Lecture Notes: Study Pack On Office Management (B Am213) B Y

` LECTURE NOTES
ON
OFFICE MANAGEMENT (BAM 213)
FOR POLYTECHNIC STUDENTS
BY
PRINCE ADENIYI M ASADE
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STUDY PACK ON OFFICE MANAGEMENT (B AM213) B Y PRINCE AD ENIYI MOJEED ASAD E
MODULE ONE
ORGANIZATION OF AN OFFICE
Definition of an Office
An office is a room, space, where administrative works from document preparation, informa tio n
dissemination, secretarial duties etc. are done. In essence, an office is a place in an organiza tio n
where business, clerical and professional activities take place. An office has that ability to self-
portray the kind of duties that take place in it.
Functions of an Office
➢ Office serve as information Centre – Office act as information Centre of the enterprises
because it is the centre to which coverage information from within the organization and
collect information from outside the organization. Such information whether past or
presents are preserved in the office
➢ Office as a channel of communication- office provides service of communication and it
is the channel through which written communication move from top to bottom and visa
vis.
➢ Office as a co-ordination centre – Office aids in co- ordination and the process of co-
ordination will be impossible without an office. Office provides necessary information to
various departments and as such it furnishes a well -placed machinery for co-ordination.
➢ Office acts as a channel with customers -Office is regarded as the channel, which links
business organization with the customers. The enquiries, orders and complaints from the
customers are taken care by the office through direct personal contact. Sometimes
newspaper is used as a media to inform the customers.
➢ Office acts as a link between the shareholders and the company-Office provides a good
linkage with the shareholders by providing share certificate, share transfer, issue of
dividend warrants, issue of notice on company's meeting and answering the enquiries made
by the shareholders. It also acts as a servicing department for the creditors.
Typical Structure of an Office

Office Structure
There are many different ways of arranging the space in an office and whilst these vary according
to function, managerial fashions, and the culture of specific companies can be even more
important. Choices include, how many people will work within the same room. At one extreme,
each individual worker will have their own room; at the other extreme a large open plan office
can be made up of one main room with tens or hundreds of people working in the same space.
Open plan offices put multiple workers together in the same space, and some studies have shown
that they can improve short term productivity, i.e. within a single software project. At the same
time, the loss of privacy and security can increase the incidence of theft and loss of company
secrets. A type of compromise between open plan and individual rooms is provided by
the cubicle desk, possibly made most famous by the Dilbert cartoon series, which solves visual
privacy to some extent, but often fails on acoustic separation and security. Most cubicles also
require the occupant to sit with their back towards anyone who might be approaching; workers in
walled offices almost always try to position their normal work seats and desks so that they can see
someone entering, and in some instances, install tiny mirrors on things such as computer monitors.
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Designing a Small Office: Use a Layout that Reflects Your Organizational Structure
How are decisions made in your business? All companies, and especially small firms, must be
clear about more than just their budget before they can start designing their offices, says Richard
Shugar, the principal and owner of 2fORM, an architecture firm based in Oregon. He advises his
clients to consider the flow of internal direction when designing the office. He says: "It's not only
just about their business model, but how it's how they plan on running their business. How do they
plan on communicating from within? Is it top down? Does the president make decisions and people
follow? Or is it a collaborative environment where people work together? How does the space
incorporate everyone so that the employees feel like they're getting vested in the company?"
Even if you're dealing with a space 500 square feet or smaller, the positioning of each employees
matters. Is the CEO situated in the corner with a big office, or stationed on a desk with the interns?
The placement of employees in a confined area reflects the flow of direction of the organizatio n.
For example, Shugar, who manages six employees, sits right in the middle of his office. It gives
him a chance to see what everyone is working on, and it gives his employees ample opportunity
to approach him
➢ Create a Flexible, Open Environment
➢ Reflect Your Company's Attitude
➢ Use Frugality to Your Benefit
➢ Create Small Perks for a Big Impact
If I were to ask you a random and seemingly strange question, “Why does a rocket behave the way
it does and how is it different from a parachute that behaves the way it does?” You’d probably say
something like, “Well, duh, they’re designed differently. One is designed to go fast and far and the
other is designed to cause drag and slow an objection in motion. Because they’re designed
differently, they behave differently.” And you’d be correct. How something is designed controls
how it behaves. (If you doubt this, just try attaching an engine directly to a parachute and see what
happens).
Centralization and Decentralization

In some organizations, top managers make all the decisions and lower-level managers and
employees simply carry out their orders. At the other extreme are organizations in which decision
making is pushed down to the managers who are closest to the action. The former organizatio ns
are centralized, and the latter are decentralized. Centralization describes the degree to which
decision making is concentrated at a single point in the organization. If top managers make the
organization’s key decisions with little or no input from below, then the organization is centralized.
In contrast, the more that lower-level employees provide input or actually make decisions, the
more decentralization there is. Keep in mind that the concept of centralization/decentralization is
relative, not absolute—an organization is never completely centralized or decentralized. Few
organizations could function effectively if all decisions were made by only a select group of top
managers; nor could they function if all decisions were delegated to employees at the lowest levels.
Nestlé uses decentralized marketing with centralized production, logistics, and supply chain
management.
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Centralization and Decentralisation
The degree to which authority is dedicated within an organisation. A centralised structure has a
greater degree of control, while a decentralized structure involves a greater degree of delegated
authority to the regions or to subordinates.
Decentralized
1) Power and authority to make decisions
Centralised
delegate from head office to lower and
1) Keep decision making power at the top
local levels
of the hierarchy
2) Less uniformity
2) Don't delegate to local or lower levels
3) Decisions made in relation to local
circumstances
Advantages
Advantages 1) Empower local managers
1) Consistent policies, greater control and 2) Local knowledge may benefit sales and
standardized procedures promotions targeted more effectively
2) Quicker decision making 3) Reduces day to day communication with
3) Branches are identical, so customer head office
knows what to expect 4) Business is more flexible as it is able to
4) Tight financial control respond to customer demands faster
5) Improved motivation and performance
Disadvantages
Disadvantages
1) Local managers may have better
1) Customers may prefer the uniformity of
knowledge of customer needs
branches
2) Motivation of local managers may be
2) Local managers may not see the bigger
affected
picture
3) Inappropriate decision at local level
Centralised Organisation Structure
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Decentralized Organisation Structure
Model Office
A simulated working environment used to test business processes and IT systems with business
processes to check that they:
1. Satisfy their functional goals (e.g., you can produce the monthly sales report using the
system)
2. Meet their performance & quality targets (e.g., you can produce the monthly sales report
in under an hour with no mistakes)
WHAT IS ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE?

By structure, we mean the framework around which the group is organized, the underpinnings
which keep the coalition functioning. It's the operating manual that tells members how the
organization is put together and how it works. More specifically, structure describes how members
are accepted, how leadership is chosen, and how decisions are made.
WHY SHOULD YOU DEVELOP A STRUCTURE FOR YOUR ORGANIZATION?

• Structure gives members clear guidelines for how to proceed. A clearly-establis hed
structure gives the group a means to maintain order and resolve disagreements.
• Structure binds members together. It gives meaning and identity to the people who join
the group, as well as to the group itself.
• Structure in any organization is inevitable -- an organization, by definition, implies a
structure. Your group is going to have some structure whether it chooses to or not. It might
as well be the structure which best matches up with what kind of organization you have,
what kind of people are in it, and what you see yourself doing.
WHEN SHOULD YOU DEVELOP A STRUCTURE FOR YOUR ORGANIZATION?

It is important to deal with structure early in the organization's development. Structural
development can occur in proportion to other work the organization is doing, so that it does not
crowd out that work. And it can occur in parallel with, at the same time as, your organizatio n's
growing accomplishments, so they take place in tandem, side by side. This means that you should
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think about structure from the beginning of your organization's life. As your group grows and
changes, so should your thinking on the group's structure.
ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURE
While the need for structure is clear, the best structure for a particular coalition is harder to
determine. The best structure for any organization will depend upon who its members are, what
the setting is, and how far the organization has come in its development.
Regardless of what type of structure your organization decides upon, three elements will always
be there. They are inherent in the very idea of an organizational structure.
They are:
• Some kind of governance
• Rules by which the organization operates
• A distribution of work
Governance
The first element of structure is governance - some person or group has to make the decisions
within the organization.
Rules by which the organization operates
Another important part of structure is having rules by which the organization operates. Many of
these rules may be explicitly stated, while others may be implicit and unstated, though not
necessarily any less powerful.
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MODULE TWO
UNDERSTANDING FACTORS AFFECTING LOCATION OF AN OFFICE
Types of Office Layouts
Introduction to Office Layout
When a management decides to establish an office, it has to carefully define its plan for systematic
and scientific segmentation of various departments and equipment for the office.
The reason is that the systematic arrangement of office equipment leads to availing of maximum
benefit from the space available. The office layout is based on the principle of division of labor.
If the principle of division of labor is applied, every job of an office can be divided into many
sections. All the sections may not be possible to accommodate in one room or on the same floor.
Hence, office layout ensures fully utilization of office space and the efficiency of operation is high.
Every new office needs to design an organized workspace where the employees sit and perform
their jobs. Office plans vary from company to company based on the needs of the business and its
employees. While many companies benefit from open floor plans, others require individ ua l
cubicles for their employees. In many cases, it may make sense to have a variety of differe nt
layouts in one office space, for example, private offices for senior staff, cubicles for the billing
department and team enclosures for the engineering staff.
Meaning of Office Layout
Office layout means the systematic arrangement of office equipment, machines and furniture and
providing adequate space to office personnel for regular performance of work with efficiency.
Definition of Office Layout
According to Littlefield,
“Office layout is the arrangement of equipment within the available floor space”.
According to Hicks and Place,
“The problem of layout relates to the arrangement in the space involved so that all the equipment,
supplies, procedures and personnel can function at maximum efficiency”.
Therefore, the main task of office manager is the proper allocation of space to each section by
considering the interlinking of other sections, so that the activities of different sections can be
coordinated and controlled easily. Faulty or improper arrangement of furniture, equipment and
space for employees leads to unnecessary wastage of time and energy and increase in the cost of
office operations.
Objectives of Office Layout
The main objectives of office layout are as follows
1. Effective utilization of available floor space and smooth flow of work.
2. Both power and telephone service is made available whenever necessary.
3. Office supervision is made easier and more convenient.
4. Good working conditions should be provided to each employee
5. The reception room should be very near to the main gate or entrance so that the visitors may
feel easy and convenient.
6. A sense of belonging and loyalty should be made in the minds of office employees.
7. Employee’s satisfaction should be the outcome of proper office layout.
8. There should be a free flow of communication among employees.
9. All the sections cannot work independently. Hence, the office layout ensues the interlinking of
each sections according to their needs.
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10. There must be an adequate space between desks, tables and chairs for free movement of
employees.
11. Noise and disturbing operations should be segregated within the office.
12. Some sections require privacy. The sections may be interview section and inquiry section.
Interview section is dealing with recruitment of staff and inquiry section is dealing with progress
and performance of the existing staff.
13. Frequent mutual consultation and interference between clerks should be avoided.
14. The room of the manager should be arranged in such a manner that he can easily observe the
activities of staff for exercising control on them.
15. The external noise and disturbance should be avoided by fixing double glazed windows and
doors.
16. Changes may be made in the office layout if the volume of work is increased in future and
requires facilities.
17. Staff doing confidential work should be provided adequate privacy.
18. There must be sufficient, natural or artificial light.
19. Adequate safety of valuable documents and records should be ensured.
How to design an efficient office layout?

An efficient layout of an office can be designed only by the manager. When, the office manager
should consider the following matters.
▪ Space available.
▪ Number of workers.
▪ Volume of work.
▪ Nature of work.
▪ Number of workers in designation wise.
▪ Types of machine and equipment used.
▪ Flow of work.
▪ Physical appearance.
The shape of an office is an important consideration. The building or office space may be square,
rectangular, long and narrow or L or U shaped. Generally, square or rectangular space is better
than long or narrow space. The reason is that the latter requires much floor crossing.
Advantages of an Efficient office Layout

The following advantages can be derived by having planned layout.
1. No waste of time and energy of office personnel.
2. Promotes efficiency of staff.
3. Proper utilization of floor space.
4. Easy supervision.
5. Speed in inter – communication.
6. Better use of office machines and equipment.
Categories of Office Layout

Office layout may be classified into two categories, they are
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1. Process Layout: In process layout, both equipment and employees are arranged according to
the sequence of operations. For example, the filing section may be located next to the dispatch
section and so on.
2. Group Layout: In group layout, employees are placed in a separate partition where similar
activities are carried on and office machines are fitted with another section. For example, all
computers are fitted in separate room i.e., computer room.
Open Plan for Collaboration

Open-plan offices are becoming increasingly common in modern workplaces, particularly in tech
companies where innovation and teamwork are critical to the success of the company. Some
businesses prefer open floor plans because they encourage communication and teamwork. Open
plans take up less space, thus reducing square footage costs and saving money on heating and
lighting. Open plans also allow employers to keep an eye on employees. On the downside, these
workplaces can get loud, deprive workers of privacy and be potential hotbeds of viruses during flu
season.
Private Offices for Confidentiality
There was a time when most employees outside of the receptionist had a private office, but those
times are gone. These days, the only businesses that have private offices for all employees are
small companies with only a handful of employees or law offices and other firms with large
budgets where confidentiality is essential. The benefits of private offices include full privacy for
the employee, a quiet environment in which to work and client confidentiality. The primary
downside of private offices is the expense of additional square footage and the cost of heating and
lighting the space.
Cubicle Offices for Space Saving
Cubicles use a series of partitions that can be modified at any time, allowing workers many of the
benefits of a private office. Cubicles also take up much less space than a private office. Some
employees find cubicles isolating, but they're a practical and secure option for businesses like
banks that require confidentiality for employees but don't have the budget for everyone to have
private offices.
Half Partitions as a Hybrid Solution
Half partitions are like cubicles except, as the name implies, the wall only goes halfway up. Half
partitions offer a good balance between open-plan layouts and cubicles since employees are given
some level of personal space and privacy while still being able to communicate with co-workers
verbally over the top of the partition. Half partitions save space and utility costs, but their use
produces a louder environment and affords less privacy than cubicles and private offices.
Team Enclosures for Creative Spaces
Team enclosures are an office layout option that offers a private space for each team working on
a single project. Individual team enclosures allow increased communication and collaboratio n
between team members while keeping distractions from outside the team to a minimum. This
office layout is practical for businesses where many teams are working on multiple projects, for
example, an advertising agency with sales teams and creative teams working on differe nt
campaigns.
THE DESIGN OF OFFICE ENVIRONMENT

The design of work environment actually begins with the location of the site for the firm.
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As a non-expert, you may not be called upon to take part in the location and building of the school
or firm in which you work. But it is essential you have a good idea of the office problems which
could arise in connection with the location and building of the firm.
LOCATION OF A FIRM
Where an office should be located is influenced by a number of factors which will be discussed
later. Essentially, however, the office function is exercised in every department and in every unit
of a firm. Therefore, office activities need to be provided where it can best serve the objectives of
the organization as a whole and the requirements of sales, production, and other primary
departments, since such services account for its existence. From all indications, office location is
directly dependent upon the broader problem of location of the firm generally.
CHOICE OF LOCATION OF FIRM

The decision to locate a firm in a particular area is dependent on a number of factors: some of the
common ones are accessibility to markets, raw material, transportation, labour supply, power, state
and local government laws trends in regional and local government development, living conditions
and commuting problems for employees and, so on.
These and related issues have to be looked into very carefully so as not to create un-expected
problems that may suggest the premature abandonment of the location.
Cost Analysis:
A most appropriate approach to determining the suitability or otherwise of a firm’s location is to
conduct cost-analysis for each of the alternative locations. Other ways of assessing the suitability
of the firm may be to consider the volume of traffic within the area, particularly in the area of
distributive trade. As part of the consideration package, it would be worthwhile to obtain
information about the attitude of people within the area as well as the general security therein. An
objective consideration of all these variables should be a reasonable guide to a sound decision on
the choice of business location.
TRENDS IN THE CHOICE OF BUSINESS LOCATION IN NIGERIA

Within the past few decades, there has been a gradual stepping up of various business activities in
Nigeria. Amidst these activities, could be observed certain trends in the location of business in the
context of three forms of business buildings can be identified.
a) Distributive services;
b) Manufacturing business and
c) Government business
Distributive Service Type of Business

Included in this class of business are departmental stores and supermarkets, legal, medical service
‘establishments, banks and other related business. These forms of business are located mostly in
busy commercial centres in big towns and city centres which operate as the hub of business
activities. The operators who are not located at strategic locations, namely where there are heavy
traffic and business activities often try to move from such places to more favourable locations.
Manufacturing Firms
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Manufacturing firms, particularly those that produce heavy equipment are often located in
suburban areas or at locations reserved for such purpose, and usually referred to as industr ia l
estates.
Government Businesses
By government businesses is meant federal, state and local government ministries. These
establishments are usually located in especially ear- marked locations, and the tendency is to site
these establishments at a common location that would allow easy communication between the
various ministries. They house the various government ministries referred to secretariats.
The demand for office space tends to stimulate the erection of business houses in big cities. These
new business houses are often built with modern office needs in mind. These include the need for
space that would allow different forms of layout, accessibility, easy and effective communicatio n.
OBJECTIVES OF OFFICE BUILDING SPACE

Office space is often chosen to meet some important objectives: they include:
1) Facilitation of Work Process
In modern management context, the building in which office equipment is housed, is as important
as the equipment itself, hence the trend is to erect buildings which are functional or tailored to the
type and philosophy of the venture.
The modern office building is designed to facilitate work flow hence in planning the office building
the architect has to be thoroughly informed about the volume of work and its procedures, the
organisational units, and need for future expansion and growth.
2) Favourable Impression
An impressive office building undoubtedly commands a high opinion rating on the part of
customers, visitors and the public as a whole. Its prestige on the community and supplier’s
representative also counts.
3) Flexibility Needed for Growth for Varying Needs
A building meant for long-term use should be built with future need in mind. That is to say, a
business building should be built in such a way that would allow for modification in office -
planning and layout where this need should arise. Future needs in terms of space should be
anticipated; changes in lighting, air-conditioning, noise control requirements and other similar
building services constitute issues to be considered. Where a building has spaces, which have no
immediate use to the business, it should be leased out to tenants on the short-term.
4) Cost-benefit Effect
For a building to serve the purpose of meeting the objectives which have been listed and discussed
earlier, it must do so economically. The amount due to depreciation, maintenance costs, insurance
and taxes, in whichever form it is paid, must be weighed against the values received, and on what
competitors are willing to pay for the facilities.
By implication, therefore, maximum use has to be made of every usable square foot space, while
alternative uses should be for dead spaces.
Advantages & Disadvantages of an Open-Plan Office Space

An open-plan office space is an office floor plan that eliminates most private offices and meeting
spaces. There may be a private conference room or two to facilitate private meetings, but most
day-to-day business operates with everyone working in the same room. This has become a modern
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design to facilitate innovation and creativity. Many co-working spaces have also emerged boasting
the ability to work and network at the same time.
Open Plan Office Concepts

Open plan office concepts don't need to just be one large room with a bunch of tables spread about,
though many seem to use that design. Workers may have assigned spaces, some with drawers and
even low-level cubicle designs to offer some semblance of privacy. But the open-plan concept
office space has the primary goal of inspiring collaboration and communication. As a result,
personal space is kept to a minimum.
The open plan office is a concept highly touted by many technology innovators. Facebook and
Google are trendsetters for large organizations to have key executives working alongside the rank
and file employees. It isn't uncommon to see employees diligently working at computers with
headphones on when needing to concentrate on a task without the outside interruptions. This is
something Mark Zuckerberg is famously quoted as being, "wired in" as Facebook was developing
its early social network platform.
Open Office Environment Benefits

The reason companies seek open office environments is for the benefits of creativity and
teamwork. It is a leadership style trend to build teams where no one individual is sitting on the
hierarchal ladder in the company. Even with companies with traditional hierarchies, the setting
seems to put people at ease feeling that they are in a collegial setting rather than sitting with eyes
looking down on them from a top floor office window.
Bringing people together helps facilitate faster learning for new employees with others a seat away
from being able to help quickly. It also builds trust and fosters new ideas. Rather than having to
get up and walk over to a colleague to get some feedback on an idea, a person can merely tap the
shoulder of the person next to them or sitting across. This makes idea flows quicker, filled with
more brainstorming in a natural way that builds innovative ideas that companies are banking on.
Open Office Space Disadvantages

There are some things to consider before jumping in and removing all designated spaces for
personal offices in your company's floor plan. The first is the chaotic feel that happens when too
many people are in one room. While energy is good, if people are required to concentrate on
specific tasks, errors can creep into work because people get easily distracted.
Another issue some people see with the open-space floor plan is the loss of actual leadership.
While some companies find this as having a positive effect on team morale, others see problems
where employees no longer see superiors as superiors. Directives might not be followed and the
chain of command gets broken leading to inefficient human resource models.
The other disadvantage is personality issues among workers. Some people don't perform well in
large groups or they seek privacy when doing their work. While many may like the social aspect
of an open floor plan, there may be superstar employees who want an office. Think about an
introverted accountant who simply wants to go about her business crunching numbers in a quiet
room. The open floor plan is not conducive to an optimal performance. Additionally, if there is a
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conflict between two people, the tension spreads more easily in an open floor plan than through a
closed floor plan, adding to the chaos and harming company morale.
WHY THE WORKING ENVIRONMENT SHOULD BE DESIGNED WITH THE

EMPLOYEES’ COMFORT IN VIEW
Modern management thinking agrees that a modern working environment should be designed in
such a manner that it does not only facilitate performance but also the employee’s comfort and
prestige. Thus, in various types of office buildings, effort should be made to design the office
interior in as attractive and dedicated a manner as possible. However, it has to be borne in mind
that the design of office building is largely dependent on the type of work carried in it, and by a
consideration of the people who are to work there and the customers who are to do business therein.
FACTORS WHICH DETERMINE HUMAN COMFORT

The following have been listed as the physical factors which determine human comfort and
convenience particularly in a working environment
1) Lighting
2) Colour conditioning
3) Air-conditioning
4) Sound conditioning
5) Music conditioning
6) Furnishing
Lighting
When it is realized that every office work involves seeing activity, the importance of good lighting
becomes readily apparent. The role of an office includes information gathering, arranging, storing
and supplying information. These functions, as we all know require the use of the eyes in work ing
with the hands. Hence to facilitate these rather demanding tasks, there have to be the right type of
lighting, and the lighting has to be of the right intensity.
The following have been found to be the specific benefits of good lighting in an office:
1) Increased productivity (difficult to measure exactly how much)
2) Better employee morale
3) Better work quality.
4) Reduction in eye strain and mental fatigue
5) Higher prestige for the firm.
Conventionally, lighting is measured in foot candles. One candle indicates the amount of direct
light which is supposed to be present in one foot of a standard candle.
Improved Quality of Work

Work quality and neatness can be improved through the provision of acceptable standard of
lighting. Where visual needs are not met errors are more frequently committed, probably due in
part to inability of the worker to see with sufficient exactness in inferior light and in part by eye
strain and fatigue.
Reduction in Eye strain and Mental Fatigue
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Working at office tasks for a prolonged period under poor light causes eyestrain and may also
cause eyesight defects to develop or to worsen. More energy must have also to be expended, which
could result in increased fatigue.
Better Employee Morale:

Improved morale is most likely to result when employees feel that management is interested in
their well-being and when the working atmosphere is pleasant. Good lighting and good use of
colour, which must accompany good lighting, will go a long way to creating such an atmosphere.
Good morale, we should remember, has a number of advantages some of which include higher
productivity, reduced turnover, and lower absenteeism. Higher grades of workers are also likely
to be attracted to such an establishment.
Higher Company Prestige

An attractive and efficient lighting installation makes a favourable impression on visitors of all
types who call at the firm. Good lighting also adds to the general reputation of the firm for
progressiveness and efficiency of operation.
Factors to Be Controlled in the Supply of Lighting

The two aspects to be controlled in the process of lighting include the quantity and quality.
Quantity: Although ordinarily, clerical or office workers are not expected to possess the technical
know-how required of illumination engineers, they should however be aware of the principa l
problems surrounding lighting and need to seek help for that purpose.
The quantity or intensity of light is easily its most familiar characteristic. It is important to have
sufficient intensify of light in all seeing tasks, this implies that different tasks have varying light
requirements.
Quality of Light
Much of the problem or complaint emanating from light users in Nigeria is not only limited to the
quantity but also to the quality of supplies. Good- quality light is that which is relatively free from
glare and that it is diffused evenly about the seeing area. Brightness should be relatively unifor m
rather than varying in different portions of the area. Shadows should be minimized although it is
impossible to eliminate them entirely.
Glare is of two types - direct and reflected. Direct glare is that which is produced by a sharply
contrasting light source, either natural (sun light) or artificial within the field of vision. Reflected
glare occurs when light strikes bright or polished surfaces such as wall, desk tops, machines or
other equipment.
Lighting may be direct or semi-direct, with all or most of the light coming directly from the light
source to objects in the lighted area. It may on the other hand be indirect or semi-direct with all or
most of the light reflected from the ceiling and diffused evenly about the room.
Sources may be incandescent or fluorescent. A large number of offices use the fluorescent, though
the advantage of it is not clear.
Lighting should be regularly maintained and deteriorating bulb replaced lamps usually lose 10-
25% of their efficiency before they go out.
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COLOUR CONDITIONING Colour presents a rather fascinating spectacle to mankind. The
effect of colour on human emotion has been found to be very positive as it activates and stimulate
it. A good colour presents pleasing and attractive effect of the office to the eye. What is, however,
not certain is how much of production gains can be specifically attributable to the use of colour in
an office.
However, evidence points to the fact that effective use of colour can enhance to work environme nt
and have at least an indirect effect on employees' productivity
1) Red - Heat - action, excitement
2) Orange - Warmth
3) Yellow - Warmth
4) Brown - Warmth
5) Blue - Coolness
6) Purple - Dignity.
AIR CONDITIONING
Air conditioning provides another avenue by which working condition can be improved. Air
condition is believed to account for high productivity, better quality of work, improved employee
comfort and health, higher morale and a more comfortable impression on visitors. An additiona l
benefit with systems which filter the air is the resulting decrease in deeming and decorating costs.
Available evidence shows that at the Interterm Securities Company Kansa City Missouri, U.S.A
employee efficiency was found to be up by 20% after air conditioning was installed. Other reports
of from 10-50% increase of performance went to the doubtless beneficial effect of air-conditio ning
on productivity. As with other elements, the specific amount of improvement that can be
attributable to air-conditioning is, however, difficult to determine with exactness since other
elements also come into play in the circumstance.
Outstanding Functions of Air-condition

It can be used to control one or more of the following factors of air as indicated below:
1) Circulation - movement and changing of air for freshness;
2) Purity - filtering out objectionable particles such as dust, smoke and fumes;
3) Humidity - maintaining proper relationship between moisture content of the air and the
temperature.
4) Temperature - maintaining comfortable heat level.
Complete air conditioning will control all the four factors. Whether all the four elements of air-
conditioning can be provided, will usually depend upon the system considered most feasible. This
is in view of atmospheric conditions in the geographic location involved, the characteristics of the
building and the sections of the space to be air-conditioned, and the costs of alternative systems.
Types of Air-conditioning System

These fall into two main categories:
1) Central system which are to serve the whole buildings:
2) Packaged units meant for individual or single offices and contain both refrigeration and
conditioning equipment. The smaller ones have certain advantages, which include ease of
movement, and independent temperature and humidity control units.
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Sound Conditioning
Noise has been one of the major problems affecting effectiveness in an office. Excessive noise,
apart from being injurious to health, has been known to affect productivity. A number of
approaches have been adopted to control noise or keep it at a tolerable level. These include:
Checking Noise at Source
This involves the use of quieter machines, noiseless equipment, cushions, and keeping of the
machines in good working order.
Sound Proofing the Room
Sound conditioning materials can be used to insulate walls with sound absorbent rugs, carpets as
well as drapes.
Isolation of Noisy Equipment:

Noisy equipment such as accounting, duplicating and other noisy devices can be separated from
the general working area through partitioning.
However, a light soothing sentimental music, reduced to a very low tune has a positive effect on
job performance. But harsh and loud or rowdy type of music can only be interpreted as noise to
the ears and a set-back to work performance and concentration. Thus, the staff assigned to the
function of the ‘DJ’ must bear in mind the type and volume of music or records that would be
helpful for effective work-flow and workers and customers’ comfort.
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MODULE THREE
UNDERSTANDING STAFF ADMINISTRATION
INDUCTION
The term ‘induction’ is generally used in a workplace context to describe the whole process
whereby employees adjust or acclimatize to their jobs and working environme nt.
Induction is designed to provide a new employee with the information he or she needs to functio
n comfortably and effectively in the organization. It is a planned introduction of new hires to the
ir jobs, their peers and the company.
As part of this process, ‘orientation’ can be used to refer to a specific course or training event that
new starters attend, and ‘socialization’ can be used to describe the way in which new employees
build up working relationships and find roles for themselves within their new teams. Some people
use the term ‘onboarding’ to describe the whole process from an individual’s contact with the
organisation before they formally join, through to understanding the business’ ways of working
and getting up to speed in their job.
Employee induction programs differs from company to company and also depends on the type of
industry. Some view induction programs as a chance to welcome and support new employees,
while other companies view the induction programme as a waste of time and hope that their new
employees ‘hit the ground running’
Apart from being a legal obligation, the new employee induction program is an essential and
critical final piece of the hiring process.
A formal definition of induction is “Planned introduction of employees to their jobs, their co-
workers and the organization.”
Here are the two main reasons why you should have this in place:
• It starts the employee off with the right information to ensure maximum productivity as
quickly as possible.
• It fulfils your legal obligation to train new workers to do their jobs safely and what to do
in the event of an emergency
In addition, a strong induction process helps reduce stress and anxiety associated with a new job,
and improves their morale and feelings about the new job and organisation they have joined.
Induction programs can include both training and mentoring, can be conducted by HR and/or the
department manager, and may last weeks or even months. Regardless of the length, these programs
allow the employee to gain valuable information regarding the organisation and how they are
expected to integrate with it.
Benefits of induction programs include:
• Workplace Safety
• Increased retention rate
• Improved employee moral
• Increased productivity, and;
• Increased sense of acceptance into the organisation
A well-designed employee induction program not only saves your money and time in the long run
but it avoids money being spent on covering absences such as hiring replacements.
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A number of organisations do not provide a structured induction training which means new
employees are then left to pick up the information necessary on their own or through asking,
following or copying existing employees.
However, new workers are often anxious and a little shy, which may prevent them from getting
information this way. This can lead to new employees not learning the “right” way of doing things,
loss of productivity and serious issues such as safety breeches and in worst case, fatalities. As an
employer you could face financial loss, prosecution, fines and even jail sentence, depending on
circumstances.
Your induction program should include:
• An introduction to your organisation’s policies and procedures
• Face-to-face introduction to key staff
• Tour of the workplace, pointing out all important facilities
• Safety and Emergency procedures
• Instructions on how to complete day-to-day tasks in a safe manner
How to best deliver new employee inductions
Lately, we have seen a massive shift towards cloud-based training as it removes the variables
associated with face-to-face training and unsustainable practices, such as printing thick manuals.
Online training ensures;
• Training content and delivery is consistent.
• Information is kept up to date.
• Record keeping is done automatically
• Training is accessible from anywhere and any device (Which means that new starters can
complete the training even before arriving for their first da
For a long time, online inductions needed a large investment in set up costs and problematic lock-
in contracts. However, that is changing and now Small and Medium Businesses can access today’s
online technology without the big price tag!
OBJECTIVE OF INDUCTION
When a new entrant joins an organization, he/she is an utter stranger to the co-workers, work place
and work environment.
As such, he/she may feel insecure, shy and nervous. The first few days may be all anxious and
disturbing for the new entrant. Comes from rural area, he/she find himself completely at sea in an
industrial town and city. The induction helps reduce such anxieties and dispels doubts and
nervousness from the mind of the new entrant.
He may have anxiety caused by not following the usual practices prevalent in the organization, or
the haphazard procedures, and lack of information.
These may develop discouragement, disillusionment or defective behavior. Induction leads to

reduction of such anxieties; dispels the irrational fears of present employees and hold colleagues
responsible for assisting the new-comer so that he may feel confident.
There is another reason for effective induction. It helps minimize what might be called the reality
shock some new employees undergo. This reality shock is caused by the incompatibility between
what the employees expect in their new jobs and the realities they are confronted with.
The new comer may expect:
1.Opportunities for advancement
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2. Social status and Prestige; the feeling of doing something important and the recognition of this
by others.
3. Responsibility
4.Opportunities to use special aptitude and educational background
5.Challenge and adventure.
6. Opportunities to be creative and original
7. Lucrative salary.
But when these expectations are often fulfilled and, therefore, result in frustrating experiences new
employees, experiences of which include jobs with low initial challenge, inadequate feedback and
inadequate performance appraisals.
This result of “reality shock” orientation can help overcome this problem by providing for more
realistic expectations on the part of new employees and more understanding on the part of the
supervisors.
Finally, the purpose of induction is to introduce the new employee and the organization to each
other, to help them become acquainted, and to help them accommodate each other.
What is expected of the new comer is explained to him like the rules, regulations, policies and
procedures that directly affect him. He is made aware of how his job fits into the overall operation
of the organization, his own duties and responsibilities, and to whom he should look for hen he
has any problem.
PURPOSE OF INDUCTION IN SUMMARY

· Putting the new employee at his ease.
· Creating interest in his job the company.
· Providing basic information about working arrangements.
· Information him about training facilities.
· Creating the feeling of social security.
· Indicating the standards of performance and behavior expected of him. Making the employee
feel that job, however small, is meaningful, that he is not a cog in the vast wheel.
· To intimate them about the mission, aims and objectives of the company.
· Provides information.
· To general information about terms and conditions of employee.
· To stimulate interest.
· To give a clear understanding of their roles and responsibility.
· Minimizes reality stock.
· To helps the new comer to overcome his shyness and nervousness in meeting new people in a
new environment.
· To give new comer necessary information such as location of a café, rest period etc.
· To build new employee confidence in the organization.
· To helps reducing labor turnover and absenteeism.
· It reduces confusion and develops healthy relations in the organization.
· To develop among the new comer a sense of belonging and loyalty to the organization.
· To ensure that the new comer do not from false impression and negative attitude towards
the organization.
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ADVANTAGES OF INDUCTION
· Induction helps to build up a two-way channel of communication between management and
workers.
· Proper induction facilitates informal relations and team work among the employees.
· Induction helps to develop good relations.
· A formal induction programme proves that the company is taking interest in getting him off good
staff
· Reduces employee dissatisfaction and grievances.
· Develops a sense of belongingness and commitment.
· Newcomer adjusts himself to the work quickly, and it sever the time of the supervisor.
· First impression matters a good deal and result in less turnover.
INDUCTION PROCEDURE
An organization has no obligation to make integration of the individual into the organization as
smooth and anxiety- free as possible. Whatever that is achieved through a formal or infor ma l
placement orientation programme depends on the size of the organization and the complexity of
the individual’s new environment.
Many organizations develop formal induction programmes.
These might include a tour of the offices or plant, a talk about the history of the organization, and
short discussion with a
Representatives of the personnel department who will describe the organization’s benefit plans.
Other organizations may utilize an informal induction programme which might include being
assigned to another senior employee who will not only introduce the new worker to other workers
but show him other things too.
There is no model induction procedure. Each industry develops its own procedures as per its needs.
The procedure should basically follow these steps: -
First, the new person needs time and a place to report to work.
Second, it is very important that the supervisor or the immediate boss meet and welcome the
employee to the organization.
Third, administrative work should be completed. Such item as vacations, probationary period,
medical absence, suggestion system should be covered.
Fourth, the departmental induction can be conducted. This should include a get acquainted talk, ,
introduction to the department, explanation of the function of the department, and the job
instruction and to whom he should look for help when has any problem.
Fifth, verbal explanations are supplemented by a wide variety of printed material, employee hand
book, flyers, employee manuals, house-journals, picture stories, cartoons, pamphlets, etc. along
with short guided tour around the plant.
The following steps may be identified as the stages of induction process from the earlier discussion
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INDUCTION PROGRAMME FOR NEW STAFF
The induction programme lists suggested activities to be covered from day one through to the
end of probation.
SESSION SUGGESTED CONTENT OF SESSION

Introduction to the University and • Mission, Vision, Objectives of work area
work area • How the work area fits in to the wider University
Person Responsible – Line • All key operational and social areas to be visited. (e.g.
Manager Offices, Labs, Catering Facilities, Bank, Library)
Introduction to other members of • Go through organisation chart

staff • Discuss roles and responsibilities of staff in general
Person Responsible – Line terms.
Manager • May also want to extend time to allow visits to key
contacts out with work area.
Introduction to the other teams • Purpose/Activities of the other teams/work areas

within the Work area (if • How the team fits in to the work area
appropriate) • How the work area fits into the University
Person Responsible – Line
Manager
Terms and Conditions • Ensure new start has viewed and understood information
Person Responsible – Line contained in the Information for New Employees this
Manager contains important information on terms and conditions.
Performance Standards • Outline specifics of job role – (job description)

Person Responsible – Line • Define goals, objectives, and expectations
Manager • Review probation and performance and development
review/ ADR/ appraisal process.
Culture of the Work area • Make new start aware of local arrangements regarding
Person Responsible – Line hours of work, holiday requests, sickness procedure, after
Manager/Nominee hours working, dress code, lunch arrangements, etc.
• Other University procedures e.g. internet and e-mail
usage, transportation and parking, etc.
Office Systems • Review processes for using office equipment such as:
Person Responsible – Line computer, telephone, voicemail, fax, printer, photocopier,
Manager/Nominee etc.
• Review processes for using other university
equipment/systems such as: libraries, laboratories, open
access computers, etc.
• Review computer security, and software usage.
• Consider environmental efficiencies (waste, recycling,
energy)
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Job Specific Training and • Role specific development needs should be reviewed and
Development a suitable programme of training should be planned that
Person Responsible – Line aligns the individual’s skills to their core duties.
Manager/Nominee • Staff with line management responsibilities should be
clear as to their duties and attend any relevant training.
• Outline the use of annual performance and development
reviews/ ADR as one method for determining ongoing
role specific development needs.
• Introduce University wide training and development
opportunities available to staff.
• Review use of personal development planning tools (i.e.
PDP)
Health and Safety • Physical – fire exits, fire alarms, fire evacuation
Person Responsible – Health & procedure, fire-training arrangements, manual handling,
Safety Co-ordinator/ Line first-aid arrangements, VDU usage, and other
Manager arrangements as required.
Monitoring and Evaluation • It is important that the Induction programme is

Person Responsible – Line monitored and reviewed.
Manager • Throughout the period regular review meetings should be
held and any adjustments made.
• See sample templates to support this process: Checklists,
Evaluations.
Probation • For new staff the Probation Policy will apply

Person Responsible – Line
Manager
SUMMARY
Induction is the planned introduction of new employee to their jobs, their co-workers and the
organization. The main purpose of induction is to relieve the new employee from possible anxiety
and make him or her feel at home on the job.
Induction may be done informally or formally. Informal induction is brief. The employee is
expected to familiarize with the new environment by himself /herself while working on the allotted
job.
Formal induction is lengthy and may last even a few months. Formal induction is shared by the
HR representative and the line manager. The latter briefs the new employee about specific job
duties while all other details are provided by the HR representative. Some companies even conduct
anxiety-reduction seminars.
Preparing for the induction of the new employee, determining the information the new employee
should know, and presenting the information effectively are the requisites of an ideal orientatio n
programme.
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MODULE FOUR
OFFICE MACHINES & EQUIPMENT
Equipment and machines have become an essential part of a modern office. A large number of
appliances and machines are used for speedy, accurate and efficient performance of office
activities. With fast technological development, there is mechanization in office operations
resulting in increase of efficiency.
Office equipment used varies from one office to the others, this office equipment is actually been
use to improved and ease mobility in and around the office environment. The usefulness of this
office equipment will be look at in this module as well as the types of office machine both manual
and electronics gadget.
Importance and Objectives of Office Mechanization Importance:

Efficiency in the office is just as important as efficiency in the factory. Office machines and
appliances are all such equipment which save time and labour in office work. Now-a-days
machines are very popular in offices because of the following reasons:
– The use of machines save time and labour of office assistants. For example, calculations which
human beings may need hours to perform are carried out in seconds with a computer.
– The machines eliminate boredom and fatigue which are harmful for health.
– The operational cost of office is reduced as use of machine eliminates wastage of labour.
– Use of machines has added to accuracy in office work. Cross checking is possible with the help
of machines. Paper work is usually neat, clean and uniform in appearance.
– Use of machines in office is the indicator of modernization.
– When office worker uses same machine for longer time, he develops special skill which is helpful
in office work.
Objectives of Office Mechanization

Mechanization of office refers to use of machines and equipment in office.
These days machines and equipment are widely used in offices. Mechanization in the office has
the following objectives:
(i) Saving of time: Machines turn out more work than what is manually possible. They work faster
and thus there is considerable saving of time.
(ii) Saving of labour: Office machines are labour saving devices. Large volume of work can be
handled by fewer employees and thus there is saving of labour.
(iii) Increasing accuracy: One of the objectives of using machines is accuracy of work especially
in accounting, computation and calculations.
They minimise clerical errors.
(iv) Reduction of monotony: The repetitive nature of office work is generally monotonous and
cause boredom. Human labour can be spared of these effects when machines are used.
(v) Reduction of chances of fraud: Machines like cash Register etc. put a check on frauds and
misappropriation.
(vi) Improving quality of work: Written work produced with the help of machines is usually
neat, clean and uniform in appearance.
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(vii) Ensuring better control: Mechanization of office enables the management to exercise more
effective control over activities. For example, use of Time Recorder at the factory gate ensures
better control over attendance.
(viii) Improving goodwill: The use of machines results in better service to the customers and
public. This enhances the prestige of the organisation.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Mechanization

There are a number of advantages and disadvantages of office mechanization.
Advantages:
The benefits of using office machines and equipment are as follows: -
1. Reduction in operating costs: Office machines are labour saving devices. They save manual
effort and increase productivity and thus lead to overall reduction in operating costs.
2. Higher efficiency: The speed of work is greatly increased. This results in higher efficiency on
account of saving in time. Written matter is generally neat and legible.
3. Greater accuracy: Mechanization ensures accuracy of work, prevents clerical errors and
provides for automatic checking.
4. Relieves monotony: The monotony of all routine work is reduced with the help of machines.
This gives considerable satisfaction to office staff.
5. Effective control: Mechanization enables management to exercise more effective control over
office activities. For example, data can be analysed by computers promptly to check the quickly
of work done.
6. Better service: The use of machines results in improvement of office services and activities.
For example, the invoices, statements and other documents are prepared in legible form and
distributed and despatched more promptly. This enhances the popularity of the organisation.
Disadvantages:
There are certain limitations associated with mechanization of office services.
These limitations are outlined below:
1. Heavy investment: Many office machines like computer require huge initial investme nt.
Generally, it may not be possible to make the maximum use of a costly machine. An idle machine
is as wasteful as idle labour.
2. High maintenance cost: Machines require periodical repair, cleaning, oiling and maintena nce.
This involves an additional cost for the organisation. Apart from this, running cost may also be
very high e.g., computers need air-conditioning and special attention. Breakdown of machine may
cause considerable loss.
3. Cost of skilled operators: special skills are required for operating machines and it is necessary
to pay more for employees skilled and trained staff. Money has also to be spent on the training of
office staff.
4. Problem of changing existing system: Machines purchased for specialised jobs cannot be
adopted to new systems. Machines make the existing system less flexible.
5. Employees resistance: Employees generally do not like installation of machines due to fear of
unemployment and losing their jobs.
6. Risk of obsolescence: Some machines are liable to become obsolete in a relatively short period
of time. The wastage is greater if the machine is comparatively expensive.
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Usefulness of Office Machine
Office machines are used because of the following reasons:
Improves the quality of work.
They aid or speed up the performance of routine functions.
Improves the quality of work.
Use of office machines saves space.
They help to simplify the work of employees
Types of Office Machine

A wide variety of machines has come into use in modern offices. There are machines which give
print-like impression and can write many times faster than the most expert penman. There are
machines which can produce multiple copies of a document. Machines are available for
accounting, calculating and counting cash. Electronic computers can read, store, analyse and
interpret information quickly. In mail room, letters can be opened, sealed, folded, franked, weighed
and addressed automatically with the help of mailing machines. Messages can be sent from one
place to another within no time through teleprinter, fax and telephone.
Typewriter
A typewriter is the most popular and commonly used machine in Government and private offices.
Letters and documents can be typed accurately, neatly and in less time with desired number of
copies. Machines are available in English, and other languages. The typewriters are available in
different sizes and shapes. The more important among them are as follows:
(1) Standard office Typewriter: This is a manually operated machine mainly used for typing
letters, statements and reports. Standard typewriters of various makes such as Godrej, Fasit and
Halda are available in the market.
(2) Portable Typewriter: This is a small light-weight machine specially meant for use by
travelling agents, journalists and executives. The main advantage is portability and compactness.
(3) Noiseless Typewriter: Though this machine is not very popular, but being noiseless, it is
considered to be better than noisy typewriter. A special type of bar is used to reduce the noise. It
is most useful where the typists are required to work in the same room along with the executive
and other office staff.
(4) Electric Typewriter: This machine is operated electrically by a typist. It is faster, less tiring
and gives uniform impression. It is operated with very light touch on the keyboard. It improves the
quality of work and reduces the fatigue. It is good for cutting stencils. This typewriter, though
costlier, has become increasingly popular in big offices. These machines are dependent on power
and require specialised servicing.
(5) Automatic Typewriter: This machine automatically types a standard proforma from a
previously punched or stenciled ‘master’. These machines are capable of bilingual and
documentary transcription. Thus, correspondence in a number of languages can be typed simply
by changing to typing disks. These machines operate at a high speed. When the master is placed
on the machine and it is switched on, the recorded matter is automatically typed at high speed. If
necessary, non-standard matters like names and addresses etc. may be inserted at appropriate
places by manual typing. It is particularly suitable when copies are to be prepared in large numbers.
(6) Variable Type Machine: This machine enables typing of a subject matter with types of various
sizes and styles. In this machine a round printing segment or block is fitted on the front side. The
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typefaces may be interchanged easily according to need. This machine is suitable for preparing
reports and copies of advertisements. It provides a range of type styles - big and small - to give the
required emphasis.
Duplicator
Duplicating is a process whereby a number of copies are obtained with the help of a master copy.
When multiple copies of a letter or document have to be prepared, it is necessary to make use of
the duplicating machine. A duplicator can produce copies of a notice or report in quantities ranging
from less than a hundred to thousands. A wide range of duplicators are available. The main types
of duplicators are described below.
1. Gelatine Duplicator: This is one of the oldest duplicating machines. It contains gelatine tray
on which the master copy, prepared and written with a special ink, is pressed. The copying paper
is then pressed on the gelatine tray one after another with the help of a roller to obtain copies.
Only a limited number of copies say 20 to 25 can be prepared.
2. Spirit Duplicator: This machine is also known as a hectograph. This is an improvement over
gelatine system. Spirit duplicators are used to reproduce drawings, handwritten and typewritte n
matter in a variety of colours. A ‘master sheet’ is prepared on a special paper with a glossy surface.
The master sheet is inserted in the duplicator around the drum of the machine. Copy papers are fed
into the duplicator, one after the other. The paper passes under a felt pad which dampens it with
spirit before it comes into contact with the master sheet on the drum. The drum is rotated. The
pressure lever is adjusted to ensure that master and copy paper are pressed together. This process
leaves a positive image on the copy paper. This method is simple, economical and several colours
can be reproduced by using carbon of different colours. The main drawback is production of
limited number of copies say 200 to 300 from each master sheet.
3. Stencil Duplicator: The most commonly used method of duplicating in the office is the stencil
duplicating process. It is also known as cyclostyle or mimeograph. It needs (a) stencil, (b)
duplicating ink, (c) duplicating paper and (d) duplicating machine. Stencil paper is a fibrous tissue
which is coated with a wax like substance. The stencil is cut by the type face or stylus pushing
aside the stencil coating to permit the ink to flow through the fibrous tissue. This stencil is inserted
in the duplicator and fixed over the drum. The duplicating paper is fed in the machine manually or
automatically by rotation of the drum. The paper receives the ink through the cuts in the stencil.
Nearly 1000 to 5000 copies can be prepared through this process.
The advantages of this process are: (1) Quality of reproduction is good.
(2) The machine can be operated with speed i.e., 200 copies per minute can be prepared.
(3) Stencils may be stored for future use.
(4) Corrections on stencil can be made with the help of correcting fluid.
(5) The process is considered economical.
There are some drawbacks also like:
(1) The duplicating paper is not useful for making pen and ink entries.
(2) It is very difficult to obtain copies in different colours.
(3) It proves expensive if only a few copies are required. A small office cannot afford it.
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4. Offset duplicator: It is a photographic process. The machine is capable of reproducing
drawings, handwritten matter, typed illustrations etc. Multicolour work is also possible by a special
process. The preparation of offset ‘master’ is the first stage. The master is fixed to the cylinder. It
is first brought into contact with damping rollers and then inked by an ink roller which takes up
the inked image in reverse. The paper fed in the machine receives the positive image and drops in
the receiving tray.
The main advantages are: economy, quality reproduction, consistency, speed and uniformity.
Nearly 3000 to 5000 copies per hour can be duplicated. The process suffers from certain
limitations: The initial cost is relatively higher. It requires specialised training for operation and
colours are not easily reproduced.
5. Typeset Duplicator: Individual pieces of type for each letter are set up round the outside of a
drum. The printing takes place usually by means of an inked ribbon. It can be operated manually
or with the help of a motor. It can produce up to 3000 copies per hour. The machine is quite
expensive and particularly suitable for printing on cards. The process of setting up the type is slow
and laborious.
Accounting Machines
Every office has to provide accounting services to the organisation. These services may be
provided manually or with the help of Accounting Machines.
The mechanization of accounting is becoming increasingly important in large organisations as they
have to cope with a large amount of figure work. Accuracy and speed are the main features of
accounting machines and it enables analysis of various types of figures for different purposes
within minutes or even seconds.
Some of the more common types of accounting machines are: -
1. Adding Machines
2. Calculating Machines
3. Cash Registers
1. Adding Machines
Various type of adding machines are available in the market. They can be operated manually or
electrically and they may be listing or non-listing types. Listing machines provide printed record
but non-listing machines give the result. In a manually operated machine, keys are depressed and
the machine adds and prints when the crank at its side is pulled. In electrically operated machine,
the power bar takes the place of crank. These machines may also perform other mathematica l
operations like subtraction, multiplication and division. There are three kinds of adding machines–
ten key type, full keyboard type and half keyboard type.
Adding machines are used for several clerical operations e.g., listing of cheques and invoices,
totaling payments by cheque or cash, preparing trial balance, tallying wage payments, checking
cash balances, preparing sales analysis and preparing cost-sheets.
2. Calculating Machines:
A calculating machine can perform a variety of functions: addition, subtraction, multiplicatio n,
division, percentages, square and cube roots etc. There are five types of calculating machines - (1)
Printing, (2) key-driven, (3) Rotary, (4) Automatic and (5) Electronic calculator.
A brief description of these calculators is given below.
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The printing calculator provides printed details of the calculations made and the result of each
calculation. The key-driven calculator is the full keyboard non-listing machine and can be
manually or electrically operated.
The Rotary calculator is primarily used for division and multiplication.
Any composite number is added, multiplied, subtracted or divided by one rotation of a handle -
clockwise or anti-clockwise action. The Automatic calculator is actually a rotary calculator but
operates electrically. The operator has merely to press a button to set it in motion. The Electronic
calculators are available with full-bank keyboards which perform calculations quickly by the use
of electric transistors and impulses.
These machines contribute greatly to office efficiency by eliminating routine mental calculatio ns.
They also contribute to economy in staffing and can perform a variety of functions with speed and
accuracy. Calculations become a pleasure instead of monotonous work. The main drawbacks are:
the machines are expensive for small offices and they cause loss of mental ability.
3. Book-Keeping Machines
These machines enter information in accounting books and transfer amounts from one book to
another through posting. Various types of posting machines are available e.g., full keyboard, ten
keyboard, full keyboard with typewriter, ten keyboard with typewriter, analysis keyboard,
automatic, etc. These machines are used for various functions such as: entering transactions in
journal and cash book, posting them in ledger accounts, preparation of receipts and payments
sheets, payrolls, ledger accounts and balance sheet. The machines are fitted with programming
devices which may be preset for a number of different jobs. The merits of these machines are:
legibility and tidiness of entries, checking of accuracy, printing of balances, cumulative totaling
and preparation of payroll, pay slip and personal record. The accounting machines are somewhat
expensive and needs skilled operators. They are also subject to frequent breakdowns.
Cash Registers:
These machines record on paper roll cash receipts. The customers in departmental stores need
receipts and cash memos. The operator receives the amount, keeps it in shelves made below the
machine and issues receipt or cash memo. The machine prints the amounts on rolled paper which
is visible through a glass panel on the top of the machine. It automatically records cumulative total
of receipts. At the close of the day, the owner or manager can open the machine lock to know the
total sales. The amount kept in shelves can be checked with the cumulative total.
The merits of the equipment are: The record of cash receipts are neat, clean and accurate. There
is no chance of arithmetical errors. Any time the total amount of sale can be known. The chances
of fraud are eliminated. Duplicate copy of receipt is not needed.
The main drawbacks are: Correction of errors is difficult and the receipts do not have complete
details. In spite of these demerits this machine is used widely in business houses and at collectio n
counters of different organisations.
Other types of machines you are likely to meet in most offices are:
Manual office equipment, stapler, coffee making machine, typewriters, storage devices (file
bookshelf), office phone (CDMA (code division multiple access
I. Stapler: For holding documents together
II. Perforators: used for punching holes into document to make attachment to file neater.
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III. Cash register: This is used in the cash office to receive cash and compute cash received from
clients/customers. They are also used for computations.
IV. Paper Shredders: used in shredding unneeded documents to protect against leakage of content
in the process of disposal.
V. File cabinets: For storage of folders and protection of documents from fire outbreak, theft etc.
VI. Office chairs: which comes either in swivel or stationary form, it is used for sitting in offices.
The design is dependent on several factors some of which include seniority, size of space, purpose
etc.
VII. Binding Machine: used for putting sheets of a document or content of a file together
VIII. Typewriters: used for typing documents. Its use is fast becoming obsolete
Electronic office equipment, printers, scanners, fax machine, photocopiers, storage device (flash
drive, CD), computers, projectors, office phone (Answering machine)
a. Photocopiers: This is a machine used to copy from original documents. The original document
may be handwritten, printed or typewritten. Photocopiers are used to prepare extra copies of
documents.
b. Facsimile (Fax) Machine: This machine scans printed, typewritten texts and images and
transmits them through telephone lines to a receiving fax machine that converts the electronic
signals back to the original text or image. The machine converts printed material or images into
electronic signals. Suitable for transmission through telephone lines, cables or satellite networks,
facsimile machines could store messages and transmit them later at a time when transmission costs
are cheaper.
c. Calculating Machine: This is used mainly in the office for calculations and complex
computations
d. Scanners: used for scanning images of documents to computers for printing, storage, display
or communication via the internet.
e. Computers: Perhaps the most common equipment in modern offices, it is used for data and
word processing, document storage, communication, presentation etc. These days the computer is
the most commonly used machine in big offices. A computer is a machine that can perform a
variety of operations such as: arithmetical calculations, comparison of data, storage of informatio n,
analysis of data and preparation of diagrams and charts. The main component of computer is the
‘memory’ unit. The input data and ‘programmes’ are fed and remain available for reproduction.
With the help of Word Processing Programme one can compose letters, memos, reports etc. visible
on screen, edit them, save them and print as often as needed. A document is given a file name and
stored on disk or cassettes. You can produce an error-free document as per your requirement. You
move shadow ‘editing cursor’ around the screen to correct mistakes, to insert, delete and move
blocks of text from one place to another.
High speed, flexibility and accuracy are three main advantages of the computer.
The main disadvantages are: high initial and operating cost, need of trained staff and serious
disorder in case of breakdowns.
Types of Computers used in any office environment:

Mainframe Computer: These large, powerful and expensive computers could be made used off by
more than one user at the same time, within large organizations
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Personal Computer (PC): Initially produced by IBM in 1981, for executing a single task by a
single user at the time. Today, a single person can execute many tasks simultaneo us ly
(multitasking).
Apple Macintosh (Mac): They are computer made by the Apple company and are usually
produced for personal use
Laptop computer (notebook): it consists of LCD display and a small keyboard. Although they
are relatively small computers, they still perform the same thereby making mobility possible.
Personal Digital Assistant - PDA (Palm): These are small computers that can fit into pocket or
the user's palm. It was developed for performing basic personal/business functions like:
Maintaining the address book,
Accessing and browsing the Internet,
Sending/receiving e-mails, etc. and
Mail Room Equipment & Communication System

Mail Room Equipment
The mail room staff is always busy in repetitive duties concerning the inward and outward mail.
In large organisations, the volume of mail is also large. So, its handling becomes difficult and time
consuming. It also causes monotony and boredom. Use of various mechanical devices helps to
reduce monotony and increase the efficiency of mailing operations
Equipment and machines in mail room provide the following benefits: -
i) increases the speed of operations
ii) saves time and improves efficiency and accuracy.
iii) eliminates wastage
iv) simplifies fixing of postage
v) avoids misuse of postage stamps
vi) speeds up the delivery of letters.
The following types of equipment and machines are used in the mail room:
Letter Opener
Letters may be opened by hand or by the letter opening machine. The machine is used when the
number of mails received is very large. It operates manually or electrically at a great speed. It can
open 100 to 500 letters per minute. It has a rotary knife which shaves off a very thin slice of the
edge of envelopes. It does not damage the contents of the envelope.
Folding Machine
A machine of this type is of great service when letters are sent in large numbers. This machine is
capable of folding papers to the size required for insertion in the envelopes. A folding machine can
fold 5,000 to 20,000 sheets per hour. It is possible to fold, insert and make letters ready for mailing
with this machine. The machine is to be adjusted as per the needs of foldings.
Sealing Machine
This machine is used to automatically moisten the flaps of envelopes and seal them properly. The
machine is very useful in those offices where a large number of envelopes have to be sealed every
day. Certain machines are designed to seal with wax. Another type of machine is available in which
a strip is pasted on the flap. Hand operated sealing machines can seal about 150 envelopes a minute
while electrically operated ones can operate at a speed of 25000 envelops an hour.
Mailing Scale
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In big business organisations large quantity of mail is sent every day. Postal stamps on mail are to
be affixed as per postal rates which are prescribed according to weight. The Mailing Scale is used
to weigh so that correct postage stamps can be affixed on them.
Numbering, Dating and Time Recording Machines
After opening the mail, letters are stamped with time and date of receipt. A serial number is given
for numerical reference. An automatic numbering machine is popular for stamping serial numbers
of letters received. The serial numbers automatically change in this machine. Dating machine is
used for stamping date on mail. Four rubber rings with the impression of date, month and year
rotate on wheels. Self-inking stamp pad is used for inking the impression. Time recording machine
is used for recording the accurate time of arrival of letters. Assistants enter the opened letter into
the machine and it prints the correct time on it accurately.
Addressing Machine
This machine is used to print addresses on envelopes, wrappers, parcels etc. to be sent frequently
to a large number of regular customers. In Addressograph machine inked ribbon is used to print
the addresses from plates. List of addresses once prepared can be repeatedly used any number of
times. The address plates are stacked on a hopper fitted to the machine. The required plates are
automatically selected and fed into the machine. These machines may be operated manually or
electrically.
Franking Machine
This machine is used to make impressions of the required denomination of postage stamps on the
outbound letters and envelopes. It is very popular in large offices where thousands of letters have
to be stamped every day. The Franking Machine can be hired under a license from the Post-Office.
Rent is charged for use of the machine. The letter to be stamped is inserted in the machine and a
handle is operated. The machine marks the letter with the required denomination of the postage
stamp. It stops when the total value of the postage is used up. It can be again re-set by the Post
Office on further payment.
The benefits are: (1) It avoids errors in stamping
(2) eliminates wastage of stamps
(3) simplifies the counting of stamps
(4) avoids risk of misappropriation of postal stamps and
(5) there is no need to go to Post Office every time.
The limitations are: (1) It can be misused for private mail; (2) Franked letters cannot be posted
but have to be handed over at the Post Office; (3) There is no proof of posting the letters; (4) Errors
in franking cannot be rectified.
Teleprinter
Teleprinters are machines which have typewriter- like keyboard and are connected to a control
exchange through dialing. This service is also known as TELEX which provides a means of printed
communication.
Teleprinters are installed by the Telecommunication Department on request on rental basis. It
consists of two machines to be places at two ends for transmission and reception of messages.
They operate on electromagnetic principles. Any message typed on one machine is simultaneo us ly
typed at the receiving end by an automatic process. Each Telex subscriber is given a number. This
device works at a very high speed.
The main advantages are: (1) The system is less costly and easy to operate;
(2) It is very useful for news agencies;
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(3) It can be used between departments and branches of big organisations;
(4) An ordinary typist can send messages with a little training.
Fax
The FAX service enables instant transmission of the facsimile of an entire document. It can send
handwritten and printed matter as well as pictures; charts and diagrams to different locations within
or outside the country.
The advantage of this service over TELEX is that it sends messages without the need for typing.
This service is permitted on existing telephone lines on a dial-up basis. The FAX machine is to be
procured and owned by the user and should be attached to the telephone lines.
Electronic Mail (E-mail)
This machine provides a system of mail without using the postal services. It is a new device for
transmitting text or data directly from a computer or word processor. It is an internatio na l
electronic communication network specially designed for use with automated text processing
machines. It is known as TELEX. It is fifty times faster than telex or teleprinter. TELETEX can
also be linked with telex so that the user can communicate with every terminal on the internatio na l
telex network.
Internal and External Uses of Telephone
Now-a-days it is impossible to imagine the office without a telephone. It is the most convenie nt
means of oral communication. It is widely used for internal as well as external communicatio n.
Telephone calls are classified according to distance and area as local calls, trunk calls and overseas
calls. The following types of internal and external services are available to telephone users:
(a) Direct Link: Under this system there is one telephone apparatus with a definite number. It is
used as a means of external communication. As and when the specific number is dialed, the bell
rings at the receiving end and communication can start with the lifting of the receiver.
(b) Direct Link with Extension: A telephone connection with one to three extensions can be
provided by P & T Department. Both the main connection and extensions can be used for interna l
as well as external communication.
(c) Private Branch Exchange (PBX) System: Under this system the internal telephone extensions
are brought together on a private switchboard. An operator helps in providing connection to
various callers. All the internal and external calls are handled by the operator. This system has
been quite popular in big organisations.
(d) Private Automatic Branch Exchange (PABX) System: Under this system there is no need
for telephone operators because the system is automatic. The internal communication from one
extension is possible by dialing the relevant internal phone number. However, external
communications are sent through operator or by dialing a particular number say ‘zero’. Up to 50
lines can be provided under this system.
(e) Electronic Private Automatic Branch Exchange (EPABX):
It is an improvement over PABX by making it an electronic device for automatic telephone
connections. Programming of telephone connections is possible. If the person called is not
available in his seat, the connection will automatically shift to other extension as per the
programme.
(f) Intercom: It is an automatic system of office intercommunications. It does not require an
exchange. Multicore cable is used throughout the installation so that each telephone can be
connected direct to every other. Under this system the message cannot be kept a secret. A third
party can listen to the conversation in progress.
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(g) Local calls: The calls which are made within the local limits of a telephone system are called
local calls. Local calls up to a certain limit are free and beyond that number of calls they are
charged.
(h) Subscriber’s Trunk Dialing (STD) calls: STD services for outstation calls is now available
mostly in all cities. Telephone subscribers with STD facility can directly dial any number in other
cities. Every city is allotted a code number and dialing of the code number connects the city and
after that the particular telephone number is to be dialed. The charge for STD calls varies according
to duration of talk and distance.
(i) International Subscriber’s Trunk Dialing (ISTD) calls: On the pattern of STD calls, the
telephonic talk with other countries is also possible through ISTD. All countries and cities have
been allotted specific code numbers for that purpose.
(j) Demand Calls: In out-of-town calls to any place the telephone number is conveyed to the
telephone operator in exchange for demanding calls. The operator connects with the number as
and when the line is free.
(k) Trunk Calls: Trunk calls can be made through the Telephone Exchange for contacting people
outside the local limits. On request the operator connects the number required. Nowadays these
are substituted by STD calls. Trunk calls may be ordinary calls, lighting calls, urgent calls, priority
calls etc.
Effective equipment inventory management

1. Know what you have
Do you know exactly what equipment is in your inventory? You might have an idea, even though
we believe the combined value of all your supporting equipment is probably higher than you’d
expect.
Even if you have an overview, is it a living thing? A list of the equipment in your inventory from
a year ago is worth less than the paper it is printed on.
Your equipment inventory list should be:
• Complete: include all of your assets
• Accurate: provide enough information – value, location, capabilities, …
• Up-to-date: always reflect your changing inventory
2. Track how it is used
Once you know what you have, the next step is knowing exactly how it is being used. There are
several questions you should be able to answer for each piece of equipment in your inventory:
How often is it used?
Who uses it
When and where is it used
When you know what you have and how it is used you can make informed decisions about your
current and future equipment management strategy. Time to start making improvements!
3. Right asset, right place, right time
If you have multiple locations, how should you divide your assets between them? An equal divisio n
sounds logical but is not effective, as demand for equipment is unlikely to be the same everywhere.
With accurate and up-to-date usage data you can deploy your assets where they are needed most.
Why have equipment gathering dust in one place when there is a shortage elsewhere?
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Demand and supply fluctuate over time as well. Offering a discount might let you make money on
items that weren’t going to be used anyway, or you can rent extra equipment yourself to bridge
short periods of increased demand.
4. Don’t spend more – spend smarter

One way to ensure that the right equipment is available at the right time is to buy more of
everything. But this is inherently wasteful – some of the extra equipment will be put to good use,
while the rest will simply sit in storage.
Luckily, we can avoid this waste, based on the information we gathered in the earlier steps. By
prioritizing your spending on the equipment that is used most you can get the most bang for
your buck!
5. Fix things before they break
Would you rather:
• A: Spend an hour every week making sure your equipment is in great shape
• B: Spend a day every month repairing equipment that has broken down
Even looking simply at time spent maintenance is clearly the best choice. And while equipment
always seems to break down at the worst time possible, you can plan your maintenance ahead of
time.
Equipment that is used all the time is obviously more valuable to your business than equipment
that is used once a week. But it is also more likely to break down, so it is in higher need of regular
maintenance. Plan maintenance based on need, instead of a fixed schedule for all equipment, to
make optimal use of your time.
And because you know when your equipment is most likely to be idle you can schedule
maintenance to reduce its impact on the rest of your business.
6. Find underlying issues
If an important piece of equipment breaks down once, it’s an annoyance. But what if it keeps
breaking down, over and over? Now that you have data on your equipment, use it!
Look for trends so you can find underlying issues instead of scratching the surface.
Perhaps the breakdowns are caused by an employee who didn’t receive the proper training and has
been using the equipment the wrong way. In this case replacing the equipment won’t solve the
problem – it’ll just cost you more money in the long run!
7. Buy the best
Inevitably equipment will have to be replaced or upgraded. But here again you can use the
information you’ve gathered to spend your money smarter.
• Which brands cause the most issues?
• Which equipment is liked best?
• Which equipment loses you the most time and money by breaking down?
8. Use the right equipment inventory system
You can of course try to keep track of this information with pen and paper – just as you can still
use horse-drawn carts to get around.
Spreadsheets are another option – but that option has drawbacks as well.
We might be slightly biased, but we truly do believe that using a modern, user-friendly equipment
inventory system is the best solution for your business. It automates a lot of the background work,
so you can focus on the things that really matter.
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Maintaining Machines and Equipment
All tools, equipment and vehicles must be properly maintained so that workers are not endangered.
Construction regulations require inspections of vehicles, tools, machines and equipment before
use.
Preventive maintenance is the systematic care and protection of tools, equipment, machines and
vehicles in order to keep them in a safe, usable condition, limit downtime and extend productivity.
We must always be aware that maintenance tasks themselves are potentially hazardous and can
result in injury. The successful maintenance program is:
• well organized and scheduled,
• controls hazards,
• defines operational procedures, and
• trains key personnel.
The degree of detail to include in your company's program regarding equipment maintenance will
depend on the kinds of tools/equipment used. Some construction equipment (cranes) have very
specific inspection and maintenance requirements. Mobile heavy equipment (dozers, loaders,
scrapers) may have different maintenance requirements. Passenger Vehicles (company trucks, cars
and vans) may require only basic maintenance. Power Tools should be maintained in good working
order. This may be limited to ensuring that blades/bits are replaced when needed and that guards
or other safety devices are operable and any damaged electrical cords/plugs are repaired or
replaced. Damaged or defective equipment/tools should be tagged and removed from service.
Most manufacturers can provide maintenance schedules for their equipment. Large companies
with a fleet of vehicles/equipment typically have a comprehensive maintenance program due to
the capital investment and/or leasing agreements. Smaller companies may lease equipment and
maintenance services may be included in the leasing agreement.
Requirements
General requirements for equipment maintenance include:
• Obtaining a copy of the maintenance schedule recommended by the manufacturer.
• Ensuring that maintenance is performed as required.
• Ensuring that the person(s) performing the maintenance are competent (e.g. licensed
mechanic).
• Retaining records of maintenance/service conducted.
• Specifying who is responsible for overseeing equipment maintenance and where the
records are kept.
• Set up a system for removal and tagging of damaged or defective tools and equipment.
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MODULE FIVE
OFFICE PROCEDURES & RECORDS MANAGEMENT
Policies and Procedures
Even if an office is ideally designed, it cannot function to its potential if the people in it do not.
Practice objectives provide overall direction for making decisions, and office policies and
procedures serve as mechanisms for their accomplishment. Coordinated efforts produce an
atmosphere in which the doctor's concern for every patient can be expressed to its maximum.
Definite office policies and carefully planned procedures are the prerequisites for running a smooth
and efficient practice. Goals, however, cannot be achieved solely by establishing rules. You and
your team must make them happen. Sound policies and procedures can relieve you of mundane
decision-making chores so that time is available for more pertinent tasks.
There is a distinct difference between an office policy and an office procedure. A policy is a basic
statement, principle, or predetermined guideline covering a limited area on which the practice
operates and serves to achieve its objectives. A procedure is an even more specific method or
system, limited in scope, by which a policy will be administered. It describes how particular
activities are to be conducted. For example, a credit policy establishes whether cash-only payments
will be accepted for services or if credit will be extended and under what circumstances and limits.
On the other hand, a credit procedure defines the methods and systems by which the credit policy
will be executed such as how charges will be recorded, how and when statements will be mailed,
how records will be filed, how overdue accounts will be processed, how clerical jobs would be
measured, employee performance measurement and other such management and administra tive
methods.
Office policies vary widely depending on the size of the practice, staff abilities, and the personal
philosophy of the doctor involved. Each doctor selects those policies and procedures that lend
themselves best to the doctor's training, time, and work habits. In addition, a policy appropriate for
a large firmly established practice may be far from ideal for a small recently established practice.
Upon employment, each assistant should be made aware of what is established in the way of
practice policies and employee policies. Practice policies relate to those nonpersonal policies such
as office hours, billings, collections, inventory control, etc. Employee policies concern personnel
policies such as working hours, duties and responsibilities, salaries, overtime, holidays, vacations,
sick leave, insurance benefits, etc.
RECORDS MANAGEMENT
Records management is part of information management because it involves the systematic
analysis and control of all forms of records which include paper records, microfilm, and optical
media. These forms of records management involve the use of improved electronic technology to
store information other than conventional files.
However, the management of paper records which are written communication remains the major
focus of many conventional and moderate or average electronic office.
Records management is one function which is common to offices in small or large organizatio ns.
The size of an organization generally determines the type of record management that may be
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operated there. In this module you will be made to understand some basic methods of records
storage.
The Concept of Filing
You may recall that when you first enrolled in your programme of this polytechnic, you were given
documents which you were required to file, that are place in your file jacket. You should at this
point note that filing simply means placing the right papers or documents in the right file.
A more technical definition of filing is that it is the process of collecting, classifying and arranging
documents for the purpose of keeping and ensuring that they can quickly be retrieved whenever
required. This is the most important part of the filing process, because a file which is placed in the
wrong file could be difficult to find when the document is required.
Much of filing work that takes place in an office include letters, forms inquires, circulars and other
documents that have been received by the organization. When these documents have been filed,
they now become office records.
Purpose of Filing
Filing documents is meant to achieve three main purposes:
1) Protecting the document from wear and tear that may arise out of frequent use or poor handling,
dirt, dust or unforeseen circumstance, such as fire or flood water.
2) Retrieving the document without delay.
3) Providing the source of evidence in case of litigation or similar situation
Evidence of efficient filing
An efficient filing system should exhibit the following features:
- The filing system should be simple and quick to understand and operate.
- The filing cabinets should be conveniently located while the files within the cabinets should be
easy to find. Authorized staff should be able to have easy access to the files
- The filing system should be suitable to the type of business undertaken by the organization
- The system of filing should be easily adaptable to the change or modification in the business
trend.
- The filing system should be easily adaptable to personnel or equipment changes within the office
- The filing system should not be too expensive to put in place
- The system should ensure the safety of the documents and the equipment used in storing them.
Organization of Filing
Official files may be organized at the central level or at the departmental level. Filing which is
managed centrally is referred to as “Centralized filing”. The one which is organized department
by department is referred to as “Decentralized filing”.
Centralized Filing
In centralized filing system, the files and the filing facilities are located and maintained in a
specialize department from which the various divisions of the organization are served. Essentia lly
all the organizations or firms' documents are filed in one single section of those organizatio ns.
Messengers from these other sections come from time to time to collect or return their files.
Advantages and disadvantages
- There is more effective supervision and control of the records
- It provides opportunity for more specialized staff to be used for the filing functions
- Duplication of documents and equipment is controlled
- A standardized and uniform filing system can easily be established for the organization.
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- It allows effective and efficient follow-up system and absent-file system to be put in place.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of centralized filing include the following:
- Possible delays in the retrieval of documents or files because of distance and the long bureaucratic
process that might be involved - The centralized filing system adopted by the firm may not be
suitable to some departments.
- The confidentiality or safety of classified (e.g. secret) documents may not be guaranteed.
- The centralized filing system may create room for the dumping of outdated or unwanted
documents from other departments.
Decentralized Filing
Decentralized or departmental filing system is one in which each section or department keeps and
maintains its own files and filing facilities. The function of filing may be assigned to a few officers
who may also have some other schedules.
Advantages
The following advantages are claimed for decentralized filing:
- It is convenient as it enables personnel in each section to have easy access to files and documents.
- Each department may use the filing method if deems more suitable to its line of business.
- It is time saving as documents can easily be retrieved.
- It is much easier to preserve the confidentiality of documents.
- Departmental filing provides a good training ground for the staff.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of decentralized filing system are as follows:
- It is expensive to operate
- It involves duplication of documents and equipment
- Incompetent officers may mishandle and there by cause the loss of files
- Supervision and control is less effective in decentralized filing
Determining Effective Filing System
An effective filing system may be determined by the ease with which documents could be
retrieved. To ensure this, an efficient filing process must be established. Let me briefly discuss
these processes.
i. Inspecting correspondence: Each incoming correspondence must be examined to ensure that it
has been released for filing. Release marks or symbols are special marks that are made on the file
to show that it has been dealt with. Release mark may be just a signature, a live across the paper,
a large ‘F’ to indicate the document has been filed. It could be an instruction stamped on the paper
to file it.
ii. Reading and indexing: You should each letter thoroughly to determine how it should be indexed
and filed. This means determining the name, subject or other heading or caption by the way the
correspondence will be requested.
iii. Coding: Coding here means marking the indexing caption of papers to be filed. One way of
coding so is to underline the indexing caption which could be name, subject or place. Coding saves
time when papers are filed for the first time and when they are filed after use.
iv. Cross-referencing: A letter may be called for under more than one name, subject or place and
across-referenced under other names or subheads.
v. Filing: Carve it and proper filing of a document should be made.
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You should ensure that the right file jacket or folder has been selected, and that the letters are
correctly placed with the aid of a string with metal looks at both ends. Iron file tags which are
normally placed at the centre of the file jacket may also be used.
Irrespective of their paper sizes all correspondence should be filed with heading to the left, so that
they can be read at the same time like a book. Number every filed document with red ink or biro
for the purpose of referencing, and to avoid removal without notice.
Steps in Filing
After going through the file under, and seeing that there are letters or documents that have not been
filed proceed to file as follows:
i. Assign a name to each file, using either blocked capitals or inject black typed capitals and provide
dividing guide cards for every twenty to thirty folders
ii. Sort and group correspondence in suitable filing order
iii. File systematically and neatly, in the order in which the documents come each day and place
each one squarely them squarely in their respective files.
iv. Ensure that each correspondence is placed correctly on the right folder by checking file index
properly, and where a document is to be placed in more than on file use clear cross-reference.
v. Remove all paper clips, and in their place, use staple for papers that need to be kept together, to
avoid single papers being trapped and being file wrongly.
Note that filing is done in date order and placing latest paper on tap or in front and number it.
Where the firm uses the book number, put the latest paper at the back and number it.
Range of Office Files

Files are often described in line with the level of their use in an organization. The levels which
files are used are based on how active they are often in demand. Six levels of file activeness are
identified as follows:
1) Active file: Files in this category are always in demand for action by schedule officers.
Examples include personnel files, wages and salaries files, work in progress or contract files in
this category are kept in place where they can be easily reached.
2) Semi-Active file: Files in this category are relatively action in other words the frequency with
which reference is made to them is not as high as those in the first category. In this class are files
on disciplinary and promotion matters.
3) Inactive files: As the name implies files in this category are dormant, as it contains obsolete
papers and documents which the organization is required by law to preserve for a stipulated
number of years before they may be destroyed.
4) Pending files: Pending files are those that are kept in abeyance, since action may not be taken
on them until occasion demands it.
5) Temporary files: This file contains correspondence that require urgent action, but which cannot
be treated in their original file, owing to the engagement of the file at the particular time. Such
correspondences are returned to their original files as soon action has been completed on them.
6) Miscellaneous files: Correspondence which does not have specific files of their own is treated
on the miscellaneous files.
When the correspondences have eventually been transferred to their main file, the miscellaneo us
file is destroyed.
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Categorization of Files in Terms of Priority of Treatment
It is not every file that comes into an office that is given equal treatments. As a rule, files are treated
in relation to the priority of their treatment. It is on this account that files have been classified
under four levels in the order of their importance or importance of their contents. They are as
follows:
1) Top secret files: This type of file is handled with the highest degree of confidentiality.
Information on such a file is restricted to top management staff because of its very secretive and
sensitive nature.
2) Secret file: Files in this category with high sense of confidentiality. Matters in this file are
usually restricted to some categories of senior staff.
3) Confidential file: Matters on this type of file are private and personal in nature and usually relate
to employees of the organization, and to enquire that are personal on nature.
4) Open file: This file contains matters which any office staff of the organization may have access
to. Nothing in it is confidential or restricted.
All files of confidential or secret nature are usually treated in the secret registry. The envelopes
and the content of such letters are often marked top secret, secret or confidential. The mail clerk
must always take such correspondence to the secret registry unopened.
File Movement
One evidence of a good filing system is best demonstrated by the extent to which the movement
of files is maintained.
One document which is needed to maintain efficient file movement is called the file movement
book or file movement register.
A file movement register is a booklet which is use to keep the movement of files which leave one
department or section of the organization. A typical example of the file movement register is shown
in fig… below.
Fig M5.1: FILE MOVEMENT REGISTER
File Date Dept Collected Date Returned Date
Name/No Borrowed By Collected By Returned
As indicated above, the register records the file number, date borrowed, department which
borrowed it, the officer who collected the file and date of collection. When the file is returned the
identification of the staff who returned the file and date returned must be indicated. By this process,
when the file is missing, it is possible to trace it to the last office or department which signed for
and collected the file.
Cross-Referencing
Cross-referencing means providing data or information that would enable one to get informa tio n
or correspondence in respect of a person or firm, in an alternative file.
Generally, people, particularly women change their names when they are married. Firms may also
change their names as a result of merger.
Filing clerks, therefore, have the responsibility of organizing the system in his/her file so that
anyone who is looking for an out of date name would be directed to the new or more current name.
This is what is involved on cross-referencing.
Usually a sheet is made out as shown below and placed in files under the old name:
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FIG. M5.2
CROSS REFERENCE SHEET
FOR CORRESPONDENCE: Maria Ekpenyong
SEE
Mrs Maria Okafor
Cross-referencing can also be used for goods and suppliers, for example:
For suppliers of computers, look under: Electronic equipment, cross referencing may also be used
for a variety of items such as a letter dealing with two topics; e.g. (see example)
FIG.M5.3
CROSS REFERENCE SHEET
FOR CORRESPONDENCE FOR: Complaints
SEE
Payments and Complaints
SYSTEMS OF FILING AND INDEXING

Filing systems have to do with the methods of placing files in the file cabinets or containers. The
next point you have to note is that files may be placed in the file cabinet ho containers. The next
point you have to note is that files may be placed in the file cabinet horizontally, vertically or
laterally (as in the case of books) some of the methods by which files may be placed in the file
cabinets are discussed below.
Horizontal filling
Horizontal filing otherwise called flat filling remains one of the oldest methods of filing. The
system is used in modern times to keep drawings, charts, plans, photographs and tracing papers
which are stored in flat positions in cabinets which are filled with shallow drawers. Few
organizations which still maintain this type of filing system include those of engineering and
architecture.
This system is only effective where the volume of correspondence is small, and where there is
need to keep a particular set of papers together.
As indicated above, it is only required when the volume of correspondence is small. Its usefulness
in modern business organizations appears to be waning.
Vertical Filing
Sometimes referred to as drawer filing owing to the fact it owes its origin to the use of rawer filing
cabinets. Vertical filing is a highly adaptable system since it can be used in variety of
classifications to suit the requirements of different organizations. Some file may use as many as
six drawers. Documents are filed vertically in the drawers.
What is needed to operate vertical filing system includes strong or hard folders and guide cards
which may be tabbed in alphabetical order.
The following are the advantages of vertical filing system:

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i. Papers and folders cannot easily be displaced
ii. Folders need not be removed when inserting or removing papers from the file
iii. Documents can easily be protected from fire.
However, the following are the disadvantages of vertical system of filling:

i) It is only accessible to only one person at a time
ii) It is expensive to operate
iii) It tends to take additional space when the drawer is open
Lateral Filing
Lateral filing is synonymous with book filing because files are placed on the shelves like books
are the files are demarked by vertical dividers at intervals. Interconnected concertina pockets hung
on the rails are filled laterally in cupboards or shelves.
One advantage of the lateral filing occupies less floor space, cheaper to operate than vertical filing.
Files are easy to remove and replaced. On the contrary, files may be easily exposed to dirt and
dust. Reading of file titles may be difficult because of the way files are placed on each other.
Suspension Filling:
In suspension filing, files are suspended vertically from metal frames which are fitted inside the
drawers. The pockets are provided with flat tops which house the printed or typed titled strips. To
prevent misfiling several colours of the strips are used. The pockets are arranged in the form of
concertina in order to prevent the loss of documents which may become loose.
Note that a folder is provided for each suspended pocket and labelled to correspond with the title
strip; papers are filed in the inner folder and placed inside the suspended pocket. The pockets can
accommodate several folders. The advantages of suspension filing may be listed as follows:
1. Coloured metal chip-on signals are used as reminders or to indicate important facts to staff.
2. It is easy to add new files without difficulty
3. It allows for conspicuous, display of names or numbers of files
4. It is easy to find inside folders and to replace same where necessary
5. All titles become visible as the drawer is opened.
On the negative side of this filing system, is that a long time and a serious care is required to label
folders to correspond with the title strips, poor arrangement of tabs may result in poor visibility of
files.
Microfilm Filling
Microfilm filing involves the process of retaining documents for which permanent record is
required to be kept. The process involves taking photographs documents and reducing their sizes
in order to reduce the large amount of information into a small role of films or separate frames of
films.
Documents are usually microfilmed in order to:
- Protect the content from fire
- Preserve vital or confidential records
- Safeguard customers cheques by banks
- Keep the records of books and other information in the libraries
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- Keep records of plans drawings, sketches or maps in a drawing office
- To keep records of case history of patients in the hospitals
- Keep the record of history at the police stations.
Two types of equipment are required for making microfilm records:
1) Camera for filming the data
2) Scanner machine for projecting the filmed documents on to the screen for immediate or
subsequent reading.
Microfilming provides an economic method of filing and preserving records on a relative ly
permanent basis. However, microfilming equipment is expensive, and may be difficult to retrieve
one’s records for one’s use.
Electronic Filing
With computer-assisted document, filing and indexing and index data may be stored and processed
electronically, however the documents themselves still remain in paper of microfilm. In
appropriate filing systems, some or whole documents may be stored in machine-readab le,
computer-processed form on magnetic disks or other media. [You need to note that there are two
forms of computer storage: These are on-line storage and off-line storage.
On-line storage:
The following procedure may be adopted in developing on-line storage
- Create a document: Enter file name or other indexing term
- Instead of printing out a copy or microfilming the document, retain it on a disk for retrieval later.
This technique is said to be particularly effective when using multi-terminal installations where
documents can be accessed even from remote workstations.
The advantage of storing documents in computer system saves space than would be the case in
paper filing system.
The disadvantage of computer filing is that data stored on computer-processed magnetic media are
not stable and must be recopied from time to time to prevent deterioration or loss.
Off-line storage:
The storage space provided by most word processing processors is too limited to accommodate
extensive records and large database. So as available disks become full, older records have to be
transferred somewhere also for off-line storage such as magnetic tape or microfilm.
CD-ROM and other recording media may be used to provide additional storage space, in which
case the potential of electronic filing systems can be ascertained as more documents can be allowed
to remain on-line for a considerable period of time.
Indexing
By indexing is meant the process of selecting the main title or name under which a document is to
be filed. The term may also be used for to describe the device for finding the position of records
in a filing system very quickly and easily.
One important point you must note is that the speed and ease with which you may retrieve records
from a filing system will be determined by the efficiency with which you have used or adopted to
select parts of the names of tiles to be filed or have been filed.
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For effective indexing, observe the following rules:
Individual Names: use surname prefix as part of indexing unit
Usually, the surname, e.g. in Eke Michael John, since Eke is the surname, it becomes the first or
main indexing point: - EKE, Michael John
In the case a name such as Babagana J. it is indexed as: BABAGANA J.
In the case of Names such as
Mc Mac, De, La, e.g. La Macquist the name is indexed as are surname:
LAMACQUIST, Romano
Hyphenated names
Treat hyphenated names, as are name and index as a unit. For example, Grace Ojomo-Paul
becomes: Ojomo-Paul Grace.
Titles and Degrees
Titles are not considered for the purpose of indexing. For instance, Sir John Odey, becomes, Odey,
Sir John; Dr. Peter James becomes James, Dr. Peter.
Articles
Definite article 'THE' should be put at the end when indexing: e.g. the peoples Club of Nigeria,
becomes: Peoples Club of Nigeria, THE.
Where the article comes in the middle of the name, place it on
parenthesis rather than removing it.
Abbreviations
As in the case of filing, this is indexed as if they were spelt in full e.g. Ltd. Inc. Co., Bros. are
treated as separate indexing units.
Numbers
Treat these as words e.g. 2009.
Geographical Names
E.g. Akwa Ibom state, Abia state, are treated as one indexing unit for indexing purpose.
Names and Numbers
Names consisting of initials and numbers are placed at the reigning of appropriate letter group A1
steel Company; ADC Transport Ltd and AGR Agric. Co.
Close look at the methods applied in alphabetical filming shows a close relation with indexing
In other words, the techniques used in filing alphabetically could easily be applied to indexing
documents of different titles.
Types of Indexes
There are a number of indexes that are used in record keeping. These include Card Index, strip
index visible card index, Rotary card index, page index, vowel index and punched card index.
Let us now briefly describe how each of these indexes work.
Card Index
This is a device which is used to keep records, particularly in numerical filing system, since it is
not always easy to go directly to the file with a reference card index. This card index which is
alphabetical order is used to look for the number which is allocated to the file. Card index may
also be used to as a guide card to help filing officers in locating files particularly in the cause of
alpha-numerical filing. Absent file card is normally inserted to indicate that a file has been
removed.
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Strip Index
This is a device, whereby strips of paper are specially designed in special shapes and handwritte n
or typed to provide the required information on a particular file. The strips are usually available in
different colours, and inserted in vertical metal sheets which form part of a visual card index. Strip
index would be useful where the information to be typed can be done on one line only.
Visual Card Index
This card is called visual card index because the names of persons or organizations are inserted for
reference purpose. The cards are so fixed so that the information on them is easily visible. Visible
card index is especially useful in ledger records. Personnel records, sales and stock records. These
devises are arranged in a special in such that they overlap each other.
Vowel Index
This device is used to split-up a group of names into vowel columns such as A, E, D, P, S, Y,
All the names under each of these vowels are filed under each other in alphabetical order.
Wheel or Rotary Card Index
This is an alternative to actual card index. Cards are stored on wheel which can be rotated to locate
a particular file easily and quickly too.
The advantage of this system is that it enables records to be found more quickly than other forms
of index.
Punch Card Index
This system is developed for the purpose of selecting and sorting and records of which origina l
information is recorded in cards which have holes punched along two or four edges.
The key point to note here is that the recorded information is usually printed on the card itself quite
adjacent to the punched holes. The information which is to be shown on card is notched in the
edges by hand or key operated punch.
Punched card index system may be used in personnel records offices, or market research. One
advantage of this system is that any card containing required information can easily be selected
from a large group of similar cards.
Follow-Up Systems
In good offices it would be necessary to find out if the replies to correspondence have been
received where no reply is received; it may necessary to follow-up by sending a reminder either
by letter or phone call.
On the other hand, whenever a file or document in a file has been removed, there has to be a system
of reminder which will speed up the retrieval of such documents, to avoid their being misplaced
or forgotten.
A number of methods are available, which an office may use. Let us briefly explain a few of them.
1. Desk Diary: Enter the details of file you wish to consult on a desk diary. This diary is checked
daily. Any file to be consulted must be taken out for action.
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2. Tickler file or follow-up: This consists of a filing cabinet drawer, and is divided by guide cards
for each of the twelve months of the year. Behind the current month is a file is placed for each day
of the month. At the beginning of each day, a card on the file concerned has to be placed in respect
of respective date. At the day, the cards concerned are removed, while files concerned are then
removed from their cabinets.
3. Extra copy: One simple approach to reminder system is to make an extra copy of the relevant
subject matter, and to place same in a special folder under appropriate action date.
Other methods of follow-up or reminder which you may use include absent file card, visible loose
leaf or sheet and the file movement register, which we explained their uses earlier.
Filling Equipment
Before bringing this unit to an end, you should be reminded that there are series of equipment for
storing office documents. We shall list and briefly discuss a few key ones.
i) Metal File cabinet: The most common equipment for storing paper files is the standard metal
office file cabinet. This usually has two drawers. Other types of file containers within this category
include even-shelf units, potable files, rotary files, tray files, and notarized files. Sometimes
miscellaneous cartons may be used for storing both standard and paper documents of various sizes.
ii) Supplies: Some containers for paper storage have labels which contain large letters meant to
identify the contents. File folders, guides, and tabs also contain labels with printed or typed words,
letters, numbers, or other designations to identify the associated materials standard labels folders,
guides, cross reference sheets and out cards could be obtained from most stationery shops in
Nigeria.
iii) Special file cabinets: A good number of special file storage equipment may be purchased from
the dealers of such products.
Some of these file storage equipment include:
Fire proof safe and strong room
i. Pipe hole filing cabinets: This is a large shelf which is partitioned into different smaller
apartments. The equipment is used for holding rolled up documents either vertically or
horizontally.
ii. Plans file cabinet: Built specially for strong plans
iii Arch-level file: This equipment is a loss-lead made of hard cardboard binders.
iv. Box file: Box file is suitable for t small offices since the volume of their file holding is low.
v. Bull Dog Clips: This equipment is often used for storing temporary files.
vi. File Tray: This is often found on the tables of key officers for placing temporary files pending
action by the schedule officer.
vii. Transfer storage file (Box): This is used to keep documents usually dead or unused file for
eventual transfer to the archives.
viii. Pigeonhole File cabinet: This is a large shelf which is partitioned into smaller compartments.
This equipment is usually used for holding rolled-up document either in vertical or horizonta l
position.
FORMS AND FORM DESIGN

We have come to give on a world where forms and entry of data in the forms have become a
normal routine in any form of daily business or transactions. From the day we were born to our
last day on earth we have to full forms or somebody else has to full a form for us.
46
From the kindergarten, primary, secondary to tertiary level of education, you were faced with the
task of your personal data or other relevant information which your educational institutio n
required. Ordinarily why you have to fill those forms would not ready clear to you. This part seeks
to enlighten you on the essence of forms in various transactions.
A from may be said to be a piece of paper, bearing fixed data and providing spaces for variable
data.
From the definition above, a form contains information that is known in advanced (fixed data) and
the one which the customer or client is expected to supply (variable data) (see fig below)
FOR…………………… From:
Date………………… Tel No.
Time…………………. Company Name
Address:
…………………………….
TAKEN BY:
MESSAGE……………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
SIGNATURE……………………
You need to be reminded that whether you are looking at an application form, an invoice, purchase
order or insurance policy form, you will observe that the two major characteristics of a form are
shown in them.
These are fixed data and variable data, the latter of which you have to supply the answers such as
agreement/affirmation and personal signature.
Purpose and use of Forms

The purposes which forms serve or are meant to serve include the following:
i) To make clear the type of information that are to be collected and communicated
ii) To provide a specific space or location for each item of information, in order to facilitate data
entry, processing and reference.
iii) To eliminate the need, recopy, standard or repetitive information
iv) They facilitate the use of multiple copies, with the end that work procedure is speeded up.
v) Forms identify records and facilitate filing and future reference.
From the above statement of form purpose, we can say that they function under two capacities:
47
a) As instructions to individual school student in case of educational institutions and individ ua l
employees and managers in the case of employment organizations
b) Forms may be used to set out criteria for appraising individuals, e.g. those seeking employme nt,
employees being assessed for their performance, promotion and other competitive positions
outside employment.
c) If well managed, forms can provide a more economical way of gathering information or data
d) It has been strongly argued in personnel management circles that forms have the potential of
making positive contribution to the success of organizations. This may be realized through well
designed forms.
On a final note, you may wish to note that owing to importance attached to forms in the
communication and data management process may large organizations employ form manageme nt
consultants whose role is to enhance the design quality and control of forms within the
organizations.
Types of Forms
As you may know, forms are designed for different purposes. Some are meant to provide short,
simple information; some for lengthy and detailed information. By implication therefore their
lengths and sizes have to differ in facts ad details required from the client, customer or applicant.
Some of the common types of forms are called cut-out forms because they are of single sheet in
this category are receipts for purchase, sales or rent transactions. Within the cut –out category also
are continuous forms, card record forms, tag forms, stock forms and forms for book sales, machine
accounting form and cheque forms, and several others that you may wish to identify.
Multiple copy forms: these types of form need to be mentioned because they have potential for
saving time. Among this category of forms are handwritten books in which file copies can be
retained, regular form, which may be handwritten, but in perforated sets with a carbon retained
in the machine, fanfold continuous forms that are perforated in accordion-like fold (folded in the
forms of the fold found accordion).
There are the non-marginally punched forms which are used on machines equipped with forms
feeding devices. Because these sorts of forms are made of devices that insure accurate alignme nt
from part to part, and set to set, they are now used in electronic type writer, billing machines,
addressing machines, teleprinters, tabulators and high-speed printers of output from computers.
One important development in form design is the use of magnetic ink character recognitio n
(MICR). This process is chiefly used by banks for printing data in magnetic in certain reserved
spaces at the bottom of cheques.
As you receive your cheque booklet look down the bottom of each cheque booklet for such
information-which are usually in digital codes.
Different important organizations now use the MICR codes to protect their forms.
Principles of Form Design

In designing a form, there are four basic principles which you have to bear in mind. These are that
the form should be:
1. Easy to write
2. Easy to read
3. Easy to understand and
4. Easily pleasing in appearance
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These principles which we shall call the ‘Four Es’ in form design, if strictly followed should enable
you to design forms of any type and content satisfactorily.
Control of Office stationery

Your office stationery is an essential part of your professional branding and image. It's important
to control the use of your stationery, not only to keep costs in check and demonstrate environme nta l
responsibility but also to reduce the risk of possible misunderstandings that could arise, because
of unauthorized use of your company's name and logo.
Because so much business is now done online, physical, paper stationery is not used as often as it
once had been. Still, a lot of business transactions are still handled using printed documents, so
having a supply of stationery readily available remains important. Here are the various components
of a typical stationery "wardrobe":
▪ Letterhead: Letterhead is business stationery with your company name and logo printed
on the top. In some cases, you may want your top executives and managers to have
personalized stationery that also contains their names and titles. Letterhead is used for most
formal business communications, as well as for agreements and even contracts.
▪ Memo pads: Since many people now take notes on their computers or tablets, memo pads
with the company logo are not used as often as they once had been. Still, some offices like
to keep them around for internal and informal use by employees.
▪ Sticky notes: Sticky notes have an abundance of uses in the workplace, includ ing
communications between employees, and for providing additional greetings and
information in mailed correspondence.
▪ Business cards: Of all the different types of business stationery, business cards are still the
most commonly used. Every employee should be provided with a supply of business cards
as part of the onboarding process.
▪ Envelopes: Your stationery should include envelopes in different sizes, all printed with
your company name, address and logo.
▪ Labels: Larger mailing labels with your company name and logo can be affixed to larger
boxes and envelopes.
Guidelines for effective handling of office stationery

The following steps may be taken to fix the issue procedure for stationery.
1. Indent
Every issue of stationery should be based on requisition. The departments can prepare an indent
whenever there is a need of stationery. The departmental heads should sign the indent. The
storekeeper can issue the stationery after receiving indent. No issue will be made without indent.
2. Issue Time
A time is fixed for issue of stationery. It may be an hour is a day. The issue time should be
communicated to every department. If there is any change of issue time which should be
communicated without any delay. The absence of issue time leads to inefficiency in operation
affects the control system and involves more labour in the activity. The issue may be made in first
come first issued basis. It avoids confusion and regularity in the issue of stationery. However, in
case of emergency, the issue may be made at any time to required people.
49
3. Delivery
The storekeepers can deliver stationery at the work place of every department. There is no need of
deputing any person to get the stationery items from the stores by the departments. This saves time,
labour and pilferage.
4. Issue Quantity
Every stationery is to be issued in a specified quantity. There must be a unit of measurement for
stationery. The paper may be issued in ream, pens, pencils, cutters, erasers and the like are issue
in dozens. Gum is issued in number. This unit of measurement facilitates stock control and helpful
to both stores and departments.
5. Accounting
Both stores and department should prepare the accounts for stationery. The storekeeper mainta ins
the issue registers. The Issue Register is to be updated with every issue of stationery. The physical
stock should tally with the Issue Register. Likewise, each department should maintain stationery
register, make entries for receipt, issue, and balance in the register to keep the stationery stock up
to date. Issue register contains the details like date, indent number, indenting department, quantity
issued etc. Proper entries should be made in Issue Register for effective control system.
6. Stock Maintenance
Stock levels for each stationery items are fixed and maintained. The stationery items should be
purchased at regular intervals in order to maintain required stock levels. Required stock levels
ensure continuous supply of stationery. This should be a continuous activity. The department
should not be allowed to receive the stationery without indent. Drawings of the stationery will be
honored depending upon the honesty and sincerity of the person drawings the stationery.
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MODULE SIX
PURPOSE & IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION
This module is meant to introduce you to the role of communication and office records in business
transactions. You will be made to understand the role of communication, the communica tio n
process, methods of handling files and documents in office organizations.
Business organizations, like any other social system is comprised of individuals who have to
interact with one another. Language is one medium by which interaction may be carried out in an
office or organizations generally oral and written language stand out as two major media of human
interaction. Interaction involves communication. This is why communication has remained central
in business transactions. This explains why effort will be made on this module to examine the
impact of communication in the place of work.
Concept of Communication
Generally, communication may be seen as the process by which a though is transferred from one
person to another. Communication connotes the exchange of information and transmission of
meaning (Katz and Khan, 1988), Koontz and O’donnel consider that communication is the transfer
of information from the sender to the receiver. Thus, communication can only be said to be
received when it is understood by the receiver. This explains why communication is central to
formal organizations such as an academic institution or a firm.
It is difficult to provide an entirely acceptable definition of communication. However, in simple
terms, communication implies the transfer of a message which is transmitted and acted upon. This
definition will be explained fully in a later section.
The general conception of communication with reference to organizations may be summarized as
follows:
- The lifeblood of an organization
- The glue that binds the organization
- The oil that smoothens the organizations life
- The thread that ties the system
- The force that propels the organization
In real terms, no organization can function effectively without a dynamic communication system.
Purpose of Communication
- Communication is intended to provide the basis by which enterprise managers can get things
done through the organization members.
- Communication seeks to provide the means by which organizational goals, objectives,
procedures, rules, and executive decisions are made available numbers.
- Communication is intended to foster effective interdependence between organization units and
their members.
- It seeks to foster effective interpersonal relationship within organizations.
The Communication Process
The effectiveness of an organization, largely depends on how well communication is handed. In
the process of attempting to meet organizational goals, solve problems and take decisions,
communication necessarily comes into play. The effectiveness of communication itself depends
on whether the message which is sent by a source across to the receiver has been correctly decoded
(understood by the latter). It is on this account that Katz and Khan define communication as the
51
exchange of information and transmission of meaning. The process of communication may be
summarized as listed below.
1) Stimulus: The thing that triggers off the communication exchange, otherwise referred to as the
ideation stage.
2) Source: Referred to as the encoder, initiator etc. who functions to formulate “meaning” into the
“message” He initiates the communication exchange.
3) Message: The core of all forms of communication. It refers to the thoughts, ideas, attitudes,
intentions, etc. which the encoder transmits to the receiver.
4) Medium: The form in which the sender wishes to put the message e.g. oral (speech) written (on
paper), drawing etc.
5) Channel: The conduit pipe through which the medium chosen is passed to the receiver e.g. in
oral communication, such medium as Radio, TV, etc. could be used.
6) Receiver: The decoder, i.e. the destination of the message or the intended audience.
7) Feedback: The essential component that typifies communication as a process which makes it
possible for, both source and receiver to swap roles and act as Trans receiver; and
8) Noise: Any disturbances, distraction etc. in the communication process that could disrupt the
flow e.g. physical, psychological, linguistic etc.
In fact, all the theories and models of communication derive from the above eight aspects of
communication process.
Classification of Communication process: Communication may be put into four main classes,
namely, unilateral, directional transactional and interpersonal.
Unilateral Communication
In unilateral or downward communication, the speaker initiates a message which terminates with
the listener. In educational systems, this comes in the form of address to students and staff, writing
of memorandum, circulars or bulletins and verbal messages. Available evidence points to three
psychological processes that occur in the course of two, three and four step communication.
In the first process-levelling, the receiver tends to reduce constraints between parts of a message
by omitting qualifying phrases.
In the second process, the receiver sharpens certain parts of the information or message so that
only a few high points are remembered, while most of the others are forgotten.
In the third process, the receiver assimilates much of the message within his cognitive structure,
colouring memories and interpretations of the message by his or her own thoughts and feelings.
Given these defects, unilateral communication can be said to be less than an efficient way of
transmitting information.
Directive Communication
This occurs when individuals interact face-to-face. The exchange is complete when the receiver
indicates to the sender that he has received and understood the message; as when a teacher gives
an assignment to the students and asks if they have understood it.
The problem with this form of communication is that the sender influences while the receiver
complies with the message.
Transactional Communication:
Transactional communication is a reciprocal process in which each participant initiates messages
and attempts to understand the other.
52
Information travels in both rather than one direction and each message has some impact on the
next message, and the roles of source and receiver shift rapidly back and forth, as communica tio n
takes place. It is generally observed that while many misunderstandings can be resolved through
transactional communication, carrying out effective transaction takes a high degree of
communication skill. Participants must be in a position to state their thoughts and feelings clearly,
ask each other for specific information, read relevance of gesture, and make sure that the message
was decoded correctly.
This mutual feedback and spirit of helpfulness between participants is usually lacking in most
communication situations.
FIG. M6.1: TRANSACTIONAL COMMUNICATION
Although managers and the workers can communicate information among themselves in writing,
they often do so through face-to-face conversation. This face-to-face encounter or interactio n
qualifies as interpersonal communication. The context of interpersonal communication may be
taken as belonging to another aspect of problem statement in terms of when they talk about how
things are- situated (S), how things ought to be — (T) and how to move from the situation (S),
to the target — proposals (P). This mode of conceptualizing communication is what is referred to
in problem solving literature as S.T.P. model of problem or communication analysis.
Characteristics of Interpersonal Communication:

Four features cut across the three levels of interpersonal skills (STP) with reference to subsystem
effectiveness and organizational adaptability. These include openness, communication during
emotion, eliciting personal resources and trust. These elements are very important in Starting
Organizational Development (OD) intervention. It is upon these that the context for interpersona l
communication is set and the process of improving interpersonal skills and other subsystem
processes in organizational improvement and adaptability are based.
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Various Methods of Communication
Face-to-Face Office Communication for Emotional Content
It might be seen as an old-fashioned communication method, but face-to-face conversation is still
an important way to connect with colleagues and clients. It’s the method of choice for sharing any
information with a strong emotional core, whether it’s good news or bad.
Sixty-nine percent of surveyed workers say they share positive feedback face-to-face, while only
slightly less, 63 percent, say they give negative feedback this way. This isn’t surprising. American
psychology professor Albert Mehrabian insists the majority of a conversation’s meaning is
imparted by facial expressions and body language, rather than the words themselves. Face-to-face
conversation is uniquely the only office communication method which combines all three
important elements.
Face-to-face communication is also valuable when a significant amount of feedback is required.
Problem solving and brainstorming is always best done face to face, as solutions can be found then
and there. These processes which see co-workers and clients coming together also help create the
bonds that make for stronger companies.
The rapid response of face-to-face communication is also one of its greatest strengths. If you don’t
have the time to wait for a return email or play a game of phone tag, an old-fashioned chat is ideal.
Mobile Messaging for Working out the Details

As our phones become smarter, the line between internet-based instant messaging and cellphone-
based text messaging is becoming blurred. Both now have similar features, and the programs we
once used exclusively on our computers are now often available as smartphone apps. Mobile
messaging has moved from simple text-based communication to video chatting and file sharing.
The instant nature of this communication method makes it ideal for working out the details,
especially while multitasking. With mobile messaging you can sort out meeting details while
glancing at your calendar or share a document that needs urgent feedback. As mobile messages
are saved in a smartphone’s memory, workers can also access them again if their memory fails.
Remember, though, that text-based office communication has the potential to be misunderstood,
even with the aid of emoticons. If you’re relaying a message that’s complex or emotional, choose
video chat or another communication method.
Considering their efficiency, it’s encouraging that mobile messaging services are becoming easier
to use and more accessible to a range of workers. Blackberry Messenger, also known as BBM,
will soon be available on Android platforms, for example. The BBM for Android ease of use will
be as intuitive as the pioneering Blackberry version.
Phone Calls for Follow Ups

Electronic communication may be all the rage, but the humble telephone still has an important role
to play. It bridges the gap between digital communication and face-to-face collaboration, offering
emotional warmth and expediency. That makes it the most efficient choice for debriefing after a
face-to-face meeting. The warmth of a voice and the extra effort taken to make a phone call can
often help seal a business deal.
It’s also one of the most efficient choices if a matter needs urgent attention. Emails can quickly
become buried in overstuffed inboxes and instant messages can be easily ignored if they come at
an inopportune time. The sound of a ringing telephone is much more difficult to overlook. Make
a call if you need a problem resolved quickly or someone’s urgent input.
54
A phone call is also a good option if you’re relaying sensitive information. It’s much safer to call
a colleague with your social security number or the combination to the safe than sending this
information over email.
Email Leaves a Paper Trail

While other office communication methods might have stolen the limelight recently, the days of
the workplace email aren’t numbered. Ninety-two percent of employees say they still value email
as a communication tool. And email marketing automation systems are more powerful than ever.
Emails are ideal for employees who struggle with communication. Your messages can be refined
and revised until you’re saying just the right thing. You’ll also have a copy of what you said, and
any responses you’ve received, to refer to later. This paper trail can be a handy memory jogger
and a great way to resolve office disputes.
Office inboxes can get cluttered though, so email only works when timeliness isn’t a factor. With
the average person taking almost 11 hours on average to respond to professional contacts, email’s
only efficient when your message isn’t time sensitive.
Emails also have the potential to be misinterpreted. Forty-three percent of people believe email is
the main cause of confusion and resentment in the workplace, much more than those who point
the finger at phone calls or social networking.
Enterprise Social Networking is the New Frontier

Enterprise social networking takes the familiar format of Facebook and similar sites and adapts it
to the corporate world. Tools like Slack, Yammer, MoxieSpaces, NewsGator, and Chatter seek to
engage employees and create a more transparent working environment. While it’s possible to send
private messages, enterprise social networking encourages more open office communication.
Workers see a personalized page, akin to a Facebook wall, with information which considers the
people and topics they follow. This information is also searchable, so employees can easily find
what they’re looking for. File-sharing and instant messaging functions are also built in to most
enterprise social networking sites.
Enterprise social networking is believed to be the key to reducing the email stress that plagues the
majority of employees. Studies show 83 percent of workers have elevated blood pressure, heart
rates, and cortisol levels when sending and receiving emails. Multitasking emails with phone calls
or face-to-face meetings, as workers must do in busy office environments, also increased stress
levels in 92 percent of survey participants. No wonder forecasters predict that more than 50 percent
of large companies will use enterprise social networking tools as one form of office
communication. With a range of communication methods available to employees, they’re now
able to choose the most efficient way to relay their messages in the workplace.
The various steps involved in handling incoming mail in an office

Office correspondence means communication in writing on subject of mutual interest either within
the organization or outside the organization and it takes the form of a letter, a circular, and a notice.
The written communication sent through the post office or the messenger is called, "dak" or mail.
When the 'dak' is received by an office from different sources it is called as incoming mail.
Handling of such incoming mail has given a paramount importance because improper handling of
data creates various problems. Hence the mail should be handled with speed and accuracy.
55
Efficient handling of mail requires establishment of a definite procedure which are termed as steps
of handling of mail. These steps are:
1. Receiving the mail.
2. Sorting the mail.
3. Opening the mail.
4. Scrutiny of the contents.
5. Date stamping.
6. Recording the mail.
7. Distribution of mail.
8. Follow up action.
Receiving the Mail
Generally, mails are received once or twice a day delivered by the postman. When the volume of
correspondence is large, a post box or post bag is hired in the post office and an office peon is
required to collect the mail form the post office. Sometimes letters are received through the
messengers of other offices.
Sorting the Mail
Sorting of letters means grouping of letters on definite order. The letters are grouped either on the
basis of their nature or destination or contents. Sorting of letters may be done before opening of
letters or after opening of letters. When it is undertaken before opening, private and confidentia l
letters are separated from the ordinary letters.
Opening the Mail
In small organization letters are opened by the officer or head clerk. When the volume of letters is
large, these are opened by mail-opener. In a large organization mails are handled by a mailing
department and a clerk is engaged in opening of letters. Till the date of receipt of letter is recorded,
the envelopes detached from the letters should be kept. When the letters are marked private, these
are opened by the concerned person.
Scrutiny of Contents
After the letters are opened, the contents are removed from the envelopes and are scrutinized. The
purpose of scrutiny is to ascertain the department to which the letter relates. Any enclosures of the
contents should be properly verified and noted.
Stamping the Mail
After proper scrutiny, the date stamping of letter is done. Sometimes the date and time of receipt
is stamped on the letter. For stamping of letters, a stamp is prepared which contains the serial
number, the date of receipt and time of receipt if necessary. A reference stamp is attached if the
letters relate to number of departments.
Recording the Mall
After the stamping work, letters received are recorded in inward mail register or letters received
book. Before recording of letters in the register, the contents are scrutinized properly so as to ensure
the department to which it belongs. The inward mail register contains serial number, date of
receipt, senders name and address, nature of contents, subject of the letter in brief, remarks and
initials of the officer with date.
Distribution of the Mail
This is the last step in the inward mailing routine. In this stage letters are handed over to the
concerned department. The letters are distributed through messengers or sometimes with the help
of mechanical devices like conveyor-belt or pneumatic tube.
56
Follow up Action
Follow up action is very important because it is concerned with keeping track of mail. This stage
makes on enquiry whether the letter is replied or not.
LIKELY EXAMINATIONS QUESTIONS

1(a) Define an Office
(b) State five function of an office
2.Why should a classroom be a) Air – conditioned? b) Sound conditioned? c) Colour conditioned?
3.Explain the following electronics equipment
i). Photocopiers ii) Computers iii) Facsimile (Fax) Machine iv) Scanners
4. Draw a cross-reference sheets and enter the following:
a) The firm of Udo-Udo Enterprises is now known as: Udo-Udo & Co;
b) Miss Hauwa Ibrahim is now known as: Mrs.Hauwa Ibrahim-Kolo
5. What does filing entails?
6a. List the ten characteristics of efficient filing
b. Describe five of them in detail
7. Show the advantages and disadvantages of centralized and departmental filing
8. Describe the 5 steps you would take to determine an effective filing system.
9. If you observe that some letters have not been filed, explain the steps you would take to file
them
10. How would you classify files in the order of information which they contain?
11. Why is it necessary to have a file movement register?
12. With appropriate cross-reference sheet treat the following for effective cross-referencing:
a) Correspondence from Mr Okonkwo of Edo Broadcasting Network is to be filed in future
under Silver bird television
b) Miss. Jane Amah is now married. Her married name is Soludo, and her correspondence will
be filed under Mrs. Jane Chima Soludo.
13. Go into these offices and seek to fund out what type of filing system they use among the
following: vertical filing, horizontal filing, microfilming, computer-assisted filing
14. Check also the type of under system they use among the following: card index, strip index,
visual card, Molex wheel or rotary index
15. Describe the process of suspension filing, indicating its strengths and weaknesses
16a. Define indexing, and explain its importance
b) List and describe three types of index and their relevance in a filing system
17. What are follow-up systems and explain the uses of three of them
18. List and explain three types of filing equipment
19. Mention five functions of an office and explain any 3
20. Write briefly on Office structure
21. Explain briefly the terms Centralization and Decentralization as regards decision making in
an Office
22. Highlight differences between Centralization and Decentralization
23. Give Advantages and disadvantages of Centralization and Decentralization
24. Draw organization structure for Centralization and Decentralization
25. Define Model Office
26. What is Organizational Structure?
57
27. What are the reasons for developing a structure for an organization?
28. The best structure for any organization is dependent on what?
29. What are the elements that are inherent in the idea of an organizational structure? explain
them briefly
30. What does Office Layout mean?
31. Mention 10 objectives of office layout.
32. What are the considerations that are required in designing an efficient office layout?
33. Mention 6 advantages of efficient office layout
34. Discuss the categories of office layout
35. What are the factors that influence the location of an office?
36. Discuss briefly the three forms of business buildings
37. Mention the objectives of office building space and briefly discuss any 3
38. List the physical factors which determine human comfort and discuss any 3
39. Define Induction
40. What are the main reasons why you should have an induction in place?
41. What are the benefits of induction programme?
42. What are the tasks that should be included in induction programme?
43. Mention the objectives of induction programme
44. Why do we use office machines?
45. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Office mechanization?
46. What are the Objectives of Office Mechanization?
47. Outline the limitations associated with mechanization of office services
48. Mention eight (8) manual office equipment and briefly discuss any 5
49. Mention the benefits of the equipment and machine in the mail room
50. List 10 equipment and machine in the mail room and discuss any 5
51. List the types of internal and external services available to telephone users and discuss any 4
52. List the general requirements for equipment maintenance
53. What is filing?
54. Discuss the process for determining an effective filing system
55. Discuss the main purposes filing document is meant to achieve
56. List the features exhibited by an efficient filing
57. Explain the terms (i) centralized filing (ii) Decentralized filing
58. List the advantages and disadvantages of centralised and decentralized filing
59. Identify six levels of file activeness
60. Account for the steps in filing
61. Discuss the categorization of files in terms of priority of treatment
62. What is file movement register? Give a typical example of it.
63. Discuss briefly Office Procedure.
65. What actions are involved before the mail or letters are opened/
66. Discuss at least five points that are to be observed when opening the mail
67. Explain how you would handle the following:
a) Confidential letters b) Letters with remittances c) Letters meant for the attention of four
officers
68.What steps would you take to ensure that the mail that come by electronic means is not
delayed in the machine.
58

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` LECTURE NOTES

OFFICE MANAGEMENT (BAM 213)

FOR POLYTECHNIC STUDENTS

PRINCE ADENIYI M ASADE

Typical Structure of an Office

Centralization and Decentralization

Centralised Organisation Structure

WHAT IS ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE?

WHY SHOULD YOU DEVELOP A STRUCTURE FOR YOUR ORGANIZATION?

WHEN SHOULD YOU DEVELOP A STRUCTURE FOR YOUR ORGANIZATION?

How to design an efficient office layout?

Advantages of an Efficient office Layout

Categories of Office Layout

Open Plan for Collaboration

THE DESIGN OF OFFICE ENVIRONMENT

CHOICE OF LOCATION OF FIRM

TRENDS IN THE CHOICE OF BUSINESS LOCATION IN NIGERIA

Distributive Service Type of Business

OBJECTIVES OF OFFICE BUILDING SPACE

Advantages & Disadvantages of an Open-Plan Office Space

Open Plan Office Concepts

Open Office Environment Benefits

Open Office Space Disadvantages

WHY THE WORKING ENVIRONMENT SHOULD BE DESIGNED WITH THE

FACTORS WHICH DETERMINE HUMAN COMFORT

Improved Quality of Work

Reduction in Eye strain and Mental Fatigue

Better Employee Morale:

Higher Company Prestige

Factors to Be Controlled in the Supply of Lighting

Outstanding Functions of Air-condition

Types of Air-conditioning System

Isolation of Noisy Equipment:

These may develop discouragement, disillusionment or defective behavior. Induction leads to

PURPOSE OF INDUCTION IN SUMMARY

SESSION SUGGESTED CONTENT OF SESSION

Introduction to other members of • Go through organisation chart

Introduction to the other teams • Purpose/Activities of the other teams/work areas

Performance Standards • Outline specifics of job role – (job description)

Monitoring and Evaluation • It is important that the Induction programme is

Probation • For new staff the Probation Policy will apply

Importance and Objectives of Office Mechanization Importance:

Objectives of Office Mechanization

Advantages and Disadvantages of Mechanization

Types of Office Machine

Types of Computers used in any office environment:

Mail Room Equipment & Communication System

Effective equipment inventory management

4. Don’t spend more – spend smarter

Range of Office Files

SYSTEMS OF FILING AND INDEXING

The following are the advantages of vertical filing system:

However, the following are the disadvantages of vertical system of filling:

FORMS AND FORM DESIGN

Purpose and use of Forms

Principles of Form Design

Control of Office stationery

Guidelines for effective handling of office stationery

FIG. M6.1: TRANSACTIONAL COMMUNICATION

Characteristics of Interpersonal Communication:

Mobile Messaging for Working out the Details

Phone Calls for Follow Ups

Email Leaves a Paper Trail