3.1. INTRODUCTION TO ATTENUATION. ‘Attenuation means reduction in the strength of a signal, ic., loss. Losses, can be of many types such as absorption, fiber bend loss, dispersion, polarization etc. : In this chapter, we would discuss absorption and dispersion losses in detail. In general, attenuation is expressed in the logarithmic unit of decibels (AB). dB is used to compare two power level. For the same waveguide, input power (transmhitted) P; and output power Py can be expressed in decibels as Number of AB = 10 Logyy a or Z = 100 In optical fiber communication the attenuation is usually expressed in _GB per km (dB km-') following: gp 1= 10 og (8.2) Where Og is signal attenuation per the fiber. a ee When mean option power launched into an 8 km length fiber is 120 1w and the mean output power is 4 pw. ‘Then find overall signal attenuation length in dB and lis length of (i) The overall signal attenuation for a 10 km link using splices at 1 km internal, each giving an attenuation of 1 dB. Gv) The numerical input output power ratio in case Attenuation in Optical Fiber Solution: ) Signal attenuation = 10 1gg, B _ 1.4: 07 = 10g! 0 9 = 100.4771) = 14.77 45 8 = 14.77 a4, = 14.77 Gi) 5, aa = = = 1.846 dBm (Gi) In 10 km wire the lossis 1.846 x 19 = also has attenuation 1 4B, 10h here ae eee a ik of 1 kim. Therefore total attenuation = 1846 + 9c ay ne gene P9276 (iv) = WO = 10? = 5679 3.2. ABSORPTION Absorption is a phenomenon where li (or refracted) from the core of the fib leads to weakening of light signal and in the light signal trav ight ray instead of getting reflected er, get absorbed in the material. This $s of power and ultimately resulting ing less distances. Absorption can be of two types: # Intrinsic absorption * Extrinsic absorption 3.2.1 Intrinsic Absorption ic absorption is caused by the fiber itsl fiber is responsible for the absorption of light. In Jow compared to other forms of losses. A pure intrinsic absorption due to its basic materi the material of the ic absorption is very a glass has very little rructure. The reason for absorption is due to simulation of electrons transition within the glass by higher energy excitations. In the IR region > 7 ym fundamental absorption from the interaction of photons with molecular vibration within the glass occur. These give absorption which are strong. ‘enough to create losses. However, the effect of this loss can be minimized by sioang, pints core and cladding compositions. In some monoxide glasses such as fluorides and chlorides, com a in peaks occur at around 50 um giving loss attenuation to longer wavelength transmission as compared to oxide glasses. 3.2.2 Extrinsic Absorption Itis caused by external sources such as Material during manufacturing such as are much more significant than intrinsic abs 1s present in the fiber . ‘and chromium. They corption. Chromium and copper2) optcteeonis and Opal Communieaion ther worst valence Sates a a such as glass ref jon > 1 dB/km. Mod, vapour phase oxid: mH to water (as OH i tothe x } therange2.7 104.2 um. These fundamen appearing almost harmonically at 1.38, ins between the overtol rations occur at 1.24, 1.13 and 0.88 wm. ‘Table 31. Absorption losses caused by transition metals (One part in 10° (AB) ‘Peak woclength (nm) co 625 350 100 06s 400 From Fig. 8 wavelength is 0.95 um hi wavelengths first overtone is at 1.38 jum and strong absorbers giving attenuat respectively. mn below I um 1 dB/km ppm. At longer side band 1.24 um are of 4 dBskm ppm and 2 dB/km ppm narrow window ex fected by OH” grou below 1 part in 107 ae a huation occurs at 1.55 Attenuation in Optical Fiber 3.3 SCATTERING 3.3_SCATTERING 33.1 Linear Scattering is (a) Rayleigh Scattering Rayleigh scattering is the dominant loss mechanism in the low absorption window between UV and IR tals, It result from inhomogeneties of a random nature occurring on a small scale compared with the wavelength 5 cause refractive index fluctuations due to density and compositional variations frozen into the glass lattice during index fluctuations accruing due to density 7a homogeneties are fundamental and cannot be avoided. The attenuation is in all possible direction and proportionate to 1/A* following the Rayleigh's scattering formula. For a single component glass this is given by 8x Yq = Sn AT, (8.3) where Ys is the Rayleigh scattering coefficient, is wavelength, n is refractive index of the medium, P is average photoelectric coefficient, compres at temperature T, and K is Bol “The temperate Ty is fictive temperature is the temperature at ‘which glass can reach a state of thermal equilibrium and is closely related ‘0 anneal temperature.” Rayleigh scattering coefficient is related to the transmission loss factor (transmissivity) to the fiber (8.4) here Lis length The fund: component of Rayleigh scattering is strongly reduced by operating to the longest possible wavelength,[BB operon and Opal Communion AP BRT, Solution: Yq = SUT PETE aw 248,15 x 20.65 x 0827x1071! x1.38% 10% x1400 2 at _ 1.895%10-% = : 1.895 10% wat 2 = 0.68 um Y, = 189810 =, mt wet esate 0% i 1 mee!) we e'12rt0*I0 = 9,301 ‘Attenuation = 101e8,(2) = 10 log! ) = 5.2. dB/km. 7 1.895 107% Gar 2 Lym Y= AEE = 1.895. 104m! ¥.= (1.895 x 104 x 103) = 0.827 m 1 Attenuation = 1o1e9"( 4) = 08 dB/km Gi At = 13 pmy, = 1895x1029 7 a Fasoe pat 0.664 x 10 4 = 6066x1010) «6 956 Attenuation = 1 an t01og( 1) = 09 aren (©) Mie Scattering || separated from the incident tenon n Op Fer Bi neity size > N10, the scattered intensity, is quite large. The scatter ‘When the scattering in homoge which has an angular dependence in forward direction depending manufacture, Mie scattering’ can cause signifien inhomogeneity may be reduced by: 1, Reducing imperfections due to glass manufacturing process. 2, Careful and controlled extrusion and waiting ofthe fiber 3. Increasing the fiber guidance by increasing the relative refractive index difference, if . . 332 ‘The non-linear scattering causes the optical power from one mode to be Non-linear Scattering Losses || transferred in either forward or backward direction to the some or other ‘modes ata different frequency. It depends critically upon the optical power density within the fiber and hence only becomes significant above threshold levels. ‘The most importa ¢ypes of non-linear scattering within special fibers are “Stimulated Brillouin” and “Roman scattering” both of which are ‘observed at high optical power densities in long single mode fibers. ct given optical gain but shifts in frequency, thus contributing nat a specific wavelength. Simulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS) Itis regarded as modulation of light through thermal molecular vibrations within the fiber. The scattering light appears as upper and lower sidebands ht by the modulation frequency. ‘The incident photon in this scattering process produces a phonon of acoustic frequency as well as a scattered photon. This causes an optical Frequency shift and varies ing angle because frequency of sound wave varies with acoustic wavelength. aa ‘The frequency shift is maximum in backward direction reducing to zero in the forward dereliction making SBS a mainly backward process ing significant above a threshold power density, state o lights not maintained then threshold power Py = hax 109 2 add wats wavelength Qa ‘where dis diameter ofthe core (im). operating wavelength (NO A us fiber alternation in dfkm and vis the source band width i. ofnjctor laser in GHz[EB opti a ia comin (b) ‘Simulated Roman ‘Scattering (srs) ‘SRS is similar to SBS except OE phon tee SES can nee prein age 8 a in ng sg ne hee ge by Pp = 5.9 X 10D Oy ae ee ‘Along single mode optical ber has atenuation 04 GB/km when operating Sa yin 1.8 um. The diameter of core is 6 wm. The bat 4 aan a ME Find the threshold stimulated Bri ‘Roman scattering powers. Solution: Py =44X 103 XA? 2? agg = 44 x 10 x 6 x (1.5)? (0.4) 600 x 10% = 875 mW P= 5.9 X 107 2% 4p = 5.9 x 107 x 6 x (8.6) 3.4 VERY LOW LOSS MATERIAL ‘The propagation of light through glass fibers is rapidly becoming the preferred mode of transmiting audio and visual information, and meeting ‘demands for even higher capacity, speed, and rel challenge. The only available way o increase capacity, speed and r is to either minimize the losses or find outa new way of data transmission. | ‘One such way used in fiber optic technology is transmitting information | by photons rather than the traditional electrons. There are man} advantages in transmitting information by photons through fibers rathe™ than by electrons in metallic cables, «Firs, the much higher carrer frequencies, are some 100,000 Promise an enormously increased carrying capacity, or bandwidt * Second, transmission losses are much smaller, requiring far fewe! apis or "pester per unit ditnce of transmission. . , since optic fibers are electrical insulators, they are not affect ' 3 sry electra fields from other neighbouring one to anything ike the same extent as metals. They are therefore comparativel! free of “interference” an ; , spying, Nenerence” and are essentially immune to electto™ Aeration in Optical Fiber « Finally, and perhaps most obvious ekg crs My mal (pl fer savings over the much larger conventional cables, ns ot Inspite ofthe impressive advances already made, a potential ficiency tie fibers, (and therefore unavoidable) oie ay technolo Prnplification ofthe carrier lightwave about every Sete ee repeaters and regenterators, whose installation represents perhaps the inajor expense for proposed siica-based fiber systems, can be significantly qeduced in number (oF even, ide: inated completely) only ifa new generation of non-silica-based fibers with significantly reduced losses can bedeveloped. ‘The major challenges still present in transmission of information through optical fiber are: 1. Increase in carrying capacity by reducing dispersi ‘capacity is determined by the dispersion characteristics of the fiber and is measured as a data rate, megabits per second, each 100 Mb/ Dispersion, which con propagation fiber efficiency. major cost breakthrough Therefore, a new material which has the potential for exhibiting lower material losses, antly lower than those of silica needs to be found ‘and replaced. One such Material is Polymer Clad-Silica Fiber using Multicomponent Halide Glasses. Je fibers have reduced the fiber losses from 500 km in 1980 to this writing. However, multicomponent about 8 dB/km at this writing, ul asses have low cohesive energies and relatively low stabilities and are ate tine candidates for commanict fibers. Their intrinsic temuation limits are as low as 0.001 4B 1 km. Bu est pea vesand many have the additional complication hata i aa this area is still under scientific research[BE optoctectronics and Optical Communication 3.5 ALL PLASTIC AND POLYMER CLAD—SILICA FIBER ca fiber or polymer-clad silica fi ‘ased core and a plastic clad glasshas diameter: 200 jim and an optical cladding diameter: 230 um. Duc to ther medium bandwidths and transmission rate of ey 100 MBi/, PCS fibers are suitable for distances of up to 2 km, eg, in} ings and industry. Generally, the following applies ‘i higher the attenuation, the shorter the distance. lastic optical fibers (POF) have low bandwidth ay lly 100 MBiv). They also havea high attenuase and therefore, the maximum distance is around 100 meters. on the other hand have very high bandwi up to GBiv/s. The attenuation in glass fbr cover distances of more than 10 km, Regarding bandwidth and distanay HS fibers are situated between POP and multimode orsinglemode fey ‘The main applications of plastc-cad silica fiber are industrial, medi or sensing applications where cores that are larger than those used it standard data communications fibers are advantageous A plastic-clad ‘Table 3.2 Application Area Fiber Types : CoreiCladaing Disiince |: bala rae) (las fiber | 97125 ym Bis up 128 jm Gbivs Glas Sher | 50125 ym | Lol neworksin medium | up to4 km | <155 MB (62.5125 jum | areas, buildings and \elecommuications Hes] 200280 um | Local nework in buldings | upto 2m | <100 MB and telecommunications Fai er | 9871000 um | Local netvorsn bung, | up to 100 m | 100 BAS (POF) industry and automotive se + Attenuation means reduction in the strength of an optical signal & Cae in the strength of an optical sigh - Unit of attenuation is logarithm 8. No. of decibels = 10 og, B_ igaB or AL. 9B 220 B isaloss, where light ray instead of getting reflected (or refracted) from the core, gets absorbed in the materia 6. Absorption is of two types: 17. Extrinsic absor the fiber material mn is caused due to external impurities present in Intrinsic absorption scattering occurs as there isa very low absorption window between UV and IR rays. This results in inhomogeneities. 11, Mie scattering occurs due to imperfections in core-cladding interface, refractive indices and other factors. 1g causes the optical power from one mode to be ther forward or backward direction to the same or ferent frequency. scattering is of two types: scattering ing 14, In order to reduce losses due to material, new low loss materials have been found and are being used. They are silica-based polymer clad fibers, eueueet ecu “The mean optical power launched into an optical fiber ink is 1.5 mW. The erie ther is 0.5 abn. Find minimum possible ink length Without repeatersso that output powerdetected in 2uW.(Ans.57.5 km) ‘The input/output mean optical power ratio in a1 km fiber i 2.5. Find the receive mest opal power when mp powers mW raveling through 5 km long pipe. (Ans. 10)1) Discus absorption lossesin optical bers from intrinsic and extrinsiabsorption Point of view. rar scattering losses in optical fibers with respect to: (a) Rayleigh attenuation[BBE oprocteczonis and Optical Commentator scat iver link uses fiber with ass 1.5 dB/km. The fiber is gin, 5 Alskm¢ or Ee which givean attenuation of 0.8 dB each, Fing every wil power nunched to maintain 8 mean optical power lye 0.8 uWat the output. ; “o, gaascore optical fiber hasan attenuation from Rayleigh seater AO wavelength of um. The glass has an estimated tempe; me cise pothermal compressbility 84 X 107° Pat and a photoclasie or offeient of 0.245. Find the refractive index ofthe glass. tine a smmlated Brilouin and stimulated Raman scattering in optical ‘%. Comparicate the method so that they may be avoided in opt 7 communication. fo 4. The threshold optical powers of stimulated Brillouin and Raman scattering along; vimeore diameter single mode fiber is 190 mW and 1.7 W: respectively ‘when a source of 1 GHzis used, (Calculate th operating wavelength ofthe source and the attenuation in dB/km ofthe ber wavelength. (Ans. 1.5 um, 0.3 dBm) aaa Wave Propagation cuss about the theory and concepts of how a ;p-index and graded index fibers, dispersion in fibers, 44 WAVE PROPAGATION IN STEP-INDEX AND GRADED-INDEX FIBERS Wave Propagation in Step-index Fiber ‘As already previously discussed, step-index fibers are those in which the refractive index of the core is uniform and undergoes an abrupt change at the core-cladding interface. Sharp bending Fig. 441 Wave propagation in stopindex fber Usually, the core has a diameter of 50-100 jum of refractive index n, surrounded by a coaxial cylindrical cladding of diameter 120-140 pm of refractive index ny (ny > Ne) as shown in Fig. 4.2. 50-100 ym 120-140 nm. Core, mi Cove, ng Fig. 4.2. Cross sectional area ofa SI fiber faterial used for production of an optical fiber is either silica or plastic, Assume that such a fiber is placed in a medium (usually of refractive index nh, (Ny > > Na)2 optoelectronics and Optica! Communication ‘a uniform refractive index throughout, light tray As the. haya the core, but when it reaches the end of core, eo a sai ing interface, it undergoes a sharp Total Internal Reiegzt (IR) and bends inwards again towards the core Wave Propagation in Graded-index Fiber | cr, however the refractive index of the core is py niform, The material is designed such that the refractive index ot aoyenfigher at the center and starts to decrease gradually as we sy from the center, and its lowest at the core-ladding interface, a In graded-index fib Fig 3 : Even the lowest core refractive index n, will be higher than the refracie| Would be (yy > Np > Myo > Mp > Ne) the refractive index of core does not let the 1e. Rather, it bends the rays inwards and alo! in the lower index refraction region. This fiber index of cladding s ‘This uniform va a straight Fig. 44 Wave propagation in Gil. fber 42 DISPERSION Acommon type of defect seen is optical fiber is known as dispersion whit is defined as the spreading of light pulse as it travels down along the lene! ofthe fiber causing the pulses to overlap and thus making the put undetectable at the receiving end. There are three different tYPE* dispersion, which arg Modal dj mn, Material dispersion, 2 Waveguide dispersion destribed as follows: 4.24. Material Dispersion Itis so called as, variation of vl of refractive index of material is as shown in Fig. 4.3. ave Propagation [i279 1462: 1460: 1488 1456: 1454 1452 1450: ass: 1446 144s aaa: 600 800 1000 1200° 1400 3600 Fig. 4.5 Wavelength vs refractive index wavelengths travel at different velocity through the fiber even when light follow the same path. Thus pulses travel at different velocities, he end of the fiber at slightly different times. Therefore, when he pulses add together, yielding an output that is lengthened rel 4.2.2 Waveguide Dispersion It results from the guiding structures of fiber and thus waveguide dispersion is important for transmission rate in case of single mode (Fig. 4.6). It occurs because guided optical energy is divided between core and Modal intensityfommunication ‘optoelectronics ane Optical C aly different velocity in cladding because Joe. The dispersion should be within the receiving end. This dispersion persion at wavelength of 1.5 ym, js much less than mo ymmauni Which is the present choice of fiber optic 60 ‘Total broadening of the light pulse Ace dm + ay 42) jspersion and waveguide dispersion are caused by the Both chroma Guaveindex ofthe Aber material the wavelength vse omatic dispersion can be reduced by carefully designing the composition of the glass. aie von is indesirable as it is a phenomenon, which spreads the a pul wels down the length of an optical fiber. As the pulse jerlap as illustrated in Fig. 4.7 and -ansmission errors. Thus to avoid spend he conscut pulis “Coale willbe indistinguishable pulse ie ‘eau Mme duration between two consecutive pulses should be more «het the amount of pulse spread for a given-length of fiber and so it limits thetanmission speed, ie, the bandwidth of information carrying capacity ofthe fer, [tis expressed in terms of time per unit length. Distinguishable pulses Distinguishable pulses Amplitude Amplitude Time ‘Time Indistinguishable pulse | Amplitude ‘Time Fig. 4.7 Distinguishable or incistinguishable pulses depending on time g3P between two consecutive pul ‘Wave Propagation 43_ OVERALL FIBER DISPERSION 43.1 Single Mode Fibers “The pulse broadening in single mode fibers results mainly from intramodal or chromatic dispersion as only single mode is allowed to propagate. Hence imited by finite spread width of the source. Unlike the imode fibers, the mechanism giving intramodal dispersion is rather complex. The transit time or specific group delay ¢, for a light pulse propagating along a unit length of single mode fiber may be given by 4-1 ® 4s) where C is speed of light, B is propagation constant for a mode in vacuum. The total first order dispersion parameter or the chromatic dispersion ‘mode fiber Dy is the derivative of a specific group delay with respect-to wave length in vacuum, ar, Dp= Se (44) n= oof (4.4) and is expressed in ps nm! km“ when Ais replaced by @, parameter becomes. al dispersion ody _o dp Dyn oA (45) ispersion if B varies non-linearly with cerms of the relative refractive index Fiber exhibits intramodal wavelength B may be expresset difference A as B = hn, [1-2a(1-)]!” (4.6) where b is normalized propagation constant. The runs pulse broadening down, the fiber length 2, caused by intramodal dispersion is ‘Total rms pulse broadening _ abn dB Oe? aR where 0, is the rms spectral width of the source centred around A. This showed that pulse broadening depends upon material properties and normalized propagating constant and gives rise to three interrelated. effects which involve complicated cross product-terms. However, the final expression may be separated into three composite dispersion components in such a way that one of the effects dominates in each term. (4.7) Rok aie