Open Channel Flow PDF

Open Channel Flow
M. Siavashi
School of Mechanical Engineering
Iran University of Science and Technology
W ebpage: webpages.iust.ac.ir/msiavashi
Email: msiavashi@iust.ac.ir
Landline: +98 21 77240391
Fall 2013
Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 1 Open Channel Flow

Objectives
Understand how flow in open channels
differs from flow in pipes
Learn the different flow regimes in open
channels and their characteristics
Predict if hydraulic jumps are to occur
during flow, and calculate the fraction of
energy dissipated during hydraulic jumps
Learn how flow rates in open channels
are measured using sluice gates and
weirs
Classification of Open-Channel Flows
Open-channel flows are
characterized by the
presence of a liquid-gas
interface called the free
surface.
Natural flows: rivers,
creeks, floods, etc.
Human-made systems:
fresh-water aqueducts,
irrigation, sewers,
drainage ditches, etc.

In an open channel,
Velocity is zero on bottom and sides of
channel due to no-slip condition
Velocity is maximum at the midplane of the
free surface
In most cases, velocity also varies in the
streamwise direction
Therefore, the flow is 3D
Nevertheless, 1D approximation is made with
good success for many practical problems.

Flow in open channels is
also classified as being
uniform or nonuniform,
depending upon the
depth y.
Uniform flow (UF)
encountered in long
straight sections where
head loss due to friction
is balanced by elevation
drop.
Depth in UF is called
normal depth yn

Obstructions cause the flow depth to vary.
Rapidly varied flow (RVF) occurs over a short distance
near the obstacle.
Gradually varied flow (GVF) occurs over larger distances
and usually connects UF and RVF.

Like pipe flow, OC flow can be laminar,
transitional, or turbulent depending upon the
value of the Reynolds number
Where
r = density, m = dynamic viscosity, n = kinematic viscosity
V = average velocity
Rh = Hydraulic Radius = 1/4Dh= Ac/p
Ac = cross-section area
P = wetted perimeter
Note that Hydraulic Diameter was defined in pipe flows as
Dh = 4Ac/p = 4Rh (Dh is not 2Rh, BE Careful!)

The wetted perimeter
does not include the
free surface.
Examples of Rh for
common geometries
shown in Figure at the
left.

Froude Number and Wave Speed
OC flow is also
classified by the
Froude number
Resembles
classification of
compressible flow
with respect to Mach
number

Critical depth yc occurs at Fr = 1
V2 Q
yc = =
g gAc2
At low flow velocities (Fr < 1)
Disturbance travels upstream
y > yc
At high flow velocities (Fr > 1)
Disturbance travels downstream
y < yc

Important parameter in study
of OC flow is the wave speed
c0, which is the speed at
which a surface disturbance
travels through the liquid.
Derivation of c0 for shallow-
water
Generate wave with plunger
Consider control volume (CV)
which moves with wave at c0

Continuity equation (b = width)
Momentum equation
is a balance between net hydrostatic pressure and momentum
1
- r gb é ( y + d y ) - y 2 ù = rc 0by (c 0 - dV - c 0 )
2
2 ë û

Combining the momentum and continuity relations and
rearranging gives
For shallow water, where dy << y,
Wave speed c0 is only a function of depth

why we pay so much attention to flow being
subcritical or supercritical?
the liquid level drops gradually in the flow direction in
subcritical flow, but a sudden rise in liquid level, called a
hydraulic jump, may occur in supercritical flow (Fr>1) as
the flow decelerates to subcritical (Fr<1) velocities

Specific Energy
Total mechanical energy of the
liquid in a channel in terms of
heads
z is the elevation head

y is the gage pressure head
V2/2g is the dynamic head
Taking the datum z=0 as the
bottom of the channel, the
specific energy Es is

Specific Energy
For a channel with constant
width b,
Q = AcV = ybV
Q = constant
Q2
Es = y + 2 2
2b y
Plot of Es vs. y for constant Q

and b

Specific Energy
This plot is very useful
Easy to see breakdown of Es into pressure (y)
Q = constant and dynamic (V2/2g) head
Es ® ¥ as y ® 0
Es ® y for large y
Es reaches a minimum called the critical point.
There is a minimum Es required to support the
given flow rate.
dE s d æ Q2 ö Q2
= ç y + ÷ = 1 - =0
dy dy è 2 gb 2 y 2 ø gb 2 y 3
1/3
æ Q2 ö
® yc = ç 2 ÷
è gb ø
A small change in Es near the critical
point causes a large difference
between alternate depths and may
cause violent fluctuations in flow Noting that V c = gy c
level. Operation near this point For a given Es > Es,min, there are two different
should be avoided. depths, or alternating depths, which can occur
for a fixed value of Es

Example: Character of Flow and Alternate Depth
Find: 1- Flow velocity 2- subcritical or supercritical?

3- Alternate flow depth?
Q Q
Ü Q

Continuity and Energy Equations
1D steady continuity equation can
be expressed as
1D steady energy equation

between two stations
Head loss hL is expressed as in

pipe flow, using the friction factor,
and either the hydraulic diameter
or radius

Continuity and Energy Equations
The change in elevation head can be written in terms
of the bed slope a
Introducing the friction slope Sf
The energy equation can be written as

Uniform Flow in Channels
Uniform depth occurs
when the flow depth (and
thus the average flow
velocity) remains
constant
Common in long straight
runs
Flow depth is called
normal depth yn
Average flow velocity is
called uniform-flow
velocity V0

Uniform depth is maintained as long as the slope,
cross-section, and surface roughness of the channel
remain unchanged.
During uniform flow, the terminal velocity reached, and
the head loss equals the elevation drop
We can solve for the velocity (or flow rate)
Where C is the Chezy coefficient. f is the friction

factor determined from the Moody chart or the
Colebrook equation

Manning found that the Chezy coefficient can be
expressed by the following relation:
Experimental values of n (and the corresponding

roughness height) are listed in Table 10.1 (white’s
book) for various channel surfaces

Example: Uniform Flow in Channels
The asphalt-lined trapezoidal channel carries 300 ft3/s of water
under uniform-flow conditions when S=0.0015. What is the
normal depth yn?
From Table 10.1 n ≈ 0.016

Best Hydraulic Cross Sections
Best hydraulic cross
section for an open
channel is the one
with the minimum
wetted perimeter for a
specified cross
section (or maximum
hydraulic radius Rh)
Also reflects economy
of building structure
with smallest
perimeter
Rh=Ac/P
Example: Rectangular Channel
Cross section area, Ac = yb
Perimeter, p = b + 2y
Solve Ac for b and substitute
Taking derivative with respect to y
To find minimum, set derivative to zero

Best rectangular channel has
a depth 1/2 of the width

For any angle q,the most efficient
cross section for uniform flow
occurs when the hydraulic radius
is half the depth
To find the correct depth y, these
relations must be solved in
conjunction with Manning’s flow-
rate formula
To find the best angle q, set
dP/da=0, for constant A and y:
To minimize P, evaluate dP/dy for

constant A and a and set equal to zero
For this angle, the best flow depth
is

Gradually Varied Flow
In GVF, y and V vary slowly,
and the free surface is stable
In contrast to uniform flow, Sf ¹
S0. Now, flow depth reflects
the dynamic balance between
gravity, shear force, and
inertial effects
To derive how the depth varies
with x, consider the total head

Take the derivative of H
Slope dH/dx of the energy line is equal to negative of the

friction slope
Bed slope has been defined
Inserting both S0 and Sf gives

Introducing continuity equation, which can be written as
Differentiating with respect to x gives
Substitute dV/dx back into equation from previous slide,
and using definition of the Froude number gives a

relationship for the rate of change of depth

Subcritical flow (Fr<1): (1-Fr2 >0)
Supercritical flow (Fr>1): (1-Fr2 <1)
In uniform flow (y=yn): S0=Sf
If y>yn, velocity decreases and cause a decrease in hL & Sf
S f < S0 Þ S0 - S f > 0
If y<yn, velocity increases and cause an increase in hL & Sf

S f > S0 Þ S0 - S f < 0
for horizontal (S0=0) and upward (S0<0) channels

S0 - S f < 0

gradually varied flow involves acceleration and
deceleration of liquid, and the surface profile
reflects the dynamic balance between liquid
weight, shear force, and inertial effects.
This result is important. It permits classification
of liquid surface profiles as a function of Fr, S0,
Sf, and initial conditions.
Bed slope S0 is classified as
Steep : yn < yc
Critical : yn = yc
Mild : yn > yc
Horizontal : S0 = 0
Adverse : S0 < 0
Initial depth is given a number
1 : y > yn
2 : yn < y < yc
3 : y < yc

12 distinct configurations for surface profiles in GVF.
S0 > Sc

12 distinct configurations for surface profiles in GVF.

Typical OC system
involves several
sections of different
slopes, with
transitions
Overall surface profile
is made up of
individual profiles
described on previous
slides

Rapidly Varied Flow and Hydraulic Jump
Flow is called rapidly

varied flow (RVF) if the
flow depth has a large
change over a short
distance
Sluice gates
Weirs
Waterfalls
Abrupt changes in cross
section
Often characterized by
significant 3D and
transient effects
Backflows
Separations
Consider the CV
surrounding the
hydraulic jump
Assumptions
1. V is constant at sections
(1) and (2), and b 1 and b 2
»1
2. P = rgy
3. tw is negligible relative to
the losses that occur
during the hydraulic jump
4. Channel is wide and
horizontal
5. No external body forces
other than gravity

Continuity equation
X momentum equation
Substituting and simplifying
Quadratic equation for y2/y1

Solving the quadratic equation and keeping only the

positive root leads to the depth ratio
Energy equation for this section can be written as
Head loss associated with hydraulic jump

Often, hydraulic jumps

are avoided because they
dissipate valuable energy
However, in some cases,
the energy must be
dissipated so that it
doesn’t cause damage
A measure of
performance of a
hydraulic jump is its
fraction of energy
dissipation, or energy
dissipation ratio

Experimental
studies
indicate that
hydraulic
jumps can be
classified into
5 categories,
depending
upon the
upstream Fr

Flow Control and Measurement
Flow rate in pipes and ducts is
controlled by various kinds of
valves
In OC flows, flow rate is controlled
by partially blocking the channel.
Weir : liquid flows over device
Underflow gate : liquid flows under
device
These devices can be used to
control the flow rate, and to
measure it.

Flow Control and Measurement
Underflow Gate
Underflow gates are located at
Free outflow the bottom of a wall, dam, or
open channel
Outflow can be either free or
drowned
In free outflow, downstream
flow is supercritical
Drowned outflow
In the drowned outflow, the
liquid jet undergoes a hydraulic
jump. Downstream flow is
subcritical.

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Open Channel Flow

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 1 Open Channel Flow

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 3 Open Channel Flow

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 4 Open Channel Flow

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 5 Open Channel Flow

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 6 Open Channel Flow

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 7 Open Channel Flow

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 8 Open Channel Flow

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 9 Open Channel Flow

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 10 Open Channel Flow

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 11 Open Channel Flow

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 12 Open Channel Flow

For shallow water, where dy << y,

Wave speed c0 is only a function of depth

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 13 Open Channel Flow

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 14 Open Channel Flow

z is the elevation head

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 15 Open Channel Flow

Plot of Es vs. y for constant Q

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 16 Open Channel Flow

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 17 Open Channel Flow

Find: 1- Flow velocity 2- subcritical or supercritical?

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 18 Open Channel Flow

1D steady energy equation

Head loss hL is expressed as in

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 19 Open Channel Flow

Introducing the friction slope Sf

The energy equation can be written as

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 20 Open Channel Flow

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 21 Open Channel Flow

We can solve for the velocity (or flow rate)

Where C is the Chezy coefficient. f is the friction

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 22 Open Channel Flow

Experimental values of n (and the corresponding

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 24 Open Channel Flow

From Table 10.1 n ≈ 0.016

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 25 Open Channel Flow

Taking derivative with respect to y

To find minimum, set derivative to zero

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 27 Open Channel Flow

To minimize P, evaluate dP/dy for

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 28 Open Channel Flow

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 29 Open Channel Flow

Slope dH/dx of the energy line is equal to negative of the

Bed slope has been defined

Inserting both S0 and Sf gives

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 30 Open Channel Flow

Differentiating with respect to x gives

Substitute dV/dx back into equation from previous slide,

and using definition of the Froude number gives a

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 31 Open Channel Flow

If y<yn, velocity increases and cause an increase in hL & Sf

for horizontal (S0=0) and upward (S0<0) channels

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 32 Open Channel Flow

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 33 Open Channel Flow

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 34 Open Channel Flow

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 35 Open Channel Flow

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 36 Open Channel Flow

Flow is called rapidly

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 38 Open Channel Flow

Substituting and simplifying

Quadratic equation for y2/y1

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics II 39 Open Channel Flow