utilization of forests in the best
manner. The meaning of “appiko” is to express one's affection for a tree by embracing it.
4.Silent valley movement-It is an area of tropical evergreen forests in Kerala. It is very rich in
biodiversity. The environmentalists and the local people strongly objected to the hydel power
project being set up here in 1973. Under pressure, the government had to declare it the national
reserve forests in 1985.
5.Narmada bachao movement- The environmentalists and the local people started protest
against the building of Dams on the Narmada for the production of hydro-electricity since 1985
which was popularly known as Narmada Bachao Aandolan. Medha Patkar has been the leader of
this aandolan who got support from the Arundhati Roy, Baba Amte and Aamir Khan.
6.Tehri dam conflict- This movement was started by the local people around 1980s and 1990s
because the dam project would constructed in the seismic sensitive region and people think that
it causes submergence of forest areas along with Tehri town. Despite of protest, the construction
of the dam is being carried out with police protection as Sunderlal Bahuguna is sitting on fast unto
death. After assurance from the government to review the project, Bahuguna ended his fast but
construction goes on, though at a slower pace.
Hence, we can say, numerous grass root environmental movements were started against the
developmental activities that have endangered the ecological balance that changes the public
policy more inclined towards the environment.
3.Write an essay on the issues and challenges facing by the women in India and explain
constitutional mandate and different legislators for empowering the women in India?
1.Domestic violence-Violence against women is a very grave issue faced by women in India. It
is happening almost every day in various forms.Around 70% of women in India are victims of
domestic violence.In india, domestic violence towards women is considered as any type of abuse
that can be considered a threat, it can also be physical, psychological, or sexual abuse to any
current or former partner. Domestic violence is not handled as a crime or complaint, it is seen
more as a private or family matter. People turn a blind eye to it instead of doing something.
Domestic violence happens more often than we think. Further, there is also dowry-related
harassment, marital rape, genital mutilation and more.
2.Gender discrimination- Women are not considered equal to men. They face discrimination in
almost every place, whether at the workplace or at home. Even the little girls become a victim of
this discrimination. Although women have proved the best of their abilities in various fields of
work at par with men, they still continue to have a grip over their household responsibilities.
Patriarchy and gender inequality in society is the main cause of women's deprivation by way of
health, food, and nutrition, more susceptible to mortality and contributing to unbalanced male
female ratio as well as in the sphere of education and employment. The patriarchy dictates a
woman’s life unjustly.
3.Sexual harassment- Eve teasing is a euphemism used for sexual harassment or molestation of
women by men. Many activists blame the rising incidents of sexual harassment against women
on the influence of ''western culture''. Of the total number of crimes against women reported, half
related to molestation and harassment in the workplace. The Supreme court took a strong stand
against sexual harassment of women in the workplace.
4.Rape- Rape in India has been described as one of the India's most most common crimes against
women and by the UN's human rights chief as ''national problem''.It is a rape culture, in which
girls are told how to dress to avoid 'inviting trouble' and 'slutshamed', normalising male predatory
behaviour. According to government data, nearly four women are raped every hour in this
country.Majority of rapes are often perpetrated by persons known to the victim, including family
and neighbours. For the brave few who overcome this social assault, there are more tribulations
from truculent cops, legal cases that go on for months, and even death.
5.Social stigma and Poverty- Crime and violence against women are on the rise. This is only
due to social stigma that women are weaker sections of society. Poverty condition compels poor
women to sell their minor girls like commodity and give away their grown-up daughter into
slavery to another family to perform household activities.Due to financial constrains and acute
poverty, young girls are often lured away by middle men and brokers with a false promise of
being offered alluring jobs. In the process they are after cheated with sexual harassment which
ultimately ends up in dubious condition.
6.Illiteracy and traditional belief- Illiteracy and traditional beliefs and practices of family have
prevented a great majority of women from access to health care and knowledge about their rights
and privileges resulting high rate of maternal mortality and morbidity. The high mortality rates
among women are revealed by maternal death due to anaemia, toxemia, hemorrhage and abortions
indicate that women health in general and reproductive health in particular are neglected due to
her illiteracy and ignorance about her health and balaced diet.Illiteracy limits women's ability to
earn money and participation in decision making in tha male dominated families.
The constitutional mandate and different legislators for empowering women in India are-
The constitution of India conveys a powerful mandate for equality and rights of women in its
preamble, fundamental rights, and duties and also provides for specific provisions for affirmative
actions. India is also a signatory to a number of UN conventions, primarily convention on
elimination of all forms of discrimination against women (CEDAW), beijing platform for
action and convention on rights of the child where the commitment of the nation to protect and
empower its women and girls is quite pronounced.
Women are now claiming the socio-political rights (right to work, right to education, right to
decide, etc) for them. The Parliament of India too has passed various legislations to save women
from various forms of injustice and discrimination. To empower women there are some following
laws : Equal Remuneration Act-1976; Dowry Prohibition Act-1961; Immoral Traffic
(Prevention) Act-1956, Medical termination of Pregnancy Act-1971; Maternity Benefit Act-
1961; Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act-1987; Prohibition of Child Marriage Act-2006;
Pre-Conception & Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (Regulation and Prevention of Misuse)
Act-1994; and Sexual Harassment of Women at Work Place (Prevention, Protection and)
Act-2013.
Constitutional privileges-
(Article 14) Equality before law for women.
According to Article 14, The State shall not deny to any person equality before the law or the
equal protection of the laws within the territory of India.
(Article 15) Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of
birth.
(Article 15(1))The State shall not discrimination against any citizen on grounds only of religion,
race, caste, sex, or place of birth or any of them.
(Article 15(3)) The State to make any special provision in favour of women and children.
Article 42 of the Constitution incorporates a very important provision for the benefit of women.
It directs the State to make provision for securing just and humane conditions of work and for
maternity relief.
(Article 51(A) (e)) is related to women. It states that, it shall be the duty of every citizen of India
to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India
transcending religion, linguistic, regional or sectional diversities; to renounce practices
derogatory to the dignity of women.
Special initiatives for women-
1.National Commission for Women: In January 1992, the Government set-up this statutory body
with a specific mandate to study and monitor all matters relating to the constitutional and legal
safeguards provided for women, review the existing legislation to suggest amendments wherever
necessary, etc.
2.Reservation for Women in Local Self-Government: The 73rd Constitutional Amendment
Acts passed in 1992 by Parliament ensure one-third of the total seats for women in all elected
offices in local bodies whether in rural areas or urban areas.
3.The National Plan of Action for the Girl Child (1991-2000): The plan of Action is to ensure
survival, protection and development of the girl child with the ultimate objective of building up a
better future for the girl child.
4.National Policy for the Empowerment of Women, 2001: The Department of Women & Child
Development in the Ministry of Human Resource Development has prepared a National Policy
for the Empowerment of Women in the year 2001. The goal of this policy is to bring about the
advancement, development and empowerment of women in socio-economic and politico–cultural
aspects, by creating in them awareness on various issues in relation to their empowerment.
Legal provisions-
To uphold the Constitutional mandate, the State has enacted various legislative measures intended
to ensure equal rights, to counter social discrimination and various forms of violence and atrocities
and to provide support services especially to working women. Although women may be victims
of any of the crimes such as Murder, Robbery, Cheating etc, the crimes, which are directed
specifically against women, are characterized as Crime against Women. These Crimes are
Identified Under the Indian Penal Code (IPC) as Rape (Sec.376 IPC), Kidnapping & Abduction
for different purposes ( Sec. 363-373), Homicide for Dowry, Dowry Deaths or their attempts
(Sec. 302/304-B IPC), Torture, both mental and physical (Sec. 498-A IPC), Molestation (Sec.
354 IPC), Sexual Harassment (Sec. 509 IPC).
There are some acts which have special provisions to safeguard women and their interests are as
The Special Marriage Act, 1954, The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, The Maternity Benefit Act,
1961 (Amended in 1995), Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961, The Medical Termination of
Pregnancy Act, 1971, The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976, The Prohibition of Child Marriage
Act, 2006, The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 1983, Indecent Representation of Women
(Prohibition) Act, 1986 Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987, The Protection of Women
from Domestic Violence Act, 2005.
4.Write an essay on different types of minority community in India and their rights and
explain issues and challenges facing by the Minority communities of India?
The different types of minority community in India are-
1.Muslims- Muslims are in majority in the Union Territory of Lakshadweep and in the state of
Jammu and Kashmir. The proportion of Muslims to total population is above the national
percentage of 13.4 per cent in Assam (30.9 per cent), West Bengal (25.2 per cent), Kerala (24.6
per cent), Uttar Pradesh (18.55 per cent), Bihar (16.5 per cent) and Jharkhand (13.8 per cent). In
absolute numbers, Uttar Pradesh (30.7 million), West Bengal (20.2 million), Bihar (13.7 million),
and Maharashtra (10.70 million) have the largest Muslim population.
2.Christians- There are about 27 million Christians in India (2.5% Christians and among them
1.8 million Catholics, nearly equal to the population of Canada in 2001). Christianity is India’s
largest religion after Hinduism and Islam. Christian population is concentrated in three major
centers: South India, on the Konkan Coast, among the Tribal people of Jharkhand States and other
seven states of North East. In South India the major Christian centers of Christianity are Kerala,
Tamilnadu and Andra Prdesh. Majority of the Christians in Kerala, constituting about 19 per cent
of the population of the state, trace their origins to the first phase, the first Century missionary
activity of Thomas, the disciple of Christ. While the Portuguese Mission tried to bring them under
the Latin rite many of them continued to adhere to their traditional rites, some under the Catholic
Church and others outside.
3.Sikhs- Sikhs are a religious minority in the north-western state of Punjab, where they form a
majority. They are also scattered around different parts of India and the world. They number over
14 million, with another 3 or 4 million living outside India. Of the 14 million living in India, over
60 per cent are concentrated in their home state of Punjab. There are other significant Sikh
concentration in Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal and Delhi. Sizeable Sikh populations
can be found in North-America, Europe and Australia. The Sikh religion dates back to end of the
fifteenth century and was founded by Guru Nanak (1469-1539).
4.Jains- The Jain community numbering about 50 lakh has minority status in 11 states but is not
covered by the National Commission of Minorities Act. Though the move will earn the embattled
UPA brownie points — the Jain community felicitated minorities minister K Rehman Khan soon
after the cabinet decision — other minority communities especially Muslims are apprehensive of
their share in welfare schemes. The Jain community is perceived as an affluent community
wielding influence.
5.buddhists- Buddhists, who represent less than 1 per cent of the national population, are mostly
concentrated in the Chittagong Hill Tracts and northern areas of the country. The Chittagong Hill
Tracts are home to 11 culturally and ethno-linguistically diverse indigenous peoples, collectively
referred to as the Jumma. Of those who make up the Jumma, the Chakma and Marma represent
the majority of those who identify as Buddhists.
Rights of minority communities in india-
The constitution of India provides for special rights to both linguistic and religious minorities "to
establish and administer educational institutions of their choice" under Article 30. Hence no such
law can be framed as may discriminate against such minorities with regard to the establishment
and administration of the educational institutions vis-à-vis other educational institutions. ''Article
30'' is a special right conferred on the religious and linguistic minorities because of their numerical
handicap and to instil in them a sense of confidence. In the St Xavier's College case, the Supreme
Court has rightly pointed out, "The whole object of conferring the right on the minorities under
Article 30 is to ensure that there will be equality between the majority and the minority. If the
minorities do not have such special protection they will be denied equality.''
Constitutional rights accorded to Minorities-
Right of a minority to establish educational institutions –
(I) Article 30(1) gives the linguistic or religious minorities the following two rights:
(a) The right to establish, and
(b) The right to administer educational institutions of their choice.
Article – 30(2) bars the state, while granting aid to educational institutions, from discriminating
against any educational institution on the ground that it is under the management of a linguistic
or a religious minority. It mandates that in granting aid to educational institutions, the state shall
not discriminate against any educational institution on the ground that it is under the
management of a minority, whether based on religion or language.
The minorities have been given protection under article 30 in order to preserve and strengthen the
integrity and unity of the country. The sphere of general secular education will develop the
commonness of boys and girls of India. This is in the true spirit of liberty, equality and fraternity
through the medium of education. The minorities will feel isolated and separate if they are not
given the protection of article 30 general secular education will open doors of perception and act
as the natural light of mind for our countrymen to live in the whole.

Issues and challenges faced by minorities in India-

1.Problem of Identity: Because of the differences in socio-cultural practices, history and
backgrounds, minorities have to grapple with the issue of identity everywhere which give rise to
the problem of adjustment with the majority community.
2. Problem of Security: Different identity and their small number relative to the rest of the society
develops feeling of insecurity about their life, assets and well-being. This sense of insecurity may
get accentuated at times when relations between the majority and the minority communities in a
society are strained or not much cordial.
3. Problem Relating to Equity: The minority community in a society may remain deprived of
the benefit of opportunities of development as a result of discrimination. Because of the difference
in identity, the minority community develops the perception of the sense of inequity.
5.Write an essay on different issues of old aged in the family and problems of disabled
persons in India and its legal and sociological solutions?
Old age is viewed as an unavoidable, undesirable and problem ridden phase of life. Problems of
aging usually appear after the age of 65 years. There are various problems faced by old aged in
the family.
1. Physiological Problems: Old age is a period of physical decline. Even if one does not become
sans eyes, sans teeth, sans everything, right away, one does begin to slow down physically. The
physical condition depends partly upon hereditary constitution, the manner of living and
environmental factors. Vicissitudes of living, faulty diet, malnutrition, infectious, intoxications,
gluttony, inadequate rest, emotional stress, overwork, endocrine disorders and environmental
conditions like heat and cold are some of the common secondary causes of physical decline. The
old are more accident prone because of their slow reaction to dangers resulting in malfunctioning
of the sense organs and declining mental abilities, the capacity to work decreases.
2. Psychological Problems: Mental disorders are very much associated with old age. Older
people are susceptible to psychotic depressions. The two major psychotic disorders of older
people are senile dementia (associated with cerebral atrophy and degeneration) and psychosis
with cerebral arterio sclerosis (associated with either blocking or ruptures in the cerebral arteries).
It has been observed that these two disorders account for approximately 80% of the psychotic
disorders among older people in the civilized societies.
3. Emotional Problem: Decline in mental ability makes them dependent. They no longer have
trust in their own ability or judgements but still they want to tighten their grip over the younger
ones. They want to get involved in all family matters and business issues. Due to generation gap
the youngsters do not pay attention to their suggestion and advice. Instead of developing a
sympathetic attitude towards the old, they start asserting their rights and power. This may create
a feeling of deprivation of their dignity and importance.
4. Social Problems: Older people suffer social losses greatly with age. Their social life is
narrowed down by loss of work associated, death of relatives, friends and spouse and weak health
which restricts their participation in social activities. The home becomes the centre of their social
life which gets confined to the interpersonal relationship with the family members. Due to loss of
most of the social roles they once performed, they are likely to be lonely and isolated severe
chromic health problem enable them to become socially isolated which results in loneliness and
depression.
5. Financial Problem: Retirement from service usually results in loss of income and the pensions
that the elderly receive are usually inadequate to meet the cost of living which is always on the
rise. With the reduced income they are reversed from the state of “Chief bread winner to a mere
dependent” though they spend their provident fund on marriages of children, acquiring new
property, education of children and family maintenance. The diagnosis and treatment of their
disease created more financial problem for old age.
Problems faced by disabled person in India-
According to studies, PWDs often have lower education accomplishments, poorer health
conditions, higher poverty rates and less economic engagement than people without disabilities.
They are disabled not only by their bodies but by society as well. Thus disability isn’t only a
health problem. It’s a complex phenomenon that reflects the interaction between the features of
an individual’s body & characteristics of the society in which the person lives in.A large number
of children with disabilities (CWDs) remain out of school. Even if they do stay in school, they
hardly progress beyond primary levels leading to lower employment & incomes.Although the
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan has made an effort to promote the inclusion of children with disabilities,
the system faces a lot of challenges in identifying these children as well as responding to their
needs.
Even though many persons with disabilities are capable of productive work they remain
unemployed. The private sector does not offer employment to these people, even the public sector
hardly does. Despite of the fact that 3% is reserved for PWDs, only ten percent posts are identified
as suitable. The quota policy even covers only three kinds of disability — hearing, visual and
locomotor.
Evidence suggests that PWDs face different kinds of barriers in accessing the health as well as
rehabilitation services they require in several settings. Overcoming all kinds of difficulties faced
by persons with disabilities needs interventions for removing environmental & attitudinal barriers.
Governments, professionals, persons with disabilities and their families as well as many NGO for
persons with disabilities need to work together for overcoming the hindrances.
Legal solutions of disabed persons in India-
The Constitution of India has guaranteed the full protection to the rights of disabled people. The
Preamble of the Constitution embodies the concept of social justice and equality of status and
opportunity to all the people of India. Article 14 & 16 of the Constitution guarantee equality of
opportunity to all citizen of India. Article 38 of the Constitution which falls within Directive
Principles of State Policy, requires the State to promote the welfare of the people by securing a
social order in which social, economic and political justice can inform to all institutions of national
life and the State is required to make efforts to eliminate inequalities in status, facilities and
opportunities amongst individuals.
The disabled citizens have the same rights as other citizens to a descent standard of living and
economic security, right to work, education, employment and also right to access and
communication. In India there is a long list of legislations and regulations which protect and
govern the rights and interests of disabled persons. The Persons with Disabilities (Equal
Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995 is the principal and
comprehensive legislation concerning disabled persons. The Acts defines the responsibilities of
the Central and State govt. with regard to the services for disabled persons. Provisions have been
made in this Act for the prevention of disabilities, protection of rights, provision of medical care,
education, training, employment and rehabilitation of disabled persons.
Rights of disabled person in India-
1.Disability Certificate: It is the most basic document that a disabled person should possess in
order to avail certain benefits and concessions. The State Medical Boards established under the
State governments can issue a disability certificate to any person with more than 40% disability.
2.Disability Pension: People who are above 18 years of age, suffering with more than 80%
disability and are living below the poverty line are entitled to the disability pension under the
Indira Gandhi National Disability Pension Scheme. Various NGOs are dedicated to this because
i.e. they help such persons with disabilities to get their disability pension.
Employment: In government jobs, 3% of the seats are reserved for persons with disabilities.
3.Income Tax Concession: Under sections 80D and 80U of Income Tax Act, 1961, persons with
disabilities are also entitled to certain income tax concessions.