Contents LACINTRODUCTION TO OPTICAL FIBER 1.1 Introduction to Optical Fiber 1.1.1 Fiber Optics and Optoelectronics 1.1.2 Historical Developments ..... 1.1.3 Configuration of Fiber Optic Communication System L2"Structures.... eet incriide and Fabrication 1.4 Fiber Materials 1.5 Fiber Fabrication 1.5.1 Outside Vapor Phase Oxidation 1.5.2 Vapor Phase Axial Deposition 1.5.3 Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition . 1.5.4 Plasma-Activated Chemical Vapor Deposition . 1.5.5 Double-Crucible Method 1.6 Mechanical Properties of Fiber: 1.7 Fiber Optic Cables ... 1.8 Basic Optical Communication System . 1.9 Advantages of Optical Communication System . 1.10 Role of Fiber-Optic Technology .. Summary .. Review Questions BASIC LAWS OF OPTICS 32-65 2.1 Nature of Light .... _22Basic Optical Laws and Definitions . 2.2.1 Concept of TIR.... 2.2.2 Principle of Light Propagation Through a 2.2.3 Fractional Refractive Index Change . 2.2.4 Numerical Aperture ... 2.2.5 Skew Rays... 28° Optical Fiber Modes and Configurations ode Theory for Circular Waveguide .. 2.4.1 Planar Waveguide or Dielectric Slab WG 2.4.2 Cylindrical Waveguide ...comers 25 Fer Losses 4 251 Absorption Los 25.2 Scattering Loss. be 25.3 Bending Loss. oy 2.6 Dispersion a 22 Gomer so Speers ct Sua ey eae Quins 6 \ /RTENUATION IN OPTICAL FIBER 66-70 “Se Invduction to Attention 6 “rion or 32.1 nic Absorption “7 322. Extrinsic Absorption 7 3 Seatering & 331 Liner Scaring o 82 NowLinear Sentring Les a ery Low Low Matra 2 ‘Al Pasi and Poymer Clad Fiber ” Summary Pr esis Qustons % _SCWANE PROPAGATION 7-98 “BW Propagation in Sepindex and Grade Index Fey 77 4 Dispersion 7s 421 Macca Dperion By 422. Waveguide Deron 9 497 Overal Fiber Duper if 4431 Single Mote Fess i 432 Mutimode Fier es 4 Dierion Model Sine Made Fc s 441 Dispersion Shite Fier + 2 Digpenion Fatred Finer ‘Polarization | i 5.1 Modal Birtringen. a 452 Polarization Maintaining Fbnes be Simmer “3 Reviews Questions. i " 5. OPTICAL SOURCES ign and LED's for Optical Communication Sul Structre and Working of LED 5.12 Radiative Recombination Processes 5.13 Quantum EficiencyResponse Time and LED Power 5.14 Materials used to Fabricate LED and Laser 515, [ED Construction Desig of LED for Optical Communication 51.6 Led Drive Circuitry 7 Ge Semiconductor Lasers for Optical Fiber Communication System and their Types 52.1 Laser Fundamentals 5.22. Types of Lavet/Laser Gassication Se Power Launching and Coupling “Set Source to Fber Power Launching. BAL Output Pattern [542 Power Coupling 54.3. Power Launching 544 Equilibrium Numerical Apereare BAS Laser Diodeto-Fiber Coupling. Swary Review Questions. 6. OPTICAL DETECTORS “Bi Renken Mowe Bacon Ot pa Pout te Py ice C1 patina nae ac Pee Nene ede AD) fc hanp \serthounalper et $5 Donor Repos Te : Pas pon ayer os {82 Repme eee sect ew o ic Cin se eeiatn rnin “G16 Optical Receiver Operation. (pol Fundamental Receiver Operation 86 1187 188 188 180 193 194 196 196Contents . 202 - 205 . 207 66.2 Digital Receiver Performance... 6.6.3 Analog Receivers .. Summary eH Review Questions. 7. OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 210-262 7.1 Data Communication Networks... .- 210 - 210 213 214 218 7.1.1 Types of Computer Networks 7.1.2 Network LAN Technologie: 7.1.3 Network Topologies 7.1.4 MAC Protocols .. 7.1.5 Analog Systems.. 7.2 Advanced Multiplexing Strategies 7.2.1 Optical TDM 7.2.2. Subcarrier Multiplexing .. 7.2.3. WDM Network .... 7.3. Architectures...... 7.3.1 SONET/SDH 7.3.2 Optical Transport Network 7.3.3 Optical Access Networ! 7.3.4 Optical Premise Network 7.4 Applications 7.4.1 Military Applications 74.2 Civil Application: 7.4.3 Consumer Applications 7.4.4 Industrial Applications Summary... Review Questions MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 263-279 APPENDICES 28° ; 1-290 MODEL QUESTION PAPERS 2 91-294 INDEX 295-298[lf operons and Opti Communication , smiconductor laser with the encoded digital signa, soomtyaticereta eth t eth followed by a frontend amplifies cee rete allan apap Fig. 14 ita! opa! mer conmnlaon 4 srevctures 1s is, we wl da he ace of a pier cl “he opal Ge ee cons af ply 8 ee 1. Inner most yer or THE CORE 2 Outer layer or THE CLADDING 8. Protecive cover of THE SHEATHL ‘The core and adding both can Ba bbe made up of either glass or fer — ON as shown in Fig 15. the dadding (7) }) ‘made up of gas, the core material ‘an be glass or fiber But if the aR, ‘adding made up af ber the core tbo must be made up of fier ‘The refiacve index of core is ‘Sth always greater then that of the adding The ight rye get trapped — Chine imide the ore when the} flo he ca concept of TIR (Total Internal Reflection), and thar making i lor mone fom ne pe Fiber Characteristics, 2s grtial fiber has many advantages over a copper wire or a co-asll Sie Titi why Hi aking over the wired chology ay a lscss some ofthe characterises of open to a ay Inet pire 1 Greater bandwidth: Bandwidth ofan optical Ste is higher tan acaatepars, They carry slot mere inane 6 eae Stannel of information over longer distances. Thus eer FE ased. Theoretically, fiber has a bandwidth of more Wenge ‘erabyes per second, et can cary upto 32000 tlephe ergs) atthe same time. It would take around 64,000 capes nes ‘make the sime number of phone ell Higher Dats Transmission Rate: The twansmison rate of data is also much higher chan the copper wire. An eptcal bes ena ‘wanamit upto 2Gbps over tens of klomcters, herears tarnen ‘oper wire can only transmit some hundreds of Mbps oe oy Tim 3. Smaller size: An optical Sher has a diameter of 125 mm in comparision to 7.62 em of 4 copper wiv Lighter weight: Along with the size reducaton, there is subanial weight reduction to. For example, 945 hg of copper anal replaced with 3.6 kg of optea fiber 5 Electromagnetic Isolation (EMI: Fiber optic systems ae immuned te slectomagneic interference suchas lightning rae spat mosphere ditrbancen te. Beaute of sinners lems ghe accuracy of data wansmision of abou 100 aes heuer than over copper cable, 5 Connections: No electrical conection is required between sender and rectver 7. Rellabitys They ae highly reliable and once installed, ned no ‘maintainence for many yeas Higher eneryption/deeryption techniques can be / ‘wed witha optical Aber Less attenuation: Optical bers have a very low tanimison loses bau of their ultra purity. Ifa window pane Thm tick wee be made of such ls, t would be transparent as oti pose of gl. 10. Cost: Costs are often mos important considerations in a system. Alough fiber opi cables are cores than x copper nite ele, — however compared in ransmistion sense thy toed be cheaper than thir counterparts. T mean to say that 4 50m long ope fiber cable may be'10 times easier than a copper ible ety transmit 100 times more dat than the copper ce 90 they tend to be cheaper a[EB opt Opa omnin i 2/ WAVEGUIDE AND FABRICATION LB intr meni 18 tly | {edium that guides the light waves that travel in it. Theref cc requ | Pr teeing scons, we wil dics how ate the opi hes | ogi nt ht of mata ne we mae eh i] ‘will aio see some of the fabrication processes, i, some of the Stay wed sch to ale an op er ble eave Let ws tae them one by one Classification of Fibres hers can be cased in thre diferent ways | chassitcation based on MODE, / Single mode fer: These fibers only hae one mode of propagation CO Gehig 8, The seo corets ey onal compared wo adding Wis around 8-10 microm. They a wsed Tor high speed dats ‘tansnistion overlong dances ‘However they havea very kite bandh and therefore also have Jee atenuaton () Maltinode fiber These Sher hive more than one mode of Bropgation. The sit ofthe cores age than that nag made Ber I varies rom 50-025 mie * The srbletocry mor data than $8, sol wih bit are seep to est ited for tre dsance wane 2 Chacon based om bending ihe () Stepnder fiber The core and having iret rave aos dang ays es her as they havea large tenuaon. They 326 3 are made up of material (00 Fag.) The refiactve inde tan that of cote, Based on how the change Inno Opt rer ‘of medium occurs at corecladding interface, the bendi ng of light, Citing Shay aa rad ne (Graded indexer Faz 1 the refeactive index of core i uniform and undergoes an abrupt hang atthe cing boundary then the wavegue bce index fiber. a (© Graded.index ber: IFdhe refractive index ofthe core is ot uniform ands higher towards the center of the cre and goes down gadeally ‘it moves away fiom the center, (wward the cladding symm then ii called Graded index Sher ‘We wil explain these bers in a more detailed way hater 3 Clasitication based on way of propagation of ight (0) Pranse wave light rave trough the guides are those wave guides (opi fibers) in which ‘a straight fashion inside the core region and pes ‘midpoint (center) of the fiber cove. far Tig 8), [oi “iia t, CS (rr Pots (© Clrcular Waveguides are thou waveguides in which ge ane in 2 ticular fashion ise the optic Sher makes apr Ihe tape hile traveling through the ore length (er ig 19)[Bi pretend Opa Communion aE Top view Fess Now, further in this chapter we will dcuss the type of material ‘ing wed and some fabrication procestes before actually moving on to the scence of light propagadon in the next chapter 44 FIBER MATERIALS In wleing mais for others a mune of requirements mu ten iho comer Te example: 1. Te mst be possle wo make Tong thi, exe bers from the mal 2. Theme mon be tanparent ata prize optical we length inorder forte fiber vo ide it ete. 3 sal compabie mater havig slighty diferent retracive inde fo the core and cading mas fe Seah Mari sashing th eqiements ae gles and Ser “he majority of Gers ate made of gas comssung cher of a (S04) ora cate The varie of arate pas fs ranges noo igh Jos hs ers wih nge cores ued for son tas dances do ‘er transparent tow bn ployed in ongdeas wenone ove, er marl prove dry and are wed ase nitonments de (0 geter mechani sre Dos tay ao ase 2 Higher atenation wich a ag TEM Bot they tas Fibers tsi mae by fing | ean Sige ot, ser ® at's wel dined orders oe deca newer fan velo! or cu eon Ee crn {eine meting pins. When gases heute, ‘cremains a hard sold up to several hundred Fem, temperature increases fre the gas gears cade. As 2 vey High tempera 8 duly begin we san Joaabe Emcee bee Sma sk es st ely Wad gash mature Invoduiont Opa ter il term refers only o a extend temperature range in whi the gh ‘becomes Mu enough to il ie fly quickly a gles bales “The anges category of opty wanparn: gases fom which opt fers are male onsite of the oxide aac f these the mt conten @ Wa log, ich has a eee icy of Lise an keh see prodac wo Simla materials having sighly dierent nics of reacion ( bte core and lading tcterrl as dopants) such a5 BOs. GeO,, or P.O, are added to the silica. ‘As shown in Fig. 227 the addon of GeO, or PO ines the refractive index whereas doping thesia wth ine 8,0, detrees iE Since the dading must hae lower Index than the eo examples oer compostion® are (i G04 ~ $04 cote; 80g cading 2 P40, ~ SO, cre; SiO, dadting S10, ~ cre: 8,0, - Si, cladding A. GeO, ~ BO, ~Si04 core: yO, - SO, dading Here the notation GeO, ~ Si, for example, donates a GeO, doped sia iss —_—_ ao “< : Fig. 1.10 Vien in rote inex 8 on of don ncaraton sca se ‘The principal raw material for silica is sand. Glass composed of pure silica, i referred to either a siica gla, fused slien or vitreous sic Some of its desirable properties are resistance to. deformation = {temperature as high as 100°, a hgh resistance to breakage fom thermal shock because ofits low thermal expansion, good chemical durability, and high transparency in both the vsble and infrared regions of interest {o fiber optic communication systems. Is high meling temperature isa slsadvantage ifthe glass prepared from a molten sate. However, this Droblem is parialy avoided when using vapour depostion techniques.F oeearsa ro! snes discovered Muoride roses at mid infrareg ing around 2.55 jm), alge Glass Fibers Te 1 roche ae ii ee ree oe Fe ni aes wh SeooP university de Re “Yr of the periodic able, namely sedi sisarst ne Nery — “he mtr ha eveebe T oreomponent and glass newark vor is, ich wes 27 3 ad to mabe a glass hay former. Several other yn,°8 Table 2.3 lists the ae at rae er Sas Lf, Bal LaF ALF, a cei eA er cas 2 Bal, LaF ALF and Sn = eos citron il (3), Hebough ese ngths of these fibers is cult. ‘Secondly frie gis proveto devtricaton Fiber making techniques (eh ne ada lt. catering ses YP fetve Glass Fibers Neopet Si eet ees eer ea eee oa eee formes ce pinto cme a a toe Tt 14 Mn conpatn of # ZBLAN tt ase o [a a aD = = aoas © monly wed wa Toe common wed mates for Sher neodynum, The ini concent a “Giribeoer of 0.005 1 0.05 mole ne jemi aFe 1 37 cxamining the shar Pe to avid clustering ee srinng te shorn and ce materials, one can use an opie san orescence spectra of th lasers are erbium at we { outce which emits at an absorptio® | 1 Inrodcion to Opal Fer 8] avlength to excite clectrons to higher energy level in the rare-earth “opanat When thse exced lero drop lower energy level they ee gi n'a marrow opt specrum atthe Morecene wavlengh Plastic-clad Glass Fibers COptial fibers constructed wih glass cores and glass cladding are very Important for long-ditance applications where the very low lowes tlivable in these fibers are needed. For short distance application (Up {o several hundred meters) where higher lowes are tolerable, theless expensive platicclad silicon fibers can be used. These fibers are Smee of silicon cores with the lower refractive index cadding being Spalymer (Plastic) materia. These Asers are often referred to a8 PCS (haste slicon) ters ‘common material source forthe silica core is selected high-purity rater quartz ‘A common chadding material is a slcone resin having a refractive index of 1405 3¢ 850 nm. Siicon resin i aso frequently weed a8 3 protective costing for other types of fibers. Another popular psc fladng material 65 fe perluorinated ethylene propylene Ueflon FED, ‘The low relractve index, 1888, ofthis material results in fers with potently large numerical aperires Plastic cladding are only used for sep index fibers, The core diameters are larger (150 to 600 jm) than the standard 50 jim-diameter ‘cote ofallglassgraded/index fibers, and the larger difference in the ‘core and cladding indices results im a high numerical aperture. This allows lowcost lage area light sources to be used for coupling optical power into these fibers, there by Belding comparatively inexpensive but lovers quality systems which are quite satisfactory far many applications Plastic Fibers All plastic multimode step index fibers are good candidates for faily short (up to about 100 m) and low cost links Although they exhibit ‘onsiderably greater optical signal attenuations than glass fiber the toughness and durability of pase allows these fibers to be handled without special care The high refractivendex differences that can be achieved between the core and cladding material yield numerical apertures as high a 0.6 and large acceptance angles of wp to 70 In addition the mechanical Aexibilty of plastic alows these bers to have lange cores cher Spal iameters ranging from 110 to 1400 ym. These factors permis the use Of inexpensive large-area lightemiting diodes which, in conjunction ith less expensive pase Sbers, make an economically ractve sem.Hi! « [BE opmacroitOpalCommninion amples of plate Ser consucon are TR palsyene core = 1.60) anda methyl methacryate clading Ceo sng ma Oe omar etary core = 148) and adding made % Ae upbymer thy hal) wo ge an NA oF O50 1.5 FIBER FABRICATION Times ass optical wave- "Tots ecniques are used in the fabrication of all glass op {idee ‘These are the upper phase oxidation process and the direct mel, ethod. The direct melt method follows caditional glastmaking [roceies in that optical fiers are made dretly from the molten state Erpurfed components of ate glasses. Inthe vapour phase oxidation prsces, highly pure vapours of metal hades (ee, Cl, and GeC,) crwth apg oom a ite powder of S10, pares. "The parties [re then collected onthe surface ofa bulk gas by one of four different, ‘Commonly used proces and ae sintered (sansformed to a homogeneous, igus mas by heting without meling) by one ofa varity of techniques {o form a dear gle rod or tube (depending on the process). This Tod fo tube is elled a preform. Te is sypically around 10 to 25. mm i ‘liameter and G0 10 120 cm long. Fibers are made from the preform by ‘sing the equipment shown in Fig. 11. The preform is precision fed ito a drealar heater called the drawing furnace. Here the preform end Js softened tothe point where it can be drawn into a very thin flament, ‘which becomes the optical fiber. ‘The turning speed ofthe takeayp dram atthe beuom ofthe draw wer determines how fas the Ser is drawn. inectin Opt er “This, in turn, will determine the thickness of the Hider, yo that a precise rotation rate must he maintained. An optical fibre thickness monitor ‘used in a feedback crop for this speed regulation, To protect the bare igs fiber from external contaminants such as dust and water vapour, fn elastic coating is applied to the fbr immediately afte it is drawn, 4154. Outside Vapor Phase Oxidation “The first fiber 10 have a loss of less than 20 dB/km was made at the coming lass works by the outside vapour phase oxidation (OVPO) process, This method is illustrated in Fig. 1.12. First, a layer of SiOy Daricles called a soot is deposited from a burner on to-a rotatying fraphite or ceramic mandrel. The glass oot adheres to this bait rod nd, layer cylindrical powers grass perform is bull up. By properly ‘oniroling the constituents of the metal halide vapour strength during the depostion proces, the glass compositions and dimensions desired for the core and cladding can be incorporation into the perform, Ether step or graded index preforms ean thus be made. 0+ mata evap @ -9- ue : | No te ren N it ‘arcing Wa ok aig feaeaeee (a) Fer dng Fl 112 Bal toe papain by he OVPD procs) Bat rd ras Ives back and fh unger tbe bumer fo prose anion deposed oan ‘al pars ang the ra (8) Pies cn Se top er ga eee (Fou “poatn he sot ptm nro ia Ca pass oo (0) Fer ‘Sown fom te ges pron