Frontiers of Architectural Research (2014) 3, 298–323

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RESEARCH ARTICLE

Tree-inspired dendriforms and fractal-like

branching structures in architecture:
A brief historical overview
Iasef Md Riann, Mario Sassone

Department of Architecture and Design (DAD), Politecnico di Torino, Viale Pier Andrea Mattioli – 39,
Turin 10125, Italy

Received 17 November 2013; received in revised form 1 March 2014; accepted 10 March 2014

KEYWORDS Abstract
Architecture; The shapes of trees are complex and fractal-like, and they have a set of physical, mechanical
Tree; and biological functions. The relation between them always draws attention of human beings
Dendriforms; throughout history and, focusing on the relation between shape and structural strength,
Fractal geometry; architects have designed a number of treelike structures, referred as dendriforms. The
Branching structures;
replication and adoption of the treelike patterns for constructing architectural structures have
Technology
been varied in different time periods based on the existing and advanced knowledge and
available technologies. This paper, by briefly discussing the biological functions and the
mechanical properties of trees with regard to their shapes, overviews and investigates the
chronological evolution and advancements of dendriform and arboreal structures in architec-
ture referring to some important historical as well as contemporary examples.
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Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.

1. Introduction a new concept, but with the development of technological

The world of natural phenomena draws our attention as a
source and inspiration. Although learning from nature is not
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 3315462311.
E-mail addresses: md.iasef@polito.it,
iasefrian@gmail.com (I. Md Rian),
mario.sassone@polito.it (M. Sassone).
Peer review under responsibility of Southeast University.
advancement, it is a re-emerging approach within a wide
range of disciplines. The concept of Biomimicry, considered
as the science and philosophy of learning from nature
(Benyusis, 2002), is a source of architectural design inspira-
tion with different approaches undertaken by architects and
engineers that refer nature. Often, nature as inspiration is
combined with mathematics in order to move beyond the
superficial inspiration and realize structurally rational
designs. Mathematics offer rules which guide architects

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Dendriforms and structures in architecture
and engineers to understand the complexity of natural shapes.
The irregular non-Euclidean geometry of natural trees have
been now possible to explain through mathematics by the
concept of complex, non-linear and fractal geometries (Casti,
1989). ‘Fractal', coined by Benoit Mandelbrot in the 1970s, can
theoretically define the geometry of many natural objects
(Mandelbrot, 1982). According to Mandelbrot (1982)
‘Clouds are not spheres, mountains are not cones,
coastlines are not circles, and bark is not smooth, nor
does lightning travel in a straight line’.
There is an age-old connection between trees and archi-
tecture. From the prehistoric age to the contemporary
periods, trees and plants had been mainly used for the
decorative purpose in architecture. In the Classical and
Roman periods (500 BC to 400 AD), vegetal and floral shapes,
that were designed with small details, focusing on the
esthetic proportions of design for enriching the architectural
decorations, became the prominent features in architecture.
Special emphasizes were given to the design perfections even
for the tiniest details, and only few selected geniuses had
that ability. Architects fascination towards the tree shape,
however, has not been limited to decorative purposes. Since
far past, architects and constructors attempted to mimic one
of the most relevant aspects of treelike shapes, i.e. their
structural and mechanical features, by frequently applying
and developing specific mathematical concepts.
Dendriforms were constructed during medieval age in the
framework of arches and vaults masonry construction, which
was an advanced and fundamental technique available at that
time. In the 19th century, during the period of Art Nouveau,
the fascination towards vegetal and floral forms had reached
to its apex, especially when architects developed the skills of
using cast iron in construction, allowed designers to execute a
wide variety of vegetal features, possessing some structural
characters, too. In the same century, the development of
‘graphic statics’ as a theoretical approach, helping to under-
stand the association between structural forms and equili-
brium of forces, allowed 19th century architects to build
several unique style dendriform structures. During the
modern period of early and mid-20th century, architects
abstracted the form of tree's complex configuration as a
simple Euclidean and hyperbolic geometries, and built dendri-
form structures like a mushroom or umbrella shape by using
a newly developed reinforced concrete technology and a
cantilever technique.
Figure 1 Fractal tree generation by using Iterated Function System (IFS) as an algorithmic code in the computer.
299
Nowadays, the imitation of the complex and almost
inexpressible appearances of vegetal shapes has become
possible, in new effortless ways, within a short time, by
using digitally advanced computational processes and sim-
ple mathematical algorithms. The mathematical revolution
of the fractal theory and the development of computer
technology made architects and engineers able to connect
architecture and trees fractal-like complex appearance in
much more structurally rational and optimal ways. Rapid
prototyping tools and 3D printers have made possible to
actualize the intricate digital designs to physical forms
easily and quickly.
This paper starts the discussion by exploring the underlying
geometric characteristics of tree shapes by discussing the
notion of fractal geometry that possess a fundamental property
of self-similarity, and then studying their biological, structural
and mechanical functions with reference to their fractal-like
configurations. Afterwards, it discusses and overviews some
important dendriform examples which are divided into two
parts. The first part deals with the historical examples of
treelike structures starting from the prehistoric age to the 20th
century modern period until the 1970s; and the second part
deals with the examples of dendriforms of contemporary period
starting from the 1980s to the recent times. In the second part,
in the frame of contemporary examples, this paper includes
some relevant examples of dendriforms that have been pro-
posed and experimented in academia as a part of research and
exploration on treelike structures.
2. Fractal geometry, tree's self-similarity and
its efficiencies
2.1. Fractal geometry and nature's forms
Fractal geometry, a branch of mathematics developed in the
1970s studies abstract configurations characterized by
self-similarity patterns and recursive growth (Mandelbrot,
1982). Although, from the mathematical point of view,
fractal objects are sets that have fractional dimension
so that they are intermediate objects between one and
two dimensional shapes or two and three dimensional
forms (Falconer, 2003), but in the general sense fractal
objects show the properties of being exactly or nearly the
same at every progressive scale. However, in mathematical
definition, no natural object is purely a fractal, instead it
can be called as an ‘approximate fractal’ or ‘statistical
300
Figure 2 Some sketches of biological forms according to their functions and necessities illustrated by D'Arcy Thompson' in his
seminal book On Growth and Form (Thompson, 1992).
fractal’ that display ‘self-similarity’ and ‘self-affinity’ over
extended but finite scale of ranges (Bovill, 1996). In this
paper ‘fractal’ term is frequently used to refer natural
fractal, means ‘approximate fractal’ or ‘fractal-like’.
Mathematical property for generating fractals is known as
iteration, recursion, and subdivisions through the automated
process of Iterated Function System (IFS) (Figure 1), Linden-
mayer System (L-System) and Shape Grammar. In a very wide
range of phenomena, the geometry of nature displays fractal-
like properties (Mandelbrot, 1982). Any form, shape and
pattern of a natural object are its phenomenological outcomes
and therefore, it is understood that there is a strong correlation
between biological forms and mechanical properties (Figure 2)
(Thompson, 1992). Accordingly, fractal geometry of nature,
possibly has a connection with nature's structural and mechan-
ical behavior. However, there is a recent debate about the
fractal geometry and its definition to explain the form and
pattern of nature. Bejan (2000) critically argues in his ‘con-
structal law’ that it is the ‘laws of thermodynamics’ which
govern the geometry and form of the natural objects, and there
is no functional connection between nature's forms and fractal
geometry.
For many centuries, a variety of nature's forms, which in
many cases present fractal geometry in their structural
appearance, such as trees, cells, crystals, etc., have been
creatively used by architects and engineers in projects like
I. Md Rian, M. Sassone
shells, light-weight structures, arcs, tents and bridges. In
the past, several technical ways were exercised to connect
fractal concepts with architecture by the method based on
physical modeling process. But, nowadays, a procedural
generative approach based on a composition of mathema-
tical functions can be practiced by using the advantages of
contemporary computer technology for connecting the
fractal concept with architecture (Huylebrouck and
Hammer, 2006).
2.2. Tree's fractal-like branches and their
functions
Trees with their branches are one of the finest examples of
nature's approximate fractals that are self-similar in pattern
and highly irregular. There are different explanations about
the tree's fractal-like branching appearance from different
angles of disciplines such as biological, structural and
mechanical. However, the basic explanation is functional
needs. Tree's leaves which are essential helpers for making
food, need ample amount of sunlight for photosynthesis and
that is the reason they are spread and exposed to as much
sunlight as possible. The majority of trees also morphs its outer
shape, i.e., crown like a concave oval shape so that leaves can
be exposed to sunlight throughout all the hours of daytime with
Dendriforms and structures in architecture
Figure 3 (a) Schematic wind forces acting on the initial shape of the tree; (b) schematic gravity forces acting on a deformed shape;
(c) basal and internal bending moments in each element (Ancelin et al., 2004).
the changing of sun path from morning to evening. But, at the
same time, for basic biological needs, all leaves spread over
large surface area need fluids and water. Branching arrange-
ment is the optimized network for transporting the fluids to
leaves, flowers and fruits. In addition, because of branching
pattern, the new leaves grow at top such a way that they avoid
shading the older leaves from sunlight. Biologist Leopold (1971)
has attempted to give a more scientific explanation, although
hypothetical, about the motive of tree's branching pattern.
According to him, by analogy, it seems possible that the
branching patterns of trees are governed by opposing tenden-
cies which are analogous to minimum energy expenditure and
uniform energy utilization. In the case of trees, it can be
supposed that the minimum energy expenditure involves mini-
mizing the total length of all branches and stems, while the
uniform energy utilization might concern providing a photosyn-
thetic surface which tends to attain the most efficient use of
sunlight under certain constraints. Nevertheless, from a struc-
tural point of view, there are different explanations of the
tree's branching pattern regarding the mechanical aspect of the
tree's structure.
3. Mechanical properties of a tree and the
efficiency of branching pattern
‘Trees are organisms that stand by themselves, so their
shape has an inherent structural rationality’. Pollack (2005)
Trees are exposed to different types of external and internal
loads. Wind is one of the main external loads against which tree
manages to configure its own shape so that it can withstand
against strong wind force and tackle resultant bending
moments. Axial compression due to its own weight is another
load that is carried by tree stems and trunk. In bending
condition, when the tree is exposed to wind, the stresses
change from tensile at the convex side to compressive at the
concave side of a component (Figure 3). On the other hand,
internal shear stresses prevent component parts from slipping
301
on shear-loaded interfaces. Structurally, for a good perfor-
mance, these internal stresses must be homogeneous for
distributing the loads evenly. Trees optimize their shape to
follow this structural demand (Mattheck, 1991). Tree's fractal-
like branches have great contribution to tackle the wind loads.
The sway of a tree is not harmonic under the heavy wind load,
but is very complex due to the dynamic interaction of branches.
Under the wind loading forces, the group of complex patterned
branches as a mass contributes a dynamic damping, known as
mass damping, which acts to reduce dangerous harmonic sway
motion of the trunk and so minimizes loads and increases
the mechanical stability of the tree (James et al., 2006). The
fractal skeleton of a tree diverges the heavy wind to lower the
impact on its tree-body (Eloy, 2011). Besides, higher fractal
dimension of branches helps to increase the drag forces and
frictions in trees, thus lessens the wind velocity on its path
especially during storms (Kang et al., 2011).
According to the biomechanics of tree's shape, trees make
compromises. Longer a branch, the more likely it is to break
under the pull of gravitation. Therefore, the tree has to
compromise its shape that can expose as many leaves as
possible, but by limiting the growth of a branch to a manage-
able length (Thomas, 2001). Mattheck (1991) explains the
compromising of branch length and its angle under the gravita-
tional pull by the principle of minimum lever arm illustrated in
‘Figure 4a (left)’. It shows a man holding a filled water bucket
with his arm outstretched, but after increasing fatigue, he
decides to carry the bucket on his head, and in doing so he
reduces the moment arm associated with the bucket by aligning
the force of the bucket load over his center of mass. Similar
behavior is seen in trees, which is illustrated by ‘Figure 4a
(right)’. After the loss of a tree's leading shoot or branch, the
lateral succeeding branch turns itself to take the place of its
predecessor by aligning its self-weight over the trunk's center of
mass. This phenomenon of needing a main central stem that
leads other side stems or branches is known as Apical Dom-
inance. Negative gravitropism describes it as self-correcting and
countergravity growth phenomenon (Mattheck, 1991). As it will
302
Figure 4 (a) Principle of minimum lever arm; (b) tapering of tree to achieve constant stress distribution (Mattheck and Kubler, 1997).
be shown after, the concept of a branch aligning itself with the
centroid of mass offers a useful idea for the derivation of a
dendriform structure by using graphic statics. Another phenom-
enon trees show is the changing of branching angles with ages.
Younger branches at the top of the tree are the most upright,
while the increasingly older branches further down tend to
become more horizontal. The older branches are required to
take the load of new branches and get heavier causing sagging
and resulting in larger branching angle (Thomas, 2001).
Although these older large-angled branches become structurally
weaker, but functionally it gets the advantage by offering an
oval shape canopy of large surface of leaves that is very good
for maximum exposing to changing sun angles.
However, Metzger (1893) proposed another mechanical
concept of trees that can be observed in the examples of
some dendriform structure. According to his finding, taper-
ing of trees can ensure a uniform distribution of the surface
bending stress if the stem diameter (D) has a cubic relation
(h D3) to the distance (h) from the effective point of wind
load (Figure 4b). Besides, the sudden change in diameters of
branching stems at the area of branch joints illustrates
the overall load distribution, and therefore, stresses of
equal intensity occurs in the above and below of branch
joints (Mattheck and Kubler, 1997).
4. Dendriforms in the past: prehistoric
age – 1970 AD
4.1. Origin and ancient examples; dendriforms
as decorations: prehistoric age – 500 AD
Dendriform, as mentioned before, is an imitation of the
form and shape of a tree or plants. Treelike branching
structure is also known as ‘dendritic structure’ (Schulz and
Hilgenfeldt, 1994). ‘Dendron’ (δενδρον) is the Greek word
for ‘tree’, and therefore, the term ‘dendritic structure’
uses this natural entity for describing a mesh-free ramified
I. Md Rian, M. Sassone
system or branching structure (Kull and Herbig, 1994).
Another similar expression of ‘treelike’ is ‘arboreal’ which
means ‘relating to or resembling a tree’.
The origin of dendriforms in architecture is unknown.
A number of very ancient cave arts and paintings have been
found, showing the figures of trees and plants, and hence
confirming the human fascination towards the shapes of
trees and plants since the prehistoric ages. Vegetal shapes
can be seen as one of the significant decorative elements in
the earliest examples of architecture, notably in the
decorations of Egyptian palaces and pyramids, even in the
Hieroglyphs of the ancient period of Egypt (3000 BC to 600
BC). Constructed during this ancient civilized period, the
graceful papyrus-cluster columns of Luxor Temple (1400 BC)
built with sandstone were one of the oldest examples of
dendriform columns having the capitals that imitate the
umbels of papyrus plant in bud (Figure 5a). During this
period we find many other such Egyptian columns that have
the common features like stone shafts carved to resemble
tree trunks or bundled reeds or plant stems and the capitals
with lily, lotus, palm or papyrus plant motifs. The ancient
Egyptian architect Imhotep, who lived 27th century BC, is
credited with carving columns to resemble bundled reeds
and other plant forms used for constructing the houses for
common peoples, by placing the columns close together so
they could carry the weight of the heavy stone roof and
beams (Shaw, 2000). In the same ancient era, we find other
examples of column structures having vegetal and mainly
floral shaped capitals with treelike columns in India.
Inspired by religiously sacred plants and flowers such as
lotus and amalaka, we find many vegetal and floral decora-
tions in the columns and capitals in the rock-cut architec-
tures of Ajanta caves constructed during Satavahana and
Vãkãtaka Periods (200 BC to 500 AD) when Buddhism was at
its high peak in India (Figure 5b).
The use of trees and plants as a prominent ornamental
features is also seen in the Greek and Roman columns in
Classical and Roman periods (500BC to 400 AD). Acanthus
Dendriforms and structures in architecture 303

Figure 5 (a) Ancient Egyptian columns inspired by a bundle of papyrus plants in Luxor Temples, Egypt, built in 1400 BC; (b) ancient
rock-cut columns with lotus capitals in Ajanata caves in India built in 200 BC.

Figure 6 (a) Acanthus plants; (b) Corinthian column head in Pantheon, Rome built in 126 AD; (c) floral decorations in the column
capitals and friezes of Maison Carrée built in 16 BC.

plants appeared widely in the capitals of the Corinthian and
Composite order columns and also appeared in friezes,
dentils and other decorated areas in the ancient Greek
and Roman architectures (Figure 6). During this period, the
focus had been given for designing complicated and intri-
cate shapes of trees and plants for enriching the architec-
tural decorations. It was very difficult and time-taking to
design and craft the complex, elaborated and detailed
figures of plants and flowers on stone; only some selected
master artisans and craftsmen were skillful to design and
craft those floral and geometric features in architecture.
They used to be perfectionists with the brilliant sense of
esthetic proportions for making decorative details. Legend-
ary Greek architect and sculptor Callimachus was one of
such great craftsmen, who was known for his penchant for
elaborately detailed sculptures or drapery, is credited for
inventing the famous Corinthian capital. According to
Vitruvius (c. 75 BC to c. 15 BC), Callimachus was inspired
by the natural composition of acanthus plant grown through
the woven votive basket that had been left on the grave of a
young girl, by mixing its spiny, deeply cut leaves with the
weave of the basket (Pollio, 2004). In the later periods, i.e.,
in post-Roman periods, we find many other examples of
mimicking trees and plants as esthetic and decorative
features, especially in the Baroque and Rococo periods.
These were the high times when complicated and richly
decorated floral ornamentations were designed using stone,
masonry and stucco. Outstanding use of floral and plant
decorations with much more geometric complexity and
sophistications is also extensively seen in the Islamic
architectures of pre-medieval periods.
4.2. Traditional Chinese Dougong Brackets;
structural dendriforms: 771 BC to 476 BC
One of the first examples of a true wooden dendriforms are
the Chinese Dougong Brackets, dating back more than two
thousand years, mainly found in Chinese temples and palaces
(Figure 7a). Dougong is basically a unique wooden bracketing
system. ‘Dou’ means wooden block or piece and ‘gong’
means wooden bracket. The typical construction of dougong
is basically an interlocking assemblage of some ‘gongs’, i.e.,
bow-shaped brackets. Inspired by the organization of tree
branches as a sequence of cantilevers, the dougong is an
assemblage of structural cantilevers placed in between the
304 I. Md Rian, M. Sassone

Figure 7 (a) Dougong brackets from China (The Sakyamuni Pagoda of Fogong Temple, 1056 AD) and Japan (Sensoji temple, 628 AD);
(b) typical assemblage of Dougong brackets, can be referred to the Iterated Function System (IFS); (c) schematic diagram of the
abstract form of larger bracket as column capital replaced by interlocking self-similar smaller brackets to increase the stiffness as
well as to transfer the roof and beam load sequentially to the column.

column top and the beam, that carries the load of the beam
and the overhang roof into the column. Dougong's lowest
bracket takes the load of its immediate upper bracket which
is longer (almost double) than the lower one. This new
bracket is projected outward as a cantilever. Later, another
bracket is placed on the second and so on. Generally, each
bracket is oriented perpendicular to the lower. This process
of arrangement, is continued iteratively until it gets a
reasonable height and projection (Figure 7b).
By its structural strategy, one large bracket could transfer
the roof and beam loads to the columns the same way
through capital as in the case of the stone-made capitals of
ancient Egyptian, Indian, Greek or Roman columns. But, in
the case of huge timber construction, the large size timber
bracket was not stiff enough and due to the weather effect
the upper part of it could become bent after a few years. To
avoid this structural problem, Chinese genius constructors
intelligently replaced one large bracket (acting as a column
capital) by a number of such smaller brackets. They
repeated this strategy for each new smaller bracket until
they got enough stiffness. This geometric operation can be
explained by the Iterated Function System (IFS) method of
fractal generation (Figure 7c) Larger the number of smaller
brackets, the stiffer is the dragon. This unique fractal-like
geometric operation was meant for transferring the load
sequentially from the uppermost bracket to the lowermost
bracket. Besides, from the point of view of structural
mechanics, the dougong structure is highly resistant to
earthquakes because of its tight interlocking arrangement
even without glue, nails and any other fasteners (Yan et al.,
2008). Dougong had been widely practiced in the Spring and
Autumn period (771 BC to 476 BC). It got its high popularity
during the Medieval period, especially in the period of Song
dynasty (960 AD to 1279 AD), and later it became an
essential and an idiosyncratic ornamental feature when
used in palatial structures and religious temples.
Dendriforms and structures in architecture
4.3. Medieval period: masonry vaults as
dendriforms: 12th century AD to 16th century AD
Until the medieval period, no other significant examples of
dendriforms can be found that were directly inspired by the
tree's structural properties except few examples. The
Basilica Cistern in Istanbul constructed in the 6th century
of Byzantine period is such an example of pre-medieval
dendriform structures. This under water huge reservoir was
constructed by more than 9 m high and 300 marble columns,
imitating a dense forest (Figure 8a). This unique column
forest was designed for supporting the massive area of vault
structures composed by semi-circular arches, referring a
typical style of Byzantine architecture.
However, after a long gap, in the beginning of the
medieval period in the 12th century AD, with the develop-
ment of cathedrals construction, an important kind of
Figure 8 (a) Column forest in the Basilica Cistern in Istanbul constructed during the Byzantine period; (b) early Gothic style fan
vault in Sainte-Chapelle in Paris.
Figure 9 (a) Fan vault in the Chapel of King's College, Cambridge; (b) schematic diagram of stresses in fan vaulting.
305
dendriform structure appeared in architecture – the fan
vaults. Ornamented fan vaults were the abstract imitation
of tree's form. One of the earliest examples of fan vaults is
seen in the interior of the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris con-
structed during 1242 AD to 1248 AD. The typical Gothic style
in characteristics, these vaults, enclosed by stained glass, is
supported by the columns, each of which is a bundle of thin
columns that become ribs on the upper side and make a
complex ribs network for carrying the vaults (Figure 8b).
This Gothic bundle column might be inspired by the ancient
Egyptian columns which were imitated by the bundle of
papyrus plants used in ancient Egyptian vernacular houses
for making strong supports. Another early example of fan
vault can be seen in the cloisters of Gloucester Cathedral
constructed in 1351 AD designed by Thomas of Cambridge.
During this period different styles of vault structure were
widely practiced. Most vaults were constructed by extruding
306
Figure 10 (a) Gothic ribbed vault; (b) the web of the vault is cut into strips which are analyzed as 2D arches (Wolfe, 1921).
the arch, which was a basic structural element. But, in the
Gothic period, there was a new structural approach for
constructing vault known as a fan vault where the pointed
arch was used. By its construction, this type of vault was
produced by ribs which were equal in curvature and rotated at
equal distances around a central (vertical) axis, forming the
conoid shape. Flat central spandrels as keystones filled the
spaces in between the sequences of conoids. Spandrels has an
important role in providing compressive forces along the
entire upper edge of conoid to keep the conoid in stress
equilibrium which is important for a fan vault conoid in terms
of structural strength (Figure 9b) (Walter and Leedy, 1978).
Accordingly, it can be understandable that the conoid shaped
columns of fan vaults were inspired by the structural appear-
ance of a tree where a single trunk supports a large surface of
crown. A series of fan vaults were designed during that period
to replicate the forest from inside. One very good example of
such man-made replication of forest-like vault can be sensed in
the chapel of King's College in Cambridge (Figure 9a). In this
period, a number of fan vaults and ribbed vaults, giving the
sense of the forest, were constructed by following the similar
structure and conceptual approaches as applied in the con-
struction of the chapel of King's College (Figure 10).
While in the medieval periods we find the imitation of
trees in architecture as the major structural elements, in
the late medieval periods, mainly during the Baroque and
Rococo periods, we surprisingly notice the reappearance of
vegetal and floral shapes in architecture as heavy decora-
tions without any structural means. While the Baroque
period is noticed for the perfect symmetric decorations,
Rococo is famous for the asymmetric ornamentations.
4.4. The Art Nouveau: 1890 AD to 1920 AD
In the late 19th century till the beginning of the 20th
century, during the period of Art Nouveau that gained high
popularity for three decades from 1890 AD to 1920 AD, trees
and plant shapes had become the leading features as
decorative arts in architecture, can be considered as the
‘golden age’ of vegetal shapes in art and architecture. This
I. Md Rian, M. Sassone
new art movement was inspired by the natural forms and
structures, mainly flowers and plants, including the flowing
geometric curves and spirals, intending to harmonize the
man-made structures with the natural environment. In
architecture, this period has a historical importance,
marked as an inventive approach at that time, by using
cast iron that allowed architects and artisans to obtain
complicated compositions of vegetal forms as heavily
detailed decorations made in metals and as self-sustained
freestanding design elements as well. In the Art Nouveau
architecture, cast iron, meant for casting metallic decora-
tions as esthetic elements, was also used as structural
members, enthused by the structural strength of trees and
plants. We find one of such fine examples in the Grand Palais
in Paris, considered as a masterpiece of Art Nouveau
architecture, constructed in 1900. The exterior of this
massive palace combines an imposing Classical stone façade
with a sharp contrast of Art Nouveau ironwork of treelike
structures (Figure 11a). In the same year, one of the famous
examples of such ornamented iron dendriforms was con-
structed at the entrance gates of Paris subway metro
stations, designed by Hector Guimard, was inspired by the
curvilinear forms of vines and flowers (Figure 11b).
4.5. Gaudi's equilibrium approach for treelike
columns: 1880 AD to 1920 AD
In the same time period, a unique style of structural
dendriforms can be found in the works of Antonio Gaudi,
who was a pioneer in his ability to fuse architectural form
with structural rationality inspired by nature. His design
approach of embedding the forms and structures of trees
and plants, including zoological features in architecture was
completely different and unique. His quest for finding his
own architectural language was heavily inspired by the
structural characters of natural forms. His lifelong study
of the organic structural system from nature has translated
into his use of ruled geometrical forms such as cone,
helicoid, hyperboloid and hyperbolic paraboloid to design
the vaults, and the entire structural system of the Chappels
Dendriforms and structures in architecture
Figure 11 (a) Grand Palais in Paris built in 1900. (b) Entrance gate of Paris Metro designed by Hector Guimard in 1900.
and Cathedral, like tree trunks with branches. He often said
‘There is no better structure than the trunk of a tree or a
human skeleton’ (Barrallo and Sánchez-Beitia, 2011).
The branching pattern of tree has a structural mechanism
to hold the large tree crown, and this structural concept was
adopted by Gaudi, especially in his later works, most famously
in the Sagrada Familia Cathedral in Barcelona, construction
began in 1982. Gaudí imagined this church as if it were the
structure of a forest, with a set of treelike columns divided
into different branches to support a structure of intertwined
hyperboloid vaults. In this particular work, he not only
adopted the tree's structural concept of supporting crown
load, but also imitated the exact structural appearance of tree
branches and morphed it gently (Park, 2005); even, he
imagined this church as if it were the structure of a forest,
with a set of treelike columns divided into different branches
to support a structure of intertwined hyperboloid vaults
(Orman, 2013). He applied the concept of branching column
for holding the canopy in a systematic way with the close
study of structural forces and stresses (Saudi, 2002). He
inclined the columns so they could put up better with the
perpendicular pressures on their section by providing them a
double turn helicoid shape (right turn and left turn), as seen in
the branches and trunks of trees, thus creating a structure
that is nowadays known as fractals (Gómez, 2002). Together
with a modulation of the space which divides it into small,
independent and self-supporting units, it creates a structure
that perfectly supports the mechanical traction forces, thus
fuses the constructional innovation with the esthetic origin-
ality. In this context, Gaudi once clarified, ‘my structural and
aesthetic ideas have an ‘indisputable’ logic’ (Martinell, 1951).
The principal idea behind Gaudi's use of the fractal-like
tree column can be referred to as the center of force
method that can be analyzed by ‘graphic statics’. During his
time, ‘graphic statics’ was an advanced tool that allowed
the designers to take forms and forces into account
simultaneously. Antonio Gaudi, famously known for the
physical scale modeling method for structural calculations,
also used ‘graphic statics’ as a form-finding tool for
visualizing the stress equilibrium in designing some of his
signature style structures in the late 19th century. In
designing treelike column in Sagrada Familia Cathedral,
the weights and centers of gravity of the main parts were
fixed and the base of the column was also fixed. Gaudi used
307
a graphical equilibrium analysis method to design the tree-
like structure that would collect the roof weights and take
the loading forces to the bases of the columns (Figure 12).
By using the graphic static method, Gaudi calculated the
total weight and center of force for each roof segment to
attain equilibrium between various segments of a roof mass
(Huerta, 2006). Afterward, he fixed the position of a base
column, which diverges into multiple branches directed
towards the center of gravity of all roof segments. In doing
so, each particular branch is assigned to each roof segment,
and the weight load of each segment is transferred axially
all the way to the ground. Finding an equilibrium solution
was the main but the fundamental basis for each single
analysis and design method used by Antonio Gaudi for the
construction of treelike column (Huerta, 2006). Gaudi
intentionally maintained the acute angle of branching so
that the branches can transfer the load towards the center
of gravity more efficiently and quickly by following minimal
paths principle. He made a series of different scales of
physical models to understand the actual stress behavior
and to confirm his assumptions and calculations (Figure 13a
and b). Gaudi's structural dendriforms are one of the
earliest and finest examples of making treelike concrete-
made branching structures inspired by nature. When in early
20th century the trend of structural minimalism was becom-
ing popular, Gaudi's treelike sculpted structural supports, in
contrast, were stunningly appealing and uniquely special in
the field of architecture.
4.6. Mushroom and umbrella structures in 20th
century: 1930 AD to 1970 AD
In the first half of the 20th century, many architects and
structural engineers adopted structural functionality of
trees in a minimalist way, during the trend of ‘structural
minimalism’ with the limited but relatively sophisticated
techniques and knowledge. They took the abstract form of a
tree's overall shape like a mushroom or umbrella shape. The
booming of reinforced concrete technology in the beginning
of the 20th century had offered architects and engineers
easy and numerous structural solutions to achieve free-
form, sculpted and abstract structural forms.
308
Figure 12 Graphical equilibrium analysis of the main nave of
the Sagrada Familia (Sugraries, 1923).
In the past, reinforced concrete was used masterfully by
builders in ancient Rome mainly as the material for support-
ing columns. At that time it was reinforced with iron, but
the knowledge of the medium was lost during the Middle
I. Md Rian, M. Sassone
Ages. After centuries gap, experimentation of using rein-
forced concrete began again in 19th century France. In the
1880s engineers used reinforced concrete in bridge abut-
ments as well as in other non-architectural applications. In
the beginning of the 1990s, steel became widely available
and it replaced the weaker iron for making reinforced
concrete. In 1908, C.A.P. Turner in Chicago and Robert
Maillart in Switzerland independently pioneered for using
first time steel-reinforced concrete for the building con-
structions (Lipman and Wright, 1986). Concrete posts were
designed to support cast-concrete floor slabs in such a way
that the posts flared outward at the top to reduce shearing
stresses that would otherwise tend to cause them to punch
through the slabs. Later, this type of columns came to be
known as ‘mushroom’ columns or ‘umbrella’ structures
because they looked like mushrooms or umbrellas.
4.6.1. Early examples of reinforced concrete
mushroom and umbrella structures: 1930s
One of the earliest known examples of reinforced concrete
mushroom structure, meant for making the shapes like
‘mushroom’ or ‘umbrella’, is the Skovshoved Petrol Station,
situated in Skovshoved in Denmark, which was designed by
Arne Jacobsen in 1936 (Figure 14a), considered as an
example of the functionalist style typical of the time. Two
years later, Italian engineer Giorgio Baroni independently
designed inverted mushroom umbrella structures, known
as ‘Baroni's tree’ in 1938 (Figure 14b), that can also be
considered as the first known inverted reinforced concrete
umbrella structures (Greco, 2001), and were unusual by the
shape of a structure in that time. During the same period,
a notable Argentine architect Amancio Williams, who devel-
oped, starting in 1939, and with the collaboration of the
Italian engineer Giulio Pizzetti, the project of an umbrella
shell roof of minimal thickness. The shape Amancio Williams
proposed was derived from the cone ended with a unique
appearance of wavy edges of the canopy that was comple-
tely different from the regular hypars (Figure 15a). The
study of the optimal shape and of the optimal reinforce-
ment configuration yielded to a thickness of about 5 cm,
incredibly unusual at that time period for a cantilevered
structure. Williams applied his umbrella for designing the
monument to commemorate the famous Argentine compo-
ser Alberto Williams on the centenary of his birth. But,
unfortunately, it was not built in real structures, except the
construction of its small scale prototype model (Figure 15a).
In 1966, Williams adapted and built a similar solution for
constructing the pavilion for the Bunge and Born Exhibition
in Palermo, and used his umbrellas for the first time as the
real structures, but reduced their base and thickness. It was
almost entirely built in reinforced concrete, but the pavilion
was demolished after two months, despite Williams's efforts
to avoid this happening. However, three decades later in
1999, his son Claudio Williams collaborating with architect
Claudio Vekstein had constructed two giant umbrellas, the
highest known concrete umbrella till date, meant for
designing the monument Alberto Williams, at Vicente López
in Buenos Aires, Argentina, as a tribute for the excellence of
Amanico Williams in the occasion of the “End of the
Millennium” (Figure 15b). Amancio's attempt of deriving
the shape from structural optimization concepts make his
Dendriforms and structures in architecture
Figure 13 (a) View of the interior of a plaster model of interior of the Sagrada Familia. (b) Big model in Gaudi's workshop. (c) Gaudi
placed ‘hidden’ flying buttresses to absorb some of the horizontal thrusts of the roof (Puig Boada, 1929).
work of great importance in the development of a morpho-
genetic approach to shell design (Chiorino and Sassone,
2010).
4.6.2. Wright's tubular mushroom column: 1930s
In the same decade of 1930s, the developments and
sophistications of mushroom columns quickly reached their
apex in the Johnson Wax Administration Building, designed
by F.L. Wright and constructed in 1939, became a landmark
example of concrete mushroom structures. In the 1930s, in
one of his early conversations with Herbert Johnson, the
owner of the Johnson Wax factory, Wright had promised him
to give a beautiful building in which a person could ‘feel as
though he were among pine trees breathing fresh air and
sunlight’ (Lipman and Wright, 1986). According to Lipman
and Wright (2003) description,
‘In Administration Building, Wright created a private, air-
conditioned working area nestled within a man-made
forest, and though he screened out the surrounding
environment, one element in the universe outside entered
his forest-light which poured in, bathing every surface and
silhouetting the columns above.’
Undoubtedly, Wright's use of the unique style tubular
mushroom column, both technically and spatially, was a
major innovation in the 20th century architectures. Wright
named the columns ‘dendriform’, i.e., tree-shaped. Lipman
and Wright (2003) believes that Wright's mushroom columns
created for the Administration Building are structurally
more efficient than their predecessors. For evaluating the
exact load capacity of his columns, he constructed a real
scale prototype mushroom column and placed tons of
cement bags and later heavy pug iron top onto the column.
In this real scale manual test, it was found that Wright's
creation could carry an unbelievable high load of 60 t, five
times the load required by the state (Figure 16). Wright's
mushroom columns, inspired by natural tree's structural
strength, remain one of the most remarkable structural
309
designs in the 20th century architecture. In their unprece-
dented structural and esthetic achievement they were the
ultimate example of Wright's dictum, ‘Form does not follow
function. Rather, form and function are one’ (Lipman and
Wright, 1986).
4.6.3. Candela's umbrella column shell: 1950–1960s
In the period of 1950–1960s, one of the most pioneer
designers of thin shell structures Spanish structural engineer
and architect Felix Candela designed a number of umbrella
column shells which can be considered as the successors of
Wright's mushroom columns. Advanced in technique and
sophisticated in design, Candela's tree-inspired column acts
not only as a structural support but also as a shell structure
like umbrella which covers a large span of the area,
considered to be a highly advanced and extraordinary
structural innovation at that time period. After the Mexican
Revolution and during the nation's reconstruction phase in
the 1950s, massive demand of the construction of new
market spaces and warehouses, structures of this type
provided an opportunity for Candela to build large covered
spaces. Within just a few years, he had constructed a series
of concrete umbrellas in the new industrial zones of Mexico.
It begun with the construction of his first experimental
umbrella structure in 1952. Candela derived the idea of his
umbrella structure from a sketch displayed in an article by a
Frenchman named F. Aimond. On the site of another project
at Valejjo in Mexico, Candela constructed a second experi-
mental umbrella in 1953 (Figure 17d), and he referred to
this experiment ‘as a lesson to find the optimum rise, which
depends on the area covered by the umbrellas. On this
simple proportion depends the success in the design of
these structures, since the necessary calculations are
elementary’ (Gralock and Billington, 2008).
After successful experiments he constructed a series of
umbrella structures for markets and warehouses in 1950.
Later, he further modified the common form of umbrella
structure; he used folded hypars (hyperbolic paraboloid) as
310 I. Md Rian, M. Sassone

Figure 14 (a) Umbrella structure of Skovshoved Petrol Station, situated in Skovshoved in Denmark, designed by Arne Jacobsen in
1936. (b) Mushroom umbrella structures, known as ‘Baroni's tree’, designed by Giorgio Baroni in 1938.

Figure 15 (a) Amancio Williams with the study model of his umbrella structure; (b) small prototype model of Williams' umbrella;
(c) the monument of Alberto Williams, at Vicente López in Buenos Aires, originally designed by Amancio Williams, later constructed
in larger scale by Claudio Williams and Claudio Vekstein in the occasion of the ‘End of the Millennium’ (Chiorino and Sassone, 2010).

an efficient alternative of the common umbrella, because
they can also cover large areas and the folds can break
up the expanse of the roof visually appealing ways
(Figure 17b); and he also used umbrella shape for the
construction of its foundation (Figure 17c). The first such
cantilever was used for creating a fan shape structure by
placing three folded hypars together for constructing the
entrance lobby of the Lederle Laboratories in Mexico City in
1956. Later, he developed a new form of rectangular
umbrella by arranging folded hypars. This type of unique
umbrella structure was first constructed in the subway
station roof of La Candelaria in Mexico City in 1968. The
evolution of Candela's umbrella column shells inspired by
natural trees and shells shows the sophistication of
dendriform structures with the advancement of knowledge,
technical innovation and esthetic creativity.
4.6.4. Nervi's umbrella structure with complex
columns: 1960s
In following years, the notable Italian architect and engi-
neer Pier Luigi Nervi also designed and constructed several
such reinforced umbrella structures with a new construction
approach where sometimes he used steel cantilevers as
principal radial branches instead of monolithic concrete
structure. Palazzo del Lavoro in Turin is one of such fine
examples constructed in 1961 (Figure 18). The columns of
Palazzo del Lavoro were cast in steel framework lined with
Dendriforms and structures in architecture 311

Figure 16 (a) Load testing on tubular mushroom column by F.L. Wright in 1938; (b) tubular mushroom columns supporting a glass
ceiling, Johnson's Wax Building, 1939, by F.L. Wright (Lipman and Wright, 1986).

narrow timber boards clearly readable in the finishes
(Figure 18b) (Cement and Concrete Association, 1960).
These columns are cantilevered supports and their graceful
splayed geometries bring structural efficiency by varying
capacity with the bending moment distribution (Figure 18c).
However, the most innovative approach, inspired by Gaudi's
hypar (hyperbolic paraboloid) structure of Portico of Colonia
Guell Crypt, Barcelona, built in 1915, Nervi designed the
trunks of the umbrella columns with complex formal
gestures, such as recurring use of ruled surfaces, seen in
his many projects. In Palazzo del Lavoro, the column starts
sprouting from the basic shape of ‘cross’ or ‘+ ’, and then it
merges into a circle at the top (Figure 18a). At that time
there were no digital technologies, therefore, to perfectly
draw and then erect this complex shape of the column
was without a doubt a masterly engineering work which
followed not only the geometrically formal logic but
also structural sense. Therefore, Nervi's design tactic of
geometric manipulation could be defined as rational com-
plexity (Perguni and Andreani, 2013). In recent studies,
312 I. Md Rian, M. Sassone

Figure 17 Felix Candela's hypars and umbrella column shell; (a) hyperbolic paraboloid with curved edges, (b) hyperbolic
paraboloid with straight edges, (c) prototypical ‘umbrella’ structure showing foundation, which is also an umbrella form, and
(d) second experimental umbrella, Valejjo, Mexico D.F., 1953 (Garlock and Billington, 2008).

Figure 18 Palazzo del Lavoro in 1961, by Pier Luigi Nervi. (a) Geometric articulation of column, (b) steel frame-work, and
(c) completed construction (Perguni and Andreani, 2013).
Dendriforms and structures in architecture
Nervi's depiction of himself as an Architect–Engineer, relying
on his intuition as well as on his technical skills, has been
placed in a richer historical context (Sassone and Piccoli,
2013).
From the 1950–1960s, apart from Nervi's umbrella struc-
tures, we find a number of other dendriform structures that
differ in design and originality in construction techniques.
Umbrellas and mushroom structures in Hunter College
Library and Administrative Building in New York designed
by Parcel Breuer and Associates (1958–1960), gas station in
Ljubljana by Milan Mihelič (1968), and another gas station in
Ljubljana by Edvard Ravnikar (1969) are less known but
important such examples. Umbrella and mushroom struc-
tures did not lose their appeal even in more recent times,
and therefore, it is worth knowing to follow their evolution
after the ‘golden age’ of concrete shell construction.
5. Contemporary dendriform architecture:
1970 AD to present)
In recent times, the complexity became a design trend in
many creative fields – from art and industrial design to
interior design and architecture. During this phase, archi-
tects and engineers, who were fascinated by the tree's
shape and structure, started designing dendriforms with
complex and fractal-like branching configurations. In the
late 20th century, apart from the improvement of concrete
technology and high quality timbers and plywoods, the
advancement of lightweight but very strong steel as a
material offered architects and designers numerous oppor-
tunity to explore complex designs in architecture. One of
the initial creators of exploring branching structures using
steel was German architect Frei Otto.
5.1. Otto's experiments with ‘branching’
structure: 1970s
Fractal-like branching structure has its own mechanical advan-
tage in terms of structural strength with the functional needs of
carrying wide-span tree crown. The structural significance of
the tree's branching pattern was still not much addressed in the
construction of structural dendriforms until the experimental
Figure 19 (a) Design sketches by Frei Otto (Schulz and Hilgenfeldt, 1994). (b) Frei Otto's hanging models of branching systems
(Nerdinger, 2005).
313
works of 20th century's pioneer German architect Frei Otto,
who carried out methodical research on lightweight and
adaptable construction by considering the fundamental aspects
of the relationship between architecture and nature. Apart
from his remarkable works that include suspended construction,
dome shells and grid shells, Otto systematically researched
and worked on the model of treelike branching structures
(Figure 19) (Nerdinger, 2005).
Branching structures in construction, both in their overall
appearance and in the nature of the structure itself, exhibit
a particularly close relationship between the course of the
forces and their shape. This relationship is a functional
combination between the roof construction and supporting
structures. One of the main structural advantages of the
treelike branching system is to have short distances from
the loading points to the supports. Based on his model
studies of treelike columns and branching structure, Otto
designed support pillars of a six-angle grid shell in the King's
Office, Council of Ministers in Riyadh in 1979.
5.2. Branching structures for large-span
architecture: 1990s
After Otto's work, the architectural articulation of tree-
column occurs in several buildings and masterpieces that
have lightweight structures (Charlson, 2005). Over the past
thirty years, there was a great improvement in designing
dendritic and branching structures. In the last decade, the
same approach of the treelike column with branching struc-
ture has been done in more logical and advanced way by using
optimization methods with the application of computational
and simulation techniques in computer. In the late 20th
century, Zalewski and Allen (1998) have reintroduced the
wider potency of graphic statics method in their book Shaping
Structures: Statics. Later, as the consultants of Boston
Structure Group, they applied computer supported ‘graphic
statics’ for finding the optimized form for steel-made dendri-
form compressive structures and for achieving the maximum
force equilibrium in designing a long-span market roof
(Figure 20) (Allen and Zalewski, 2009).
Besides, one of the finest examples of three-dimensional
dendriform structure using computational methods for form
314 I. Md Rian, M. Sassone

finding and optimization is seen in the interior of Stuttgart
Airport Terminal building built in 1992 (Figure 21). In this
dendriform structure, instead of ‘graphic statics’, search
algorithm was used for form finding and in the optimization
process (Charlson, 2005). Another such example can be seen
in the main entrance of Palaice de Justice, Melun in France
built in the 1990s. In the case of Stuttgart Terminal, four
separate steel members sprout from the base as a trunk and
then each member turn into a separate stem, and finally
each branching stem further splits into another four
branches, following the fractal characters of self-similarity
and iteration like tree branching (Figure 22). The cross-
sectional diameter of the column trunk and each branching
element are incrementally decreased upwards to achieve
nearly constant stress throughout this dendriform structure.
This structural strategy reminds Metzger's (1893) finding of
tree's mechanical property, explaining the tapering feature
of trees that can ensure a uniform distribution of the
surface bending stress if the stem diameter (D) has a cubic
relation (h–D3) to the distance (h) from the effective point
of wind load. However, while in the case of Palaice de
Justice, at Melun in France, a thick single monolithic steel
member as a trunk grows up and splits into four branches,
and each branch made of a single monolithic steel member
again splits into four different branches of four different
single steel members. Each single member tapers at the
end, thus mimicking the structural concept of natural tree
where the radius of the lower part of a tree trunk is more
than the diameter of the upper part of the trunk
(Figure 4b). That is how, the lower part of the column of
Palaice de Justice reduces its self-weight on top and
supports the upper load of the glass roof and its branches
more efficiently.
Dendritic columns at the Oriente Station, Lisbon, con-
structed in 1998 designed by Santiago Calatrava is unique
compared to the columns of the Stuttgart Airport Terminal
and Palaice de Justice, Melun. Unlike the linear branches of
the previous two examples, the branches of the treelike

Figure 20 (a) Computer-supported ‘graphic static’ method for finding the form for compressive dendriform structures for market
roof supports. (b) Final outcome of the market roof by Boston Structure Group (Zalewski and Allen, 1998).

Figure 21 (a) Structural ‘trees’ in Stuttgart Airport Terminal, Stuttgart, by Von Gerkan, Marg +Partner, 1991; (b) schematic form
diagram of Stuttgart Airport dendriforms.
Dendriforms and structures in architecture 315

structure of Oriente station are elegantly curved sprouting of Oriente station not only acts as a structural support, but
from the trunk (Figure 23a). In its unique approach, recal- also forms a roof canopy. In this case, the steel ribbed
ling the pointed Gothic arches of Oxford University canopy bears a strong resemble to a grove of palm trees, an
Museum's courtyard structure, the steel ribbed dendriform association reinforced by its detailing (Figure 23b). Apart

Figure 22 A ‘tree’-supported canopy at the main entrance. Palaice de Justice, Melun, France, Jourda and Perraudin Architects,
1992 (Charlson, 2005).

Figure 23 Oriente Station, Lisbon. Santiago Caltrava, 1996. (a) A view along the canopy structure. (b) Palm tree thong-like ribs
connect to a primary arch.

Figure 24 Exploring branching structures by genetic algorithms for minimal paths. (a) Thread model with adjustable nodes used to
study geometry. (b) Branching columns loaded from above in compression using four levels of loading (Buelow, 2007).
316 I. Md Rian, M. Sassone

Figure 25 Above – fractal generation (plant growth) using L-System; below – the Tote Restaurant, Mumbai, designed by the Serie
Architects, UK (Gawell, 2013).

Figure 26 Qatar National Convention Centre (2011). (a) Form-finding by suing extended evolutionary optimization algorithm,
(b) final shape after optimization, and (c) final construction in Doha (Sasaki, 2007).
Dendriforms and structures in architecture
from its square fabricated-steel column-bases, branching
and ribbed members of the roof canopy comprise I-sections.
The main arch members representing main branches are
made not only curve, but also taper to reduce the self-
weight on top. In this dendriform example, the hunched and
rounded rib-to-arch connections and thin sections mimic
similar properties of palm thongs, thus strengthen the
botanical analogy by its appearance too (Calatrava, 2003).
Figure 27 Topology optimization and size optimization for form finding of a 50 m long bridge and its shelter, inspired by the tree's
organic form (Frattari et al., 2013).
317
5.3. Computer-aided form finding and optimal
design of branching structures: 21st century
In the beginning of the 21st century, the computer-sup-
ported algorithmic and parametric technique has advanced
the design and construction of dendritic structures. Branch-
ing numbers, angles, lengths and other associated para-
meters can be parametricized and optimized by using
318
different search algorithms. Using the genetic algorithm,
including a physical model study, Buelow (2007) experimen-
ted to generate branching structures for minimal path under
compression (Figure 24) and separately under tension, thus
developed a form-finding scheme for using less material but
getting maximum strength.
The computer has also helped enormously to recreate the
branching forms similar to natural trees. Apart from IFS, as
we mentioned before, L-System is an another algorithmic
digital generator which is based on the parallel rewriting
system, a type of formal grammar, that can potentially
produce natural fractals. Developed by a Hungarian biolo-
gist Aristid Lindenmayer in 1968, L-systems can reproduce
the dynamic of plant growth (Figure 25a), offering archi-
tects to apply this system of form generation in architec-
tural designs. An interesting example of using the L-system
for the development of architectural form is the Tote
Restaurant in Mumbai, designed by Serie Architects and
constructed in 2009 (Figure 25b). As an analogy to the green
areas surrounding the building, the architects proposed a
continuation of tree-shaped branching structures inside of
the restaurant. The arboreal and asymmetric structures
support the roof while intersecting with each other, and
designed as a steel truss using I-beam and pipe profiles.
Accordingly, this building can be considered as an example
of how algorithmic techniques and digital tools may be used
for modeling fractal forms for architectural designs, with
Figure 28 (a) Above – transformation from flat to pitched unit assembly, below – cardboard model of a rhombic based plate
assembly, in plan and in perspective. (b) Thread model photos of the assembly and its column structure. (c) Isometric and elevation
of STAAD FEA model. (d) Pavilion geometry with four branching columns. (e) Internal stress assessed by FEA (Falk and Buellow, 2009).
I. Md Rian, M. Sassone
special emphasis on the morphogenesis process (Gawell,
2013).
Structural column of the entrance porch of the Qatar
National Convention Centre in Doha is one of such very
significant built examples where an extended evolutionary
algorithm was used for finding a form that can support a
maximum length of the roof (Figure 26a). Constructed in
2011, designed by Japanese architect Arata Isozaki and
RHWL architects, its dendritic steel-made hollow tube
structure spanning 250 m in the shape of the native sidra
tree grows up to support the overhanging roof structure
(Figure 26c). In designing a pair of a structural column, an
initial shape and design parameters were taken as a starting
point, and modified during the design process. So, as design
parameters, the initial conditions in terms of height,
volume, loads, support points or functional requirements
were established. Then, using shape analysis methods, the
initial system evolved into multiple directions with the
purpose of optimizing its structural behavior. The design
parameters were modified during this phase, and the
optimal structure with the most interesting shape was
chosen from the population of all final shapes of optimal
structures (Figure 26b). In this project, the purpose was not
to establish the optimal structure for a particular or all
problems, but to apply computer analysis based on the
efficiency of the structural behavior as a design tool in the
exploration of new architectural forms (Sasaki, 2007).
Dendriforms and structures in architecture
Therefore, form-finding computational techniques not only
take the designing and construction process of dendritic
structures a step ahead, but also encourage architects to
connect their design ideas with the nature (trees) more
methodically with deeper understandings of the optimization
and efficiency of nature's structures. Nevertheless, Mutsuro
Sasaki worries, ‘Nowadays the definition of new forms is
freer than ever of any geometrical, structural or construc-
tive restraint, and there is therefore a risk of incongruity
between the architectural shape and its structural support,
that might have unfortunate architectural consequences’
(Larena, 2009). In this context, it is sensible to reconsider
structural efficiency as a valid design device, with the
purpose of relating form, force and structure within a
rational mechanical basis.
6. Recent researches on dendriforms design
In current years, in academia and research institutes, a
number of highly advanced researches are carried out
and still continued for designing structurally extra efficient,
technologically very innovative and esthetically more creative
dendriform structures. One of such innovative, sophisticated,
Figure 29 Monalisa pavilion inspired by and to recreate tree forest. (a) Conceptual model, real scale pavilion, top view of
conceptual drawing. (b) Fractal branching generation using IFS. (c) Production progress of real scale ‘tree’ unit in the university
workshop (Callegari et al., 2013).
319
and structurally as well as esthetically rational approaches
has been carried out very recently by L. Frattari, J.P. Dagg
and G. Leoni in 2013, in their experimental approach in which
they have explored the structural optimization potentials
applied in architecture. They have proposed conceptual
design tool based on ‘Topology Optimization’ and ‘Size
Optimization’ for form finding process computationally, and
applied to the case study of a bridge of 50 m long and its
shelter. In this attempt, inspired by the organic form of a tree
structure, they obtained the most efficient branching sup-
ports for the bridge structure with the compromise of their
esthetic appearance. The optimization process and its strat-
egy are illustrated in ‘Figure 27’ (Frattari et al., 2013).
Falk and Buelow (2009) had developed a different but
interesting design approach as exploration and optimization
for finding new shapes of plate-based roof structures braced
by branching columns and tensile members by using evolu-
tionary computation and genetic algorithm methods. In
their interesting approach, they optimized the geometric
relationships between the roof and branching columns for
least weight by exploring the parameters of roof geometry
and the related branching column geometry including their
topologies. Made completely by the cross-laminated timber,
the combination of faceted plate assembly of roof and the
320
branching column support system showed the combined
action of structural efficiency and stiffness, confirming the
new scope of structural and architectural applications
designed for rational construction (Figure 28) (Falk and
Buelow, 2009).
Apart from exploring the innovative designs of dendri-
forms in academia that mainly possess the structural inter-
ests, students and researchers from WoodLab in Politecnico
di Torino has paid principal attention to esthetic interests
in designing a fractal-like natural forest in the workshop
project of ‘Monalisa Pavilion’ through the algorithmic
arrangement of a series of timber-made curved branching
structures composed of layered poplar plywood (Figure 29).
In this design approach, the team had specifically used
Iterated Function System (IFS) as an algorithmic code to
produce fractal branches (Figure 29b) (Callegari et al.,
2013). This team has paid additional but a significant
attention to deal with the mechanical properties of the
poplar plywood in bending the timber branches, connected
by metal screws at the joints, for achieving more organic
and natural appearance, (Figure 29b) thus understanding
the stress behavior of wood fibers of curved branches.
Nevertheless, in recent years, while complex geometry
and parametric designs are getting liberty to create free-
form futuristic architectures with the advancement of
computer-aided digital technologies, some researchers look
Figure 30 (a) Computational model of a treelike branching ribbed masonry vault (). (b) ‘Fibrous Structures’, AA Workshop, Istanbul
(Pasquero et al., 2007).
Source: Block Research Group, ETH Zurich. 2011
Figure 31 (a) The China Pavilion at Expo 2010 in Shanghai, inspired by traditional Chinese Dougong brackets (). (b) Metropol
Parasol at Seville in Spain, an algorithmic design of huge wooden dendriforms, popularly known as Las Setas de la Encarnación
(in Spanish, which means ‘Incarnación's mushrooms’).
Source: internet
I. Md Rian, M. Sassone
back to the history and restudy the geometrical complexity,
structural solidity and longevity of old decorated masonry
buildings. Using sophisticated computational techniques,
Block Research Group from ETH Zurich has recreated the
modern version of a masonry fan vault resembling with
nature's forested canopy. They developed and applied
‘three dimensional thrust network analysis’ for assessing
the mechanical and structural behavior of branching struc-
tures computationally, then used three dimensional compu-
tational method for obtaining lower-bound solutions of
masonry vaults with complex geometries (Block and
Ochsendorf, 2008). Later, they applied algorithms for opti-
mizing the structure, and finally generated a new kind of
treelike ribbed masonry vault (Figure 30a). In this context,
it is worth mentioning the project of the Chinese Pavilion
constructed in Shanghai Expo in 2011 (Figure 31a). In this
interesting project, the basic structural concept of the
typical interlocking systems of brackets, famously known
as the traditional dougong brackets, was reincarnated in a
contemporary way where the abstract form of dougong was
represented as a main building structure like a big tree with
a large canopy, instead of a smaller part or element of the
structure. Another such example of wooden dendriform is
Metropol Parsol in Spain, world's largest wooden structure,
which was built by interlocking system using the algorithmic
and parametric technique as a form-finding process
Dendriforms and structures in architecture 321

Table 1 Chronological evolution and development of dendriform structures.

322
(Figure 31b). This massive wooden treelike structure,
designed by Jürgen Mayer-Hermann built in 2011, is popu-
larly known as Las Setas de la Encarnación (in Spanish
language) which means Incarnación's mushrooms. Architect
Mayer expresses that the form of the building which consists
of six parasols in the form of giant mushrooms (‘Las setas’ in
Spanish language), is inspired by the vaults of the Cathedral
of Seville and the ficus trees in nearby Plaza de Cristo de
Burgos (Moore, 2012). This huge structure is a complex
assemblage of large wooden pieces of birch trees.
In the frame of the researches on dendriform structures,
some researchers have attempted to explore the efficiency
of tree's fractal-like branching structures with completely
different angles. In a research-oriented ‘Fibrous Structures’
workshop hosted by the Istanbul Technical University in
Istanbul in 2007, a group of students not only developed a
concrete prototype of branching structure on top part to
support a roof, but also constructed another but inverted
branching structure at the bottom part as a network of
foundation to distribute the load evenly to the ground, thus
mimicked the concept of structural efficiencies of tree's
branching stems on top and simultaneously its branching
roots at ground for uniform load distribution (Figure 30b).
In this workshop, students made a physical model based on
the digital model of branching structure, and then after
getting the structural feedback from physical model they
modified the digital model for getting a final form; thus the
interaction between the digital and physical modeling
worked as a new approach of form finding process that
had produced the most efficient and feasible structure at
the end (Pasquero et al., 2007)
7. Conclusion
In this paper we have discussed how the underlying geome-
try of trees, possible to be explained by the concepts of
fractals and non-Euclidean geometry, was used as an
inspiration source by architects and constructors who
employed the powerful properties of self-similarity as a
way to improve and optimize their structural and architec-
tural solutions. From the analysis of a set of dendriforms
from historical to contemporary times, we have attempted
to narrate the evolution of dendriforms design as a logical
consequence of the understanding of intrinsic relations
between forms and structures in trees and plants, and as
an effect of the advancements in constructional, theoreti-
cal, graphical, technological and computational knowledges
in different time periods (Table 1).
It is important to emphasize that terms as ‘dendriform’,
‘treelike column’ or ‘branching structure’ are used among
the architectural and engineering community, mainly focus-
ing on the appearance and on the formal similarity between
architectural structures and natural shapes. However, the
most inspiring feature of a natural tree undoubtedly is its
capacity of carrying a large surface supported by a narrow
element (trunk) through fractal-like branching configura-
tion. Such an idea has been teaching and guiding architects
to improve the efficiency of their design realizations, by
understanding nature's complex forms.
Although treelike structural system in architecture is
taken from the trees' shapes and geometry, they frequently
I. Md Rian, M. Sassone
show different mechanical behaviors. While, in the case of
naturally growing trees, the branches mainly carry bending
moments, in man-made structures bending is systematically
replaced by axial forces, in order to reduce the internal
stresses. The reason relies on the fact that the roofing
system, that in manmade structures substitutes the crown,
can have structural elements inside of it, linking the ends of
branches.
In recent times, research on the properties of trees and
plants, including fractals and other underlying geometric
and mechanical features, have opened a new vista for the
innovations of forms and structures in architecture, thanks
to the rapid advancement of science and technology.
A deeper understanding of fractal-like form and its asso-
ciated structural behavior can unfold more unknown facts
and mechanisms of trees' forms and functions. Thus, by
using the emerging technologies, researchers can offer
architecturally and structurally more innovative, better
optimized and highly efficient dendriform structures, that
can not only solve both the structural and spatial problems
in architecture, but also gift esthetically innovative designs.
Acknowledgment
This work was supported by the Politecnico di Torino
Ph.D. research grant, XXVII cycle (University Research
Scholarship).
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