Tanning

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about producing leather from animal skins. For darkening skin color from sunlight, see Sun
tanning. For other uses, see Tanning (disambiguation).

"Tannery" redirects here. For other uses, see Tannery (disambiguation).

Tanned leather in Marrakesh

Two men pressing the leather near the end of the tanning process in an American tannery. circa: 1976

Tanneries of Marrakesh

Tanning is the process of treating skins and hides of animals to produce leather, which is more durable
and less susceptible to decomposition. Traditionally, tanning used tannin, an acidic chemical compound
from which the tanning process draws its name (tannin is in turn named after an old German word for
oak or fir trees, from which the compound was derived). Coloring may occur during tanning. A tannery is
the term for a place where the skins are processed.

Tanning hide into leather involves a process which permanently alters the protein structure of skin.
Tanning can be performed with either vegetable or mineral methods. Before tanning, the skins are
unhaired, degreased, desalted and soaked in water over a period of 6 hours to 2 days. To prevent
damage of the skin by bacterial growth during the soaking period, biocides, typically dithiocarbamates,
may be used. Fungicides such as 2-thiocyanomethylthiobenzothiazole may also be added later in the
process, to protect wet leathers from mold growth.

As an alternative to tanning, hides can be dried to produce rawhide rather than leather.

Contents

1 History

2 Preparatory steps prior to tanning

2.1 Skinning

2.2 Curing

2.3 Beamhouse operations

 2.3.1 Soaking

2.3.2 Liming

2.3.3 Unhairing and scudding

2.3.4 Deliming and bating

2.3.5 Pickling

3 Vegetable tanning

4 Chrome tanning

4.1 Chemistry of chrome tanning

4.2 Tanning with other minerals

4.3 Tawing with alum

5 Hazards of leather-tanning chemicals

6 See also

7 References

8 External links

History

Further information: History of hide materials

Tannery at Fez

Tanning circa 1880

Tanned rabbit pelt, the fur has been left on apart from small patches exposing leather

The English word for tanning is from medieval Latin tannāre, deriv. of tannum (oak bark), related to Old
High German tanna meaning oak or fir (related to modern Tannenbaum). This refers to use of the bark
of oaks (the original source of tannin) in some kinds of hide preservation.[1]

In ancient history, tanning was considered a noxious or "odoriferous trade" and relegated to the
outskirts of town, amongst the poor. Indeed, tanning by ancient methods is so foul smelling, tanneries
are still isolated from those towns today where the old methods are used. Ancient civilizations used
leather for waterskins, bags, harnesses and tack, boats, armour, quivers, scabbards, boots, and sandals.
Tanning was being carried out by the South Asian inhabitants of Mehrgarh between 7000 and 3300 BC.
[2] Around 2500 BC, the Sumerians began using leather, affixed by copper studs, on chariot wheels.
Skins typically arrived at the tannery dried stiff and dirty with soil and gore. First, the ancient tanners
would soak the skins in water to clean and soften them. Then they would pound and scour the skin to
remove any remaining flesh and fat. Next, the tanner needed to remove the hair from the skin. This was
done by either soaking the skin in urine[citation needed], painting it with an alkaline lime mixture, or
simply allowing the skin to putrefy for several months then dipping it in a salt solution. After the hairs
were loosened, the tanners scraped them off with a knife.

Once the hair was removed, the tanners would "bate" (soften) the material by pounding dung into the
skin, or soaking the skin in a solution of animal brains. Bating was a fermentative process which relied on
enzymes produced by bacteria found in the dung. Among the kinds of dung commonly used were those
of dogs or pigeons.[3] Sometimes, the dung was mixed with water in a large vat, and the prepared skins
were kneaded in the dung water until they became supple from bacterial enzyme action, but not too
soft. The ancient tanner might use his bare feet to knead the skins in the dung water, and the kneading
could last two or three hours.

This combination of urine, animal feces, and decaying flesh made ancient tanneries malodorous.

Children employed as dung gatherers were a common sight in ancient cities. Also common were "piss-
pots" located on street corners, where human urine could be collected for use in tanneries or by
washerwomen. In some variations of the process, cedar oil, alum, or tannin were applied to the skin as a
tanning agent. As the skin was stretched, it would lose moisture and absorb the agent.

Leftover leather would be turned into glue. Tanners would place scraps of hides in a vat of water and let
them deteriorate for months. The mixture would then be placed over a fire to boil off the water to
produce glue.

A tannery may be associated with a grindery, originally a whetstone facility for sharpening knives and
other sharp tools, but later could carry shoemakers' tools and materials for sale.[4]

Preparatory steps prior to tanning

Skinning

The actual tanning process begins with obtaining an animal skin. When an animal skin is to be tanned,
the animal is killed and skinned before the body heat leaves the tissues. This can be done by the tanner,
or by obtaining a skin at a slaughterhouse, farm, or local fur trader.
Curing

Preparing hides begins by curing them with salt. Curing is employed to prevent putrefaction of the
protein substance (collagen) from bacterial growth during the time lag from procuring the hide to when
it is processed. Curing removes water from the hides and skins using a difference in osmotic pressure.
The moisture content of hides and skins is greatly reduced, and osmotic pressure increased, to the point
that bacteria are unable to grow. In wet-salting, the hides are heavily salted, then pressed into packs for
about 30 days. In brine-curing, the hides are agitated in a saltwater bath for about 16 hours. Curing can
also be accomplished by preserving the hides and skins at very low temperatures.

Beamhouse operations

The steps in the production of leather between curing and tanning are collectively referred to as
beamhouse operations. They include, in order, soaking, liming, removal of extraneous tissues (unhairing,
scudding and fleshing), deliming, bating (including puering), drenching, and pickling.[5][6]

Soaking

In soaking, the hides are soaked in clean water to remove the salt left over from curing and increase the
moisture so that the hide or skin can be further treated.

Liming

Main article: Liming (leather processing)

Tanner, Nuremberg, 1609

After soaking, the hides and skins are taken for liming: treatment with milk of lime (a basic agent) that
may involve the addition of "sharpening agents" (disulfide reducing agents) such as sodium sulfide,
cyanides, amines, etc. The objectives of this operation are mainly to:

Remove the hair and other keratinous matter

Remove some of the interfibrillary soluble proteins such as mucins

Swell up and split up the fibres to the desired extent

Remove the natural grease and fats to some extent

Bring the collagen in the hide to a proper condition for satisfactory tannage
The weakening of hair is dependent on the breakdown of the disulfide link of the amino acid cystine,
which is the characteristic of the keratin class of proteins that gives strength to hair and wools (keratin
typically makes up 90% of the dry weight of hair). The hydrogen atoms supplied by the sharpening agent
weaken the cystine molecular link whereby the covalent disulfide bond links are ultimately ruptured,
weakening the keratin. To some extent, sharpening also contributes to unhairing, as it tends to break
down the hair proteins.

The isoelectric point of the collagen in the hide (this is a tissue-strengthening protein unrelated to
keratin) is also shifted to around pH 4.7 due to liming.

Unhairing and scudding

Main article: Unhairing

Unhairing agents used at this time include sodium sulfide, sodium hydroxide, sodium hydrosulfite,
calcium hydrosulfide, dimethyl amine, and sodium sulfhydrate. The majority of hair is then removed
mechanically, initially with a machine and then by hand using a dull knife, a process known as scudding.

Deliming and bating

Main article: Deliming

The pH of the collagen is brought down to a lower level so the enzymes may act on it, in a process
known as deliming. Depending on the end use of the leather, hides may be treated with enzymes to
soften them, a process called bating. In modern tanning, these enzymes are purified agents, and the
process no longer requires bacterial fermentation (as from dung-water soaking) to produce them.[7]

Pickling

Once bating is complete, the hides and skins are treated first with salt and then with sulfuric acid, in case
a mineral tanning is to be done. This is done to bring down the pH of collagen to a very low level so as to
facilitate the penetration of mineral tanning agent into the substance. This process is known as pickling.
The common salt (sodium chloride) penetrates the hide twice as fast as the acid and checks the ill effect
of sudden drop of pH.

Peeling bark for the tannery in Prattsville, New York, during the 1840s, when it was the largest in the
world

Vegetable tanning

Vegetable tanning uses tannins (a class of polyphenol astringent chemicals), which occur naturally in the
bark and leaves of many plants. Tannins bind to the collagen proteins in the hide and coat them, causing
them to become less water-soluble and more resistant to bacterial attack. The process also causes the
hide to become more flexible. The primary barks processed in bark mills and used in modern times are
chestnut, oak, redoul, tanoak, hemlock, quebracho, mangrove, wattle (acacia; see catechol), and
myrobalans from Terminalia spp., such as Terminalia chebula. Hides are stretched on frames and
immersed for several weeks in vats of increasing concentrations of tannin. Vegetal-tanned hide is not
very flexible and is used for luggage, furniture, footwear, belts, and other clothing accessories.

Chrome tanning

Prior to the introduction of the basic chromium species in tanning, several steps are required to produce
a tannable hide.

The pH must be very acidic when the chromium is introduced to ensure that the chromium complexes
are small enough to fit in between the fibers and residues of the collagen. Once the desired level of
penetration of chrome into the substance is achieved, the pH of the material is raised again to facilitate
the process. This step is known as basification. In the raw state, chrome-tanned skins are blue, so are
referred to as wet blue. Chrome tanning is faster than vegetable tanning (less than a day for this part of
the process) and produces a stretchable leather which is excellent for use in handbags and garments.

Chemistry of chrome tanning

Chromium(III) sulfate ([Cr(H2O)6]2(SO4)3) has long been regarded as the most efficient and effective
tanning agent.[8][9] Chromium(III) compounds of the sort used in tanning are significantly less toxic than
hexavalent chromium. Chromium(III) sulfate dissolves to give the hexaaquachromium(III) cation,
[Cr(H2O)6]3+, which at higher pH undergoes processes called olation to give polychromium(III)
compounds that are active in tanning,[10] being the cross-linking of the collagen subunits. The chemistry
of [Cr(H2O)6]3+ is more complex in the tanning bath rather than in water due to the presence of a
variety of ligands. Some ligands include the sulfate anion, the collagen's carboxyl groups, amine groups
from the side chains of the amino acids, and masking agents. Masking agents are carboxylic acids, such
as acetic acid, used to suppress formation of polychromium(III) chains. Masking agents allow the tanner
to further increase the pH to increase collagen's reactivity without inhibiting the penetration of the
chromium(III) complexes.

Collagen is characterized by a high content of glycine, proline, and hydroxyproline, usually in the repeat
-gly-pro-hypro-gly-.[11] These residues give rise to collagen's helical structure. Collagen's high content of
hydroxyproline allows for significant cross-linking by hydrogen bonding within the helical structure.
Ionized carboxyl groups (RCO2−) are formed by hydrolysis of the collagen by the action of hydroxide.
This conversion occurs during the liming process, before introduction of the tanning agent (chromium
salts). The ionized carboxyl groups coordinate as ligands to the chromium(III) centers of the oxo-
hydroxide clusters.
Tanning increases the spacing between protein chains in collagen from 10 to 17 Å.[12] The difference is
consistent with cross-linking by polychromium species, of the sort arising from olation and oxolation.

Possible chromium(III) tanning mechanisms

Subsequent to application of the chromium agent, the bath is treated with sodium bicarbonate to
increase the pH to 4.0–4.3, which induces cross-linking between the chromium and the collagen. The pH
increase is normally accompanied by a gradual temperature increase up to 40°C.[13] Chromium's ability
to form such stable bridged bonds explains why it is considered one of the most efficient tanning
compounds. Chromium-tanned leather can contain between 4 and 5% of chromium.[12] This efficiency
is characterized by its increased hydrothermal stability of the skin, and its resistance to shrinkage in
heated water.[9]

Boiling and sun drying can oxidize and convert the various chromium(III) compounds used in tanning
into carcinogenic hexavalent chromium, or chromium(VI). This hexavalent chromium runoff and scraps
are then consumed by animals, in the case of Bangladesh, chickens (the nation's most common source
of protein). Up to 25% of the chickens in Bangladesh contained harmful levels of hexavalent chromium,
adding to the national health problem load.[14]

Tanning with other minerals

As chrome-tanned hides and skins are called wet blue, other forms of tanning like the ones based on
alum, zirconium, titanium, iron salts, or a combination thereof, lead to skins known as wet white. Wet
white is also a semifinished stage like wet blue, but is much more ecofriendly. The shrinkage
temperature of wet white varies from 70 to 85°C, while that of wet blue varies from 95 to 100°C.

Tawing with alum

Tawing is a method that uses alum and aluminium salts, generally in conjunction with other products
such as egg yolk, flour, and other salts. The leather becomes tawed by soaking in a warm potash alum
and salts solution, between 20 and 30°C. The process increases the leather's pliability, stretchability,
softness, and quality. Adding egg yolk and flour to the standard soaking solution further enhances its
fine handling characteristics. Then, the leather is air dried (crusted) for several weeks, which allows it to
stabilize. Tawing is traditionally used on pigskins and goatskins to create the whitest colors. However,
exposure and aging may cause slight yellowing over time and, if it remains in a wet condition, tawed
leather will suffer from decay. Technically, tawing is not tanning.[15]
Depending on the finish desired, the hide may be waxed, rolled, lubricated, injected with oil, split,
shaved and, of course, dyed. Suedes, nubucks, etc. are finished by raising the nap of the leather by
rolling with a rough surface.

The first stage is the preparation for tawing. The second stage is the actual tawing and other chemical
treatment. The third stage, known as retawing, applies retawing agents and dyes to the material to
provide the physical strength and properties desired depending on the end product. The fourth and final
stage, known as finishing, is used to apply finishing material to the surface or finish the surface without
the application of any chemicals if so desired.

Hazards of leather-tanning chemicals

The entire leather tanning process involves chemical and organic compounds that can have a
detrimental effect on the environment. Agents such as chromium, vegetable tannins, and aldehydes are
used in the tanning step of the process. However, other processes and chemicals are involved.[16]
Chemicals used in tanned leather production increase the levels of chemical oxygen demand and total
dissolved solids in water when not disposed of responsibly. These processes also use large quantities of
water and produce a vast amount of pollutants.[17] Kanpur, India, stands as a prime example of how
tannery chemicals and wastewater can negatively affect health and ecosystems. In 2013, the city
became the largest exporter of leather. About 80% of the wastewater is untreated and dumped straight
into Kanpur's main water source, the River Ganges. Farmland is swamped with blue-tinted water,
poisoned with chromium III, lead, and arsenic. Decades of contamination in the air, water, and soil have
caused a variety of diseases in the people who live in the area. Health problems include asthma,
eyesight problems, and skin discoloration.[18] Chromium is not solely responsible for these diseases.
Methyl isothiazolinone, which is used for microbiological protection (fungal or bacterial growth), causes
problems with the eyes and skin. Anthracene, which is used as a leather tanning agent, can cause
problems in the kidneys and liver and is also considered a carcinogen. Formaldehyde and arsenic, which
are used for leather finishing, cause health problems in the eyes, lungs, liver, kidneys, skin, and
lymphatic system and are also considered carcinogens.[17] The waste from leather tanneries is
detrimental to the environment and the people who live in it. The use of old technologies plays a large
factor in how hazardous wastewater results in contaminating the environment. This is especially
prominent in small and medium-sized tanneries in developing countries.[19] However, with updated
infrastructures and the implementation of wastewater treatment systems, leather tanneries can
become more environmentally friendly.

See also

Bermondsey tanners

Brain tanning

Horween Leather Company, a century-old tannery in Chicago

 Leather industry in India

Tanner (disambiguation)

Tanner Krolle, a manufacturer of leather goods based in London, United Kingdom

Tanner's red, a name for the chemical substance also known as phlobaphen

Tanner's sumach (Rhus coriaria), a deciduous shrub species native to southern Europe

Wet white

References

[1] Reference dictionary, accessed July 22, 2009.

Possehl, Gregory L. (1996). Mehrgarh in Oxford Companion to Archaeology, edited by Brian Fagan.
Oxford University Press.

Johnson, Steven (2006). The Ghost Map. New York: Riverhead Books. pp. 4,263. ISBN 978-1-59448-
269-4.

The Oxford English Dictionary, Second edition, Volume VI, ISBN 0-19-861218-4 entry: "grindery"

"Etherington and Roberts Dictionary". Foundation of the American Institute for Conservation. 2011-
03-10. Retrieved 2011-10-14.

"3. Tanneries, Description of the Tanning Process". Food and Agriculture Organization. Retrieved
2011-10-14.

Covington, Tony (31 August 2002). "Letters: Pure dog dung". New Scientist. Retrieved 6 January 2016.

Wilson, J.A. The Chemistry of Leather Manufacture. The Chemical Catalog Company, Inc. New York
1923.

Covington, A. "Modern Tanning Chemistry" Chemical Society Review 1997, volume 26, 111–126.
doi:10.1039/CS9972600111

Harlan, J.; Feairheller, S.; Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 1977, 86A, 425.

Heidemann, E.; J. Soc. Leather Technol. Chem., 1982, 66, 21.

Gustavson, K.H. "The Chemistry of Tanning Processes" Academic Press Inc., New York, 1956.

Heidemann, E.; Leather. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry,2005.

doi:10.1002/14356007.a15_259

http://www.gulf-times.com/bangladesh/245/details/398475/toxic-poultry-feed-threatens-
bangladesh’s-poor

Dictionary of Descriptive Terminology: tawing

 Lofrano, G., Meric, S., Balci, G., & Orhon, D. (2013). Chemical and biological treatment technologies
for leather tannery chemicals and wastewaters: A review. Science of Total Environment, 461-462, 265-
281.

"Toxic hazards of leather industry and technologies to combat threat: a review". www.academia.edu.
Retrieved 2015-11-07.

Gallagher, S. (Director). (2014). The Toxic Price of Leather [Motion picture]. India: Vimeo.

Blackman, Allen; Kildegaard, Arne (2010-09-18). "Clean technological change in developing-country

industrial clusters: Mexican leather tanning". Environmental Economics and Policy Studies 12 (3): 115–
132. doi:10.1007/s10018-010-0164-7. ISSN 1432-847X.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tanning.

"Home Tanning of Leather and Small fur Skins" (pub. 1962) hosted by the UNT Government
Documents Department

Leather tanning guide.

Muspratt's mid-19th century technical description of the whole process.

[show]

Leather

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Sources of tannins

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Tanning
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about producing leather from animal skins. For darkening skin color from sunlight,
see Sun tanning. For other uses, see Tanning (disambiguation).
"Tannery" redirects here. For other uses, see Tannery (disambiguation).

Tanned leather in Marrakesh

Two men pressing the leather near the end of the tanning process in an American tannery. circa:
1976

Tanneries of Marrakesh

Tanning is the process of treating skins and hides of animals to produce leather, which is more
durable and less susceptible to decomposition. Traditionally, tanning used tannin, an acidic
chemical compound from which the tanning process draws its name (tannin is in turn named
after an old German word for oak or fir trees, from which the compound was derived). Coloring
may occur during tanning. A tannery is the term for a place where the skins are processed.

Tanning hide into leather involves a process which permanently alters the protein structure of
skin. Tanning can be performed with either vegetable or mineral methods. Before tanning, the
skins are unhaired, degreased, desalted and soaked in water over a period of 6 hours to 2 days.
To prevent damage of the skin by bacterial growth during the soaking period, biocides, typically
dithiocarbamates, may be used. Fungicides such as 2-thiocyanomethylthiobenzothiazole may
also be added later in the process, to protect wet leathers from mold growth.

As an alternative to tanning, hides can be dried to produce rawhide rather than leather.

Contents
 1 History
 2 Preparatory steps prior to tanning
o 2.1 Skinning
o 2.2 Curing
o 2.3 Beamhouse operations
 2.3.1 Soaking
 2.3.2 Liming
 2.3.3 Unhairing and scudding
 2.3.4 Deliming and bating
 2.3.5 Pickling
 3 Vegetable tanning
 4 Chrome tanning
o 4.1 Chemistry of chrome tanning
o 4.2 Tanning with other minerals
o 4.3 Tawing with alum
 5 Hazards of leather-tanning chemicals
 6 See also
 7 References
 8 External links

History
Further information: History of hide materials

Tannery at Fez
Tanning circa 1880

Tanned rabbit pelt, the fur has been left on apart from small patches exposing leather

The English word for tanning is from medieval Latin tannāre, deriv. of tannum (oak bark),
related to Old High German tanna meaning oak or fir (related to modern Tannenbaum). This
refers to use of the bark of oaks (the original source of tannin) in some kinds of hide
preservation.[1]

In ancient history, tanning was considered a noxious or "odoriferous trade" and relegated to the
outskirts of town, amongst the poor. Indeed, tanning by ancient methods is so foul smelling,
tanneries are still isolated from those towns today where the old methods are used. Ancient
civilizations used leather for waterskins, bags, harnesses and tack, boats, armour, quivers,
scabbards, boots, and sandals. Tanning was being carried out by the South Asian inhabitants of
Mehrgarh between 7000 and 3300 BC.[2] Around 2500 BC, the Sumerians began using leather,
affixed by copper studs, on chariot wheels.

Skins typically arrived at the tannery dried stiff and dirty with soil and gore. First, the ancient
tanners would soak the skins in water to clean and soften them. Then they would pound and
scour the skin to remove any remaining flesh and fat. Next, the tanner needed to remove the hair
from the skin. This was done by either soaking the skin in urine[citation needed], painting it with an
alkaline lime mixture, or simply allowing the skin to putrefy for several months then dipping it in
a salt solution. After the hairs were loosened, the tanners scraped them off with a knife.

Once the hair was removed, the tanners would "bate" (soften) the material by pounding dung into
the skin, or soaking the skin in a solution of animal brains. Bating was a fermentative process
which relied on enzymes produced by bacteria found in the dung. Among the kinds of dung
commonly used were those of dogs or pigeons.[3] Sometimes, the dung was mixed with water in a
large vat, and the prepared skins were kneaded in the dung water until they became supple from
bacterial enzyme action, but not too soft. The ancient tanner might use his bare feet to knead the
skins in the dung water, and the kneading could last two or three hours.

This combination of urine, animal feces, and decaying flesh made ancient tanneries malodorous.

Children employed as dung gatherers were a common sight in ancient cities. Also common were
"piss-pots" located on street corners, where human urine could be collected for use in tanneries
or by washerwomen. In some variations of the process, cedar oil, alum, or tannin were applied to
the skin as a tanning agent. As the skin was stretched, it would lose moisture and absorb the
agent.

Leftover leather would be turned into glue. Tanners would place scraps of hides in a vat of water
and let them deteriorate for months. The mixture would then be placed over a fire to boil off the
water to produce glue.

A tannery may be associated with a grindery, originally a whetstone facility for sharpening
knives and other sharp tools, but later could carry shoemakers' tools and materials for sale.[4]

Preparatory steps prior to tanning

Skinning

The actual tanning process begins with obtaining an animal skin. When an animal skin is to be
tanned, the animal is killed and skinned before the body heat leaves the tissues. This can be done
by the tanner, or by obtaining a skin at a slaughterhouse, farm, or local fur trader.

Curing

Preparing hides begins by curing them with salt. Curing is employed to prevent putrefaction of
the protein substance (collagen) from bacterial growth during the time lag from procuring the
hide to when it is processed. Curing removes water from the hides and skins using a difference in
osmotic pressure. The moisture content of hides and skins is greatly reduced, and osmotic
pressure increased, to the point that bacteria are unable to grow. In wet-salting, the hides are
heavily salted, then pressed into packs for about 30 days. In brine-curing, the hides are agitated
in a saltwater bath for about 16 hours. Curing can also be accomplished by preserving the hides
and skins at very low temperatures.

Beamhouse operations

The steps in the production of leather between curing and tanning are collectively referred to as
beamhouse operations. They include, in order, soaking, liming, removal of extraneous tissues
(unhairing, scudding and fleshing), deliming, bating (including puering), drenching, and
pickling.[5][6]
Soaking

In soaking, the hides are soaked in clean water to remove the salt left over from curing and
increase the moisture so that the hide or skin can be further treated.

Liming

Main article: Liming (leather processing)

Tanner, Nuremberg, 1609

After soaking, the hides and skins are taken for liming: treatment with milk of lime (a basic
agent) that may involve the addition of "sharpening agents" (disulfide reducing agents) such as
sodium sulfide, cyanides, amines, etc. The objectives of this operation are mainly to:

 Remove the hair and other keratinous matter

 Remove some of the interfibrillary soluble proteins such as mucins
 Swell up and split up the fibres to the desired extent
 Remove the natural grease and fats to some extent
 Bring the collagen in the hide to a proper condition for satisfactory tannage

The weakening of hair is dependent on the breakdown of the disulfide link of the amino acid
cystine, which is the characteristic of the keratin class of proteins that gives strength to hair and
wools (keratin typically makes up 90% of the dry weight of hair). The hydrogen atoms supplied
by the sharpening agent weaken the cystine molecular link whereby the covalent disulfide bond
links are ultimately ruptured, weakening the keratin. To some extent, sharpening also contributes
to unhairing, as it tends to break down the hair proteins.

The isoelectric point of the collagen in the hide (this is a tissue-strengthening protein unrelated to
keratin) is also shifted to around pH 4.7 due to liming.

Unhairing and scudding

Main article: Unhairing

Unhairing agents used at this time include sodium sulfide, sodium hydroxide, sodium
hydrosulfite, calcium hydrosulfide, dimethyl amine, and sodium sulfhydrate. The majority of
hair is then removed mechanically, initially with a machine and then by hand using a dull knife,
a process known as scudding.

Deliming and bating

Main article: Deliming

The pH of the collagen is brought down to a lower level so the enzymes may act on it, in a
process known as deliming. Depending on the end use of the leather, hides may be treated with
enzymes to soften them, a process called bating. In modern tanning, these enzymes are purified
agents, and the process no longer requires bacterial fermentation (as from dung-water soaking) to
produce them.[7]

Pickling

Once bating is complete, the hides and skins are treated first with salt and then with sulfuric acid,
in case a mineral tanning is to be done. This is done to bring down the pH of collagen to a very
low level so as to facilitate the penetration of mineral tanning agent into the substance. This
process is known as pickling. The common salt (sodium chloride) penetrates the hide twice as
fast as the acid and checks the ill effect of sudden drop of pH.

Peeling bark for the tannery in Prattsville, New York, during the 1840s, when it was the largest
in the world

Vegetable tanning
Vegetable tanning uses tannins (a class of polyphenol astringent chemicals), which occur
naturally in the bark and leaves of many plants. Tannins bind to the collagen proteins in the hide
and coat them, causing them to become less water-soluble and more resistant to bacterial attack.
The process also causes the hide to become more flexible. The primary barks processed in bark
mills and used in modern times are chestnut, oak, redoul, tanoak, hemlock, quebracho,
mangrove, wattle (acacia; see catechol), and myrobalans from Terminalia spp., such as
Terminalia chebula. Hides are stretched on frames and immersed for several weeks in vats of
increasing concentrations of tannin. Vegetal-tanned hide is not very flexible and is used for
luggage, furniture, footwear, belts, and other clothing accessories.

Chrome tanning
Prior to the introduction of the basic chromium species in tanning, several steps are required to
produce a tannable hide.

The pH must be very acidic when the chromium is introduced to ensure that the chromium
complexes are small enough to fit in between the fibers and residues of the collagen. Once the
desired level of penetration of chrome into the substance is achieved, the pH of the material is
raised again to facilitate the process. This step is known as basification. In the raw state, chrome-
tanned skins are blue, so are referred to as wet blue. Chrome tanning is faster than vegetable
tanning (less than a day for this part of the process) and produces a stretchable leather which is
excellent for use in handbags and garments.

Chemistry of chrome tanning

Chromium(III) sulfate ([Cr(H2O)6]2(SO4)3) has long been regarded as the most efficient and
effective tanning agent.[8][9] Chromium(III) compounds of the sort used in tanning are
significantly less toxic than hexavalent chromium. Chromium(III) sulfate dissolves to give the
hexaaquachromium(III) cation, [Cr(H2O)6]3+, which at higher pH undergoes processes called
olation to give polychromium(III) compounds that are active in tanning,[10] being the cross-
linking of the collagen subunits. The chemistry of [Cr(H2O)6]3+ is more complex in the tanning
bath rather than in water due to the presence of a variety of ligands. Some ligands include the
sulfate anion, the collagen's carboxyl groups, amine groups from the side chains of the amino
acids, and masking agents. Masking agents are carboxylic acids, such as acetic acid, used to
suppress formation of polychromium(III) chains. Masking agents allow the tanner to further
increase the pH to increase collagen's reactivity without inhibiting the penetration of the
chromium(III) complexes.

Collagen is characterized by a high content of glycine, proline, and hydroxyproline, usually in

the repeat -gly-pro-hypro-gly-.[11] These residues give rise to collagen's helical structure.
Collagen's high content of hydroxyproline allows for significant cross-linking by hydrogen
bonding within the helical structure. Ionized carboxyl groups (RCO2−) are formed by hydrolysis
of the collagen by the action of hydroxide. This conversion occurs during the liming process,
before introduction of the tanning agent (chromium salts). The ionized carboxyl groups
coordinate as ligands to the chromium(III) centers of the oxo-hydroxide clusters.

Tanning increases the spacing between protein chains in collagen from 10 to 17 Å.[12] The
difference is consistent with cross-linking by polychromium species, of the sort arising from
olation and oxolation.
Possible chromium(III) tanning mechanisms

Subsequent to application of the chromium agent, the bath is treated with sodium bicarbonate to
increase the pH to 4.0–4.3, which induces cross-linking between the chromium and the collagen.
The pH increase is normally accompanied by a gradual temperature increase up to 40°C.[13]
Chromium's ability to form such stable bridged bonds explains why it is considered one of the
most efficient tanning compounds. Chromium-tanned leather can contain between 4 and 5% of
chromium.[12] This efficiency is characterized by its increased hydrothermal stability of the skin,
and its resistance to shrinkage in heated water.[9]

Boiling and sun drying can oxidize and convert the various chromium(III) compounds used in
tanning into carcinogenic hexavalent chromium, or chromium(VI). This hexavalent chromium
runoff and scraps are then consumed by animals, in the case of Bangladesh, chickens (the
nation's most common source of protein). Up to 25% of the chickens in Bangladesh contained
harmful levels of hexavalent chromium, adding to the national health problem load.[14]

Tanning with other minerals

As chrome-tanned hides and skins are called wet blue, other forms of tanning like the ones based
on alum, zirconium, titanium, iron salts, or a combination thereof, lead to skins known as wet
white. Wet white is also a semifinished stage like wet blue, but is much more ecofriendly. The
shrinkage temperature of wet white varies from 70 to 85°C, while that of wet blue varies from 95
to 100°C.

Tawing with alum

Tawing is a method that uses alum and aluminium salts, generally in conjunction with other
products such as egg yolk, flour, and other salts. The leather becomes tawed by soaking in a
warm potash alum and salts solution, between 20 and 30°C. The process increases the leather's
pliability, stretchability, softness, and quality. Adding egg yolk and flour to the standard soaking
solution further enhances its fine handling characteristics. Then, the leather is air dried (crusted)
for several weeks, which allows it to stabilize. Tawing is traditionally used on pigskins and
goatskins to create the whitest colors. However, exposure and aging may cause slight yellowing
over time and, if it remains in a wet condition, tawed leather will suffer from decay. Technically,
tawing is not tanning.[15]

Depending on the finish desired, the hide may be waxed, rolled, lubricated, injected with oil,
split, shaved and, of course, dyed. Suedes, nubucks, etc. are finished by raising the nap of the
leather by rolling with a rough surface.

The first stage is the preparation for tawing. The second stage is the actual tawing and other
chemical treatment. The third stage, known as retawing, applies retawing agents and dyes to the
material to provide the physical strength and properties desired depending on the end product.
The fourth and final stage, known as finishing, is used to apply finishing material to the surface
or finish the surface without the application of any chemicals if so desired.

Hazards of leather-tanning chemicals

The entire leather tanning process involves chemical and organic compounds that can have a
detrimental effect on the environment. Agents such as chromium, vegetable tannins, and
aldehydes are used in the tanning step of the process. However, other processes and chemicals
are involved.[16] Chemicals used in tanned leather production increase the levels of chemical
oxygen demand and total dissolved solids in water when not disposed of responsibly. These
processes also use large quantities of water and produce a vast amount of pollutants.[17] Kanpur,
India, stands as a prime example of how tannery chemicals and wastewater can negatively affect
health and ecosystems. In 2013, the city became the largest exporter of leather. About 80% of the
wastewater is untreated and dumped straight into Kanpur's main water source, the River Ganges.
Farmland is swamped with blue-tinted water, poisoned with chromium III, lead, and arsenic.
Decades of contamination in the air, water, and soil have caused a variety of diseases in the
people who live in the area. Health problems include asthma, eyesight problems, and skin
discoloration.[18] Chromium is not solely responsible for these diseases. Methyl isothiazolinone,
which is used for microbiological protection (fungal or bacterial growth), causes problems with
the eyes and skin. Anthracene, which is used as a leather tanning agent, can cause problems in
the kidneys and liver and is also considered a carcinogen. Formaldehyde and arsenic, which are
used for leather finishing, cause health problems in the eyes, lungs, liver, kidneys, skin, and
lymphatic system and are also considered carcinogens.[17] The waste from leather tanneries is
detrimental to the environment and the people who live in it. The use of old technologies plays a
large factor in how hazardous wastewater results in contaminating the environment. This is
especially prominent in small and medium-sized tanneries in developing countries.[19] However,
with updated infrastructures and the implementation of wastewater treatment systems, leather
tanneries can become more environmentally friendly.

See also
 Bermondsey tanners
  Brain tanning
 Horween Leather Company, a century-old tannery in Chicago
 Leather industry in India
 Tanner (disambiguation)
 Tanner Krolle, a manufacturer of leather goods based in London, United Kingdom
 Tanner's red, a name for the chemical substance also known as phlobaphen
 Tanner's sumach (Rhus coriaria), a deciduous shrub species native to southern Europe
 Wet white

References
1. [1] Reference dictionary, accessed July 22, 2009.
2. Possehl, Gregory L. (1996). Mehrgarh in Oxford Companion to Archaeology,
edited by Brian Fagan. Oxford University Press.
3. Johnson, Steven (2006). The Ghost Map. New York: Riverhead Books. pp. 4,263.
ISBN 978-1-59448-269-4.
4. The Oxford English Dictionary, Second edition, Volume VI, ISBN 0-19-861218-
4 entry: "grindery"
5. "Etherington and Roberts Dictionary". Foundation of the American Institute for
Conservation. 2011-03-10. Retrieved 2011-10-14.
6. "3. Tanneries, Description of the Tanning Process". Food and Agriculture
Organization. Retrieved 2011-10-14.
7. Covington, Tony (31 August 2002). "Letters: Pure dog dung". New Scientist.
Retrieved 6 January 2016.
8. Wilson, J.A. The Chemistry of Leather Manufacture. The Chemical Catalog
Company, Inc. New York 1923.
9. Covington, A. "Modern Tanning Chemistry" Chemical Society Review 1997,
volume 26, 111–126. doi:10.1039/CS9972600111
10. Harlan, J.; Feairheller, S.; Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 1977, 86A, 425.
11. Heidemann, E.; J. Soc. Leather Technol. Chem., 1982, 66, 21.
12. Gustavson, K.H. "The Chemistry of Tanning Processes" Academic Press Inc.,
New York, 1956.
13. Heidemann, E.; Leather. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry,2005.
doi:10.1002/14356007.a15_259
14. http://www.gulf-times.com/bangladesh/245/details/398475/toxic-poultry-feed-
threatens-bangladesh’s-poor
15. Dictionary of Descriptive Terminology: tawing
16. Lofrano, G., Meric, S., Balci, G., & Orhon, D. (2013). Chemical and biological
treatment technologies for leather tannery chemicals and wastewaters: A review. Science
of Total Environment, 461-462, 265-281.
17. "Toxic hazards of leather industry and technologies to combat threat: a review".
www.academia.edu. Retrieved 2015-11-07.
18. Gallagher, S. (Director). (2014). The Toxic Price of Leather [Motion picture].
India: Vimeo.
 19. Blackman, Allen; Kildegaard, Arne (2010-09-18). "Clean technological change
in developing-country industrial clusters: Mexican leather tanning". Environmental
Economics and Policy Studies 12 (3): 115–132. doi:10.1007/s10018-010-0164-7.
ISSN  1432-847X.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tanning.

 "Home Tanning of Leather and Small fur Skins" (pub. 1962) hosted by the UNT
Government Documents Department
 Leather tanning guide.
 Muspratt's mid-19th century technical description of the whole process.

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How we Tan Leather? always wondered… here it explains briefly

June 3, 2015

Tanning is the process of treating skins of animals to produce leather, which is more durable and less
susceptible to decomposition. Traditionally, tanning used tannin, an acidic chemical compound from
which the tanning process draws its name (tannin is in turn named after an old German word for oak or
fir trees, from which the compound was derived). Coloring may occur during tanning. A tannery is the
term for a place where the skins are processed.

Tanning hide into leather involves a process which permanently alters the protein structure of skin.
Making “rawhide” (untanned but worked hide) does not require the use of tannin. Rawhide is made by
removing the flesh and fat and then the hair by use of an aqueous solution (this process is often called
“liming” when using lime and water or “bucking” when using wood ash (lye) and water), then scraping
over a beam with a somewhat dull knife, then drying. The two aforementioned solutions for removing
the hair also act to clean the fiber network of the skin and allow penetration and action of the tanning
agent, so that all the steps in preparation of rawhide except drying are often preludes to the more
complex process of tanning and production of leather.

Tanning can be performed with either vegetable or mineral methods. Before tanning, the skins are
unhaired, degreased, desalted and soaked in water over a period of 6 hours to 2 days. To prevent
damage of the skin by bacterial growth during the soaking period, biocides, typically dithiocarbamates,
may be used. Fungicides such as TCMBT, 2-(Thiocyanomethylthio) benzothiazole, may also be added
later in the process, to protect wet leathers from mold growth. After 1980 the use of pentachlorophenol
and mercury based biocides and their derivatives was forbidden.

Love Lesson on Leather… Just start loving it…

April 18, 2015

The Love Story Begins with A Lesson in Leather….

So when Blue and I first went down to have more bags made, the old don of the family, Don David, told
me to go down to the leather market and choose some leather to make some more bags. I asked him
what I should look for to make the best bags ever and he told me to ask for full grain chrome tanned
leather (vegetable tanned leather is nice too, but we chose chrome). I just had to go pick the thickness
and color. .
Probably a couple hundred booths of pure love. vegetable, chrome and even brain tanned leather in
every color and thickness you can imagine. Made my nose spin. Once I got to know the owners of the
tannery there in Mexico, ranked 2nd best in all of North and South America in 2013, they started to give
me the real education on what to look for and what to look out for with regards to leather.

Full Grain, Top Grain, Genuine and Bonded Leather Explanation

So I chose for my bags to be made of 20mm-22mm (4 – 5 oz. Full Grain Chrome tanned leather.
Basically, there are 4 types of leather. Full Grain is the best leather money can buy. Top Grain is pretty
good since it still has some of the grain (read explanation of “Grain”) on the top after most of the grain
was sanded off to get rid of the scars and character. Genuine Leather comes from the bottom half of the
hide and doesn’t have any grain. Suede is an example of genuine leather. Bonded Leather is the PT
Cruiser of the leather world. It’s the dust and shavings of the leather glued and pressed together. Little
known fact, you can also mix up dog poop with flour and water, press it flat and let it dry in the sun for
about two days and get a bonded leather equivalent. Genuine and Bonded leather is usually spray-
painted to look like full or top grain leather. Watch out!!!

The Tanning Process

Saddleback’s great leather is a huge part of our success. You really need to read this part. See pictures of
what bad leather looks like and check out the fun, short and simple explanation of how leather is
tanned.
Watch out for leather that isn’t tanned long enough; it looks nice on the shelf, but it’ll crack and tear in
no time. Basically, all of the natural oils and preservatives are extracted from the hide and the tannery
replenishes them by tumbling the skin in a big drum for hours and hours. Some tanneries only tumble
the leather long enough to coat the outer layer and therefore the inner part never gets the oils and
preservatives it needs.
Whether or not you buy a leather piece from us, you need to understand leather so you don’t get
burned. After reading this short page, you’ll know why some bags are so expensive and some aren’t.

You’ll know why some leather cracks and tears quickly and some doesn’t. And you’ll also know what to
look for and what to look out for. Nice, fully tanned leather is vital to maintaining Saddleback Leather
Company’s good name and happy leather family, so please read on.

The difference between high and low grade leather is like the difference between a Porsche and a
Dodge. They both look great on the outside, but quickly you’ll be able to tell which one cost a lot to
make and which one didn’t.

Here’s how it works. A hiker finds a cow dying in the wilderness. The cow dies.

1. The hiker skins him and takes the hide to the tannery where they remove the excess meat, fat and
hair.

2. The tannery extracts the moisture, oils and natural preservatives and removes the hair. At this stage,
it’s called “Wet Blue”.
Most Important Step
3. They tan the wet blue hides into a giant drum with the new oils, preservatives and coloring and let it
tumble for hours and hours. Depending on the thickness of the leather, it can take up to 10 hours for the
new life giving liquids to penetrate all the way to the middle of the hide.

4. Finally, the leather is pressed in heated presses, hung up to dry at a certain humidity level, sprayed
with finishes and sealers and then pressed again.
How They Cheat
A drum usually costs well over $100,000 USD and therefore many tanneries don’t have as many of them
as they need. Therefore, in order to put out more leather, they cut the tumbling time by up to 90%. This
is a big money maker because not only do they get to process more leather in the drums, but they don’t
have to use as much oil, colors or preservatives. They only have to buy enough of the liquids to tan 10%
of the mass of the leather instead of 100% of the mass all the way to the center.
These liquids are really expensive and by using cheap liquids to tan, even if they do tumble it long
enough, they can save thousands and thousands of dollars a year. Also, if the tannery uses cheap dyes
and colors, your leather will fade and crack with too much sunlight. Saddleback’s leather takes
anywhere from 10 – 20 hours to tumble, depending on the leather and only the expensive
hypoallergenic detergents, solvents and oils are used. You will regret it if your leather was made with
the extremely cheap and allergenic Chrome 6, detergents and solvents instead of our hypoallergenic
Chrome 3 and expensive detergents and solvents. A large company can save hundreds of thousands of
dollars a year by buying cheap leather.

Sometimes, a company thinks they’re using good leather, but the factory halfway around the world that
they outsourced their production to, is buying cheap leather. Of course, the general manager of the
factory only pays for the cheap stuff, charges them for the more expensive stuff. And… it’s hard to tell
the difference since most companies either paint or fold over and sew the edges. Now, painted or
finished edges like this don’t always mean cheap leather. Some quality leather companies finish their
edges like this to give their leather a refined and polished look.
All of our edges are unfinished and unpainted so you can see they’re roughly the same color throughout.
The shade may vary, but you won’t see any blue in the middle. They don’t look as perfect and “Pretty
boy” this way, but that’s fine. They’re not perfect and that’s what makes them perfect.

Well, I found perhaps the most expensive tannery in the western hemisphere and arguably the best. It’s
the same tannery that Hartmann, Tony Lama, Justin Boots and other big names use. You can almost eat
off of the floor. We are very pleased with the excellent leather they deliver every single time.

Full Grain, Top Grain, Genuine and Bonded Leathers

A quick lesson
Saddleback Leather bags are made from American cows born and bred. We use 4 – 5 ounce Full Grain
leather tanned with high grade oils and preservatives to keep it from being destroyed early by dryness
and moisture. There are four grades of leather you can get out of one original hide.
Notice in the drawing below how the fibers near the bottom run horizontally and the higher you go, the
more vertical they get? Well, the more horizontal, the more easily the fibers pull apart. The more
vertical, the tougher.

Full Grain Leather is the best leather money can buy and the only leather good enough for Saddleback. It
comes from the top layer of the hide which has ALL of the grain, therefore, FULL grain. The natural
surface of full grain leather burnishes and beautifies with use.
Some companies sort of spray paint their inferior leather to try to make it look like full grain leather, but
it just ends up looking like someone spray painted some cheap leather. From what I’ve seen, maybe 2%
of all bags are made of Full Grain. This leather is expensive for me to buy and very difficult to work.
Caution: We once bought a recliner made with full grain leather. We sadly discovered later that only a
few parts were made of leather. The back, sides and beneath the leg rest were made of vinyl that looked
just like the leather. And I wondered why it was such a great deal. Technically, the manufacturer wasn’t
lying when he said “Made ‘with’ Full Grain Leather”. Watch out, they use the same trick with briefcases
and luggage. All of our pieces are made completely out of Full Grain leather inside and out.

I haven’t done anything to the bags to add character. The marks and scrapes and scars are all natural.
Where the cow had been gored scraped by barbed wire, cactus or mesquite thorns … bitten by a coyote
… or branded, the color sets in deep and stands out a bit. You’ll be able to see the full grain running
through the hide in the form of veins too.
Your bag may have a few small scars and imperfections, but those just lend a tremendous amount of
character to it. Some bags have parts of the cow’s brand here and there. Ride it hard; it’ll look better.

Top Grain Leather is the second highest grade because it is split from the top layer of blemished hide
then sanded and refinished. This is how they get rid of scars and scrapes and light cow brands. Top grain
leather does not age nicely with use. It is strong and durable, but not good enough for Saddleback. They
sanded off the strongest fibers of the hide leaving mainly the horizontal (easily pulled apart) fibers. By
the way, did you know that leather shavings are used as filler in cheap dog food? The bigger the pile of
shavings in the dog food, the bigger the piles elsewhere.
Genuine Leather is the third grade of leather and is produced from the layers of hide that remain after
the top is split off for the better grades. The surface is usually refinished (spray painted) to resemble a
higher grade. It can be smooth or rough. Ever heard of suede? Suede is tougher than cloth and is
excellent for lining, but it’s not a good idea to use it in areas where it gets stress.
Bonded Leather is the PT Cruiser of the leather world… pure junk. Leftover scraps are ground together
with glue and resurfaced in a process similar to vinyl manufacture. Bonded leather is weak and degrades
quickly with use. Most Bibles are covered with this.

I hope this information helps in your understanding of leather and in your search for the perfect leather
piece. I would feel honored if you were to choose one of mine, you won’t be disappointed. If you should
leave here and keep on searching, I wish you great success.
Warm regards,
Hammad

What type of leather is perfect and where it is used? YOU WILL KNOW ABOUT IT HERE AT Love
Leather.

April 18, 2015

Types of Leather… All about leather..
There are two types of leather commonly used in specialty products, such as briefcases, wallets, and
luggage:
Belting leather is a full-grain leather that was originally used in driving pulley belts and other
machinery. It is found on the surface of briefcases, portfolios, and wallets, and can be identified by its
thick, firm feel and smooth finish. Belting leather is generally a heavy-weight of full-grain, vegetable-
tanned leather.
Napa leather is chrome-tanned and is soft and supple. It is commonly found in wallets, toiletry kits,
and other personal leather goods.
The following are not “true” organic leathers, but are materials that contain leather fiber. Depending
on jurisdiction, they may still be labeled as “Genuine Leather”, even though the consumer generally
can only see the outer layer of the material and can’t actually see any of the leather content:
Bonded leather or reconstituted leather is an economical type that uses leftovers of organic leather
(often from leather tanneries or leather workshops) which are shredded and then bonded together
with polyurethane binders or latex on top of a fiber sheet. The varying degree of organic leather in the
mix (between 10% and 90%) affects the smell and the texture of such product. Due to its reduced cost
it is becoming a popular choice for furniture upholstery, especially for commercial use, where
durability is needed; however durability can vary widely, depending on the formulation.
Bycast leather is a split leather with a layer of polyurethane laminated to the surface and then
embossed. Bycast was originally made for the shoe industry and later adopted by the furniture
industry. The original formula created by Bayer was strong but expensive. The result is a material that
is slightly stiffer but cheaper than top-grain leather but has a much more consistent texture. Because
its surface is completely covered in plastic, is easier to clean and maintain, but is not easily repaired.

eneral, leather is sold in four forms:

Full-grain leather refers to hides that have not been sanded, buffed, or snuffed (as opposed to top-
grain or corrected leather) to remove imperfections (or natural marks) on the surface of the hide. The
grain remains allowing the fiber strength and durability. The grain also has breathability, resulting in
less moisture from prolonged contact. Rather than wearing out, it will develop a patina during its
expected useful lifetime. High quality leather furniture and footwear are often made from full-grain
leather. Full-grain leathers are typically available in two finish types:aniline, semi-aniline.
Top-grain leather (the most common type used in high-end leather products) is the second-highest
quality. It has had the “split” layer separated away, making it thinner and more pliable than full-grain.
Its surface has been sanded and a finish coat added to the surface which results in a colder, plastic feel
with less breathability, and it will not develop a natural patina. It is typically less expensive and has
greater resistance to stains than full-grain leather, so long as the finish remains unbroken.
Corrected-grain leather is any leather that has had an artificial grain applied to its surface. The hides
used to create corrected leather do not meet the standards for use in creating vegetal-tanned or
aniline leather. The imperfections are corrected or sanded off, and an artificial grain embossed into
the surface and dressed with stain or dyes. Most corrected-grain leather is used to make pigmented
leather as the solid pigment helps hide the corrections or imperfections. Corrected grain leathers can
mainly be bought as two finish types: semi-aniline and pigmented.
Split leather is leather created from the fibrous part of the hide left once the top-grain of the rawhide
has been separated from the hide. During the splitting operation, the top-grain and drop split are
separated. The drop split can be further split (thickness allowing) into a middle split and a flesh split.
In very thick hides, the middle split can be separated into multiple layers until the thickness prevents
further splitting. Split leather then has an artificial layer applied to the surface of the split and is
embossed with a leather grain (bycast leather). Splits are also used to create suede. The strongest
suedes are usually made from grain splits (that have the grain completely removed) or from the flesh
split that has been shaved to the correct thickness. Suede is “fuzzy” on both sides. Manufacturers use
a variety of techniques to make suede from full-grain. A reversed suede is a grained leather that has
been designed into the leather article with the grain facing away from the visible surface. It is not
considered to be a true form of suede.
Less-common leathers include:
Buckskin or brained leather is a tanning process that uses animal brains or other fatty materials to
alter the leather. The resulting supple, suede-like hide is usually smoked heavily to prevent it from
returning to a rawhide state, if wetted. It will be easier to soften, and will help keep leather eating
bugs away.
Patent leather is leather that has been given a high-gloss finish. The original process was developed in
Newark, New Jersey, by inventor Seth Boyden in 1818. Patent leather usually has a plastic coating.
Fish leather is popular for its motifs and its pigmentation. Mainly used for making shoes and bags, the
fish skin is tanned like other animal skins. The species used include salmon, perch, sturgeon, etc.
Salmon : farmed in Iceland and Norway, salmon skin has fine scales. Its strength and elegant look
make it the most popular fish leather.
Perch : coming from Nile, its skin is recognizable with its large, round and soft scales.
Wolffish : its skin is smooth because without scales. We recognize it thanks to its dark spots, and the
‘stripes’ which are due to the friction of marine rocks.
Cod : its skin has finer scales than salmon, but its texture is more varied, sometimes smooth and
sometimes rough.
Sturgeon : fish well known for its eggs (caviar), which make it rare. Its leather is thus quite expensive.
Eel : fish without scales, its skin has a shiny appearance.
Tilapia : compared with salmon skins the patterns of tilapia leather is more beautiful, but the skins are
smaller. The leather has resistant qualities similar to salmon and perch. Tilapia originate from Africa,
and are farmed in many tropical countries. It is a popular food fish and is considered an invasive
species in much of the United States.
Shagreen is also known as stingray skin/leather. Applications used in furniture production date as far
back as the art deco period. The word “shagreen” originates from France. It is known as the most
difficult leather to work due to dished scales of the animal, and it is one of the most expensive
leathers.
Shark is covered with small, close-set tubercles, making it very tough. The handbags made of shark
skin used to be in vogue but this keen interest has since fallen as the costs of production and of the
leather itself are very high. Moreover, this skin is more difficult to work. Should not be confused with
traditional “sharkskin”, a woven textile product.
Vachetta leather is used in the trimmings of luggage and handbags. The leather is left untreated and is
therefore susceptible to water and stains. Sunlight will cause the natural leather to darken in shade,
called a patina.
Slink is leather made from the skin of unborn calves. It is particularly soft and is valued for use in
making gloves.
Deerskin is a tough, water-resistant leather, possibly due to the animal’s adaptations to its thorny and
thicket-filled habitats. Deerskin has been used by many societies, including indigenous Americans.
Most modern deerskin is no longer procured from the wild, with deer farms breeding the animals
specifically for the purpose of their skins. Large quantities are still tanned from wild deer hides in
historic tanning towns such as Gloversville and Johnstown in upstate New York. Deerskin is used in
jackets and overcoats, martial arts equipment such as kendo and bogu, as well as personal accessories
such as handbags and wallets.
Goatskin is soft but tough, and is used for items such as thorn-resistant gardener’s gloves.
Nubuck is top-grain cattle hide leather that has been sanded or buffed on the grain side, or outside, to
give a slight nap of short protein fibers, producing a velvet-like surface.
Russia leather is a particular form of bark-tanned cow leather. It is distinguished by an oiling step,
after tanning, where birch oil is worked into the leather to make it particularly hard-wearing, flexible
and resistant to water.
There are two other types of leather commonly used in specialty products, such as briefcases, wallets,
and luggage:
Belting leather is a full-grain leather that was originally used in driving pulley belts and other
machinery. It is found on the surface of briefcases, portfolios, and wallets, and can be identified by its
thick, firm feel and smooth finish. Belting leather is generally a heavy-weight of full-grain, vegetal-
tanned leather.
Napa leather is chrome-tanned and is soft and supple. It is commonly found in wallets, toiletry kits,
and other personal leather goods.
The following are not “true” organic leathers, but are materials that contain leather fiber. Depending
on jurisdiction, they may still be labeled as “Genuine Leather”, even though the consumer generally
can only see the outer layer of the material and can’t actually see any of the leather content:
Bonded leather or reconstituted leather is an economical type that uses leftovers of organic leather
(often from leather tanneries or leather workshops) which are shredded and then bonded together
with polyurethane binders or latex on top of a fiber sheet. The varying degree of organic leather in the
mix (between 10% and 90%) affects the smell and the texture of such product. Due to its reduced cost
it is becoming a popular choice for furniture upholstery, especially for commercial use, where
durability is needed; however durability can vary widely, depending on the formulation.
Bycast leather is a split leather with a layer of polyurethane laminated to the surface and then
embossed. Bycast was originally made for the shoe industry and later adopted by the furniture
industry. The original formula created by Bayer was strong but expensive. The result is a material that
is slightly stiffer but cheaper than top-grain leather but has a much more consistent texture. Because
its surface is completely covered in plastic, is easier to clean and maintain, but is not easily repaired.

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