SOFTWARE ENGINEERING TECHNIQUES
LESSON 8:
Topics Covered
Project Estimation, Estimation of cost and effort, Metrics for
software quality- certain measures of quality metrics
Objectives
Upon completion of this Lesson, you should be able to:
• Know what do you mean by estimation of a project
• Know what is estimation of cost and effort
• Know what is metrics for software quality
In our previous lecture we have seen what is estimation and we
have also seen what is effort estimation. Now let us see what are
the various criteria based on which we can do the estimation of
cost and effort. We’ll also see into deep what is the metrics for
software quality and the various measures of quality metrics.
What is Project estimation?
Project Estimation
Estimation of Cost and Effort
In the early days of software development, software costs
comprised a small percentage of overall computer-based system
cost. Presently, software is the most expensive element in most
computer-based systems. Errors in cost estimation can make
the difference between profit and loss.
Estimation of software cost and effort is not an exact science.
Variables such as, human, technical, environmental, etc., can
affect the ultimate cost of software and effort applied to
develop it.
To achieve reliable cost and effort estimates, a number of
options arise:
1. Delay estimation until late in the project (obviously, we can
achieve 100 percent accurate estimates after the project is
complete!).
2. Use relatively simple decomposition techniques to generate
project cost and effort estimates.
3. Develop an empirical model for software cost and effort.
4. Acquire one or more automated estimation tools.
Unfortunately, the first option, however attractive, is not
practical. Cost estimates must be provided “up front.”
However, we should recognize that the longer we wait, the
more we know, and the more we know, the less likely we are to
make serious errors in our estimates.
The remaining three options are viable approaches to software
project estimation. Ideally, the techniques noted for each option
should be applied in tandem, each used as a crosscheck for the
others. Decomposition techniques take a “divide and conquer”
approach to software project estimation. By decomposing a
project into major functions and related software engineering
tasks, cost and effort estimation can be performed in a stepwise
fashion. Empirical estimation models can be used to
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complement decomposition techniques and offer a potentially
valuable estimation approach in their own right. A model is
based on experience(historical data) and takes the form:
d = f(vi)
where d is one of a number of estimated values (e.g., effort,
cost, project duration) and vi are selected independent
parameters (e.g., estimated lines of code, LOC or function
point, FP). Automated estimation tools implement one or
more decomposition techniques or empirical models. When
combined with an interactive human machine interface,
automated tools provide an attractive option for estimating. In
such systems, the characteristics of the development
organization (e.g., experience, environment) and the software to
be developed are described. Cost and effort estimates are
derived from these data.
Each of the viable software cost estimation options is only as
good as the historical data used to seed the estimate. If no
historical data exist, costing rests on a very shaky foundation.
Metrics for Software Quality
Quality can be measured throughout the software engineering
process and after the software has been released to the customer
and users. Metrics derived before the software is delivered
provided quantitative basis for making design and testing
decisions.
Measuring Quality
Although there are many measures of software quality, the
most widely used are
• Product Correctness-A program must operate correctly.
Correctness is the degree to which the software performs its
required function
• Product Maintainability-Software maintenance has
accounted for more effort than any other software activity.
Maintainability is the ease with which a program can be
corrected if an error is encountered, adapted if its
environment changes, or enhanced if the user desires a
change in the requirements.
• Product Integrity-Software integrity measures a system’s
ability to withstand attacks to its security. To measure
integrity, two additional attributes must be defined: (1)
threat is the probability that an attack of a specific type will
occur within a given time, and (2) security is the probability
that an attack of a specific type will be repelled.
Integrity = S [1 – threat x (1 – security)]
where threat and security are summed over each type of attack.
Halstead’s Software Science
M. Halstead’s theory of software science proposes the first
analytical “laws” of computer software. Software science assigns
quantitative laws to the development of computer software. It
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 uses a set of primitive measures that may be derived after code correct those areas of the software process that are the cause of
SOFTWARE ENGINEERING TECHNIQUES

is generated or estimated once design is complete. software defects.

n1- the number of distinct operators that appear in a program
n2- the number of distinct operands that appear in a program
N1- the total number of operator occurrences
N2- the total number of operand occurrences
Halstead uses the primitive measures to develop expressions
for the overall program length, the potential minimum volume
for an algorithm, the actual volume (number of bits required to
specify a program), the program level (a measure of software
complexity), the language level (a constant for a given
language), and features such as development effort,
development time and projected number of defects in the
software.
Halstead shows that the length (N) can be estimated from
N = n1 log2 n1 + n2 log2 n2
and program volume (V) may be defined as
V = N log2(n1 + n2).
McCabe’s Complexity Metric
A complexity measure of software proposed by T. McCabe is
based on a control flow representation of a program. A
program graph is used to depict control flow. McCabe defines a
software complexity measure that is based on the cyclomatic
complexity of a program graph for a program module.
PPT-1
Software Metrics
• “When you can measure what you are speaking about and
express it in numbers, you know something about it”
(Kelvin)
• Allow processes and products to be assessed
• Used as indicators for improvement
• Size-oriented Metrics
• Lines of Code (LOC)
• Effort (Person-Months)
• Cost (£)
• Pages of Documentation
• Numbers of Errors
• Errors per KLOC
• Cost per KLOC
• Errors per person-month
Exercises
1. Present an argument against lines of code as a measure for
software productivity. Will your case hold up when dozens
or hundreds of projects are considered?
2. What are the relative advantages of using either the LOC or
the function point metric to measure the size of a software
product?
3. List the important shortcomings of using LOC as a software
metric.
Further Readings and Information Sources
Software process improvement has received a significant
amount of attention over the past decade. Since measurement
and software metrics is key to successfully improving the
software process, many books on SPI also discuss metrics.
Worth while additions to the literature include:
Garmus, D and D. Herron, Measuring the software process: A
Practical guide to Functional Measurements, Prentice-Hall, 1996.
Humphrey, W., Introduction to the Team Software Process,
Addison-Wesley Longman, 2000.
The news letter IT metrics (edited by Howard Rubin and
published by Cutter Information services ) presents useful
commentary on the state of software metrics in the industry.
The magazines Cutter IT Journal and software Development
have regular articles and entire features dedicated to software
metrics.
A wide variety of information sources on software related
topics and management is available on the Internet. An up-to-
date list of World Wide Web references that are relevant to
software can be found at the SEPA Web site:
http://www.mhhe.com/engcs/compsci/pressman/resources/
process-metrics.mhtml
Notes

Summary
Measurement enables managers and practitioners to improve
the software process; assist in the planning, tracking, and
control of a software project; and assess the quality of the
product(software) that is produced. Measures of specific
attributes of the process, project, and product are used to
compute software metrics. These metrics can be analyzed to
provide indicators that guide management and technical actions.
Software quality metrics, like productivity metrics, focus on the
process, the project, and the product. By developing and
analyzing a metrics baseline for quality, an organization can

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