Construction and Building Materials 145 (2017) 538–547

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Asphalt modified with superfine electric arc furnace steel dust (EAF dust)
with high zinc oxide content
Alexandra Loaiza a, Sergio Cifuentes b, Henry A. Colorado a,⇑
a
CCComposites Lab, Universidad de Antioquia UdeA, Calle 70 No. 52-21, Medellín, Colombia
b
Conasfaltos S. A, Medellín, Colombia

h i g h l i g h t s

In this research a particular EAF dust with high ZnO is evaluated as an admixture for asphalt up to 50 wt%.

In addition to a very complete characterization, an analysis of an asphalt mechanism modified by chemical means was carried out.

The particle distance was calculated using the composite materials theory, and other variables were analyzed in terms of these estimations.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Electric arc furnace (EAF) dust is a complex ceramic-type hazardous waste generated by the metallurgical
Received 1 January 2017 industry and produced worldwide in millions of tons. In this research EAF dust is evaluated as an admix-
Received in revised form 10 March 2017 ture for asphalt up to 50 wt%. The microstructure was analyzed by optical and scanning electron micro-
Accepted 5 April 2017
scopy. Fourier transform infrared spectra, penetration, softening point and viscosity tests were conducted
Available online 17 April 2017
for all compositions. The results show the penetration point increases until 10 wt% of waste and it then
decreases. Conversely, the softening point, penetration index (PI) and viscosity, decrease after 5 wt% and
Keywords:
reaches a minimum at 10 wt%. The particle distance was calculated using the composite materials theory,
Asphalt
Electric arc furnace dust
and other variables were analyzed in terms of inter-particle distance estimations.
Waste Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Electric arc furnace dust (EAF dust) is a byproduct produced by
the electric arc furnace in the steel making industry. This waste is
considered hazardous by the EPA (United States Environmental
Protection Agency) [1], as it is dangerous for water sources if not
well treated or stored. EAF dust is formed in the electric arc furnace
at approximately 1600 °C. Elements such as Zn, Cd and Pb present
in the scrap are volatilized and then condensed as soon as the tem-
perature drops in the outlet of the furnace [2]. The waste is then
typically disposed of in baghouse systems. Fig. 1 shows a represen-
tation of EAF dust formation in the furnace.
According to the World Steel Association [3], the annual pro-
duction of steel is approximately 1,600,000 tons. Of this, 33% is
produced by electric arc furnaces. EAF dust makes up about 1–2%
of the load in the furnace [4]. This means that annually 16,000 to
32,000 tons of EAF dust are generated worldwide. Reported uses
⇑ Corresponding author at: Universidad de Antioquia, Facultad de Ingeniería,
Bloque 20, Calle 67 No. 53-108, Medellín, Colombia.
E-mail address: henry.colorado@udea.edu.co (H.A. Colorado).
of EAF dust include bricks [5], recycling of metals [4], Portland
cement [6] and phase change materials [7].
Asphalt bitumen is used as a binder for EAF dust due to the fact
that the solidification process is inexpensive and suitable for stabi-
lizing such waste. EAF dust has been put into asphalt cement and
asphalt concrete in order to use this waste for road infrastructure
and to decrease the pollution of water resources [8–10]. Vahčič
et al. [11] evaluated the leachability of EAF dust in asphalt concrete
to determinate its environmental impact. Another waste that has
been used more extensively in asphalt concrete is steel slag from
the electric arc furnace [12,13] and steel slag from the basic oxygen
furnace [7,14,15].
Many diverse methods had been developed for treating the
byproducts of pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical processes.
However, these have only been partially successful because the
recovery of metals is not fully efficient and typically generates
more pollutant byproducts [4], which means the applied solution
can also produce hazardous waste itself. Fortunately, there are
more options coming from the asphalt industry, such as the solid-
ification/stabilization (S/S) technology, a method of mixing a waste
with a binder in order to immobilize the pollutant agents found in
industrial wastes [16]. S/S is an economical and simple process to

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.04.050
0950-0618/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 A. Loaiza et al. / Construction and Building Materials 145 (2017) 538–547 539

Fig. 1. EAF dust formation in the furnace and the furnace mechanism.

stabilize hazardous wastes when compared with other methods
[17], and when asphalt is used as a binder, properties like imper-
meability and stability in water are maximized. Moreover, if the
waste is mixed with asphalt and aggregates in an asphalt concrete,
it can be used worldwide for building infrastructure, not only
because of its low cost but also because its processing is quite sim-
ple and only requires basic technology found in all countries. Fur-
thermore, perhaps the most important feature is that this method
has a significant impact on the environment as tons of waste can
be consumed and the waste is easily stabilized [18].
This paper shows an economical and viable alternative to
improve asphalt performance and stabilize the ZnO content of haz-
ardous waste from the steel making industry. Alsheyab & Khedaywi
[8] evaluated the effect of EAF dust on an asphalt matrix. However, in
this paper EAF dust with a higher ZnO content is assessed, which is a
different material to what is presented before and therefore shows
unique results. The waste and its asphalt composite were character-
ized using several methods, including particle size distribution, opti-
cal (OM) and scanning electron (SEM) microscopy, Fourier transform
infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), penetration, softening point, and vis-
cosity tests. In addition, an analysis of an asphalt mechanism modi-
fied by chemical means was carried out. The poor use of EAF waste is
a worldwide problem. Huge quantities of unused dust are formed
and little research has been done on the subject. This paper attempts
to look at new applications for such waste.
2. Experimental phase
Asphalt grade 60–70 was supplied by the Ecopetrol Colombian
national oil company and its properties appear in Table 1. The
waste EAF dust was generated in the steelmaking process at
Ternium S.A company. EAF dust composition was measured with
an X-ray fluorescence Thermo model Optim’x and this is summa-
rized in Table 2. It can be seen that the main components are iron
oxide (Fe2O3 = 21.5%) and zinc oxide (ZnO = 50.4%). Waste granu-
lometry was done using a #200 sieve.
Asphalt mixes were prepared as follows: 0.0 (neat asphalt) 1.0,
50, 10.0, 15.0, 20.0, 30.0 and 50.0 wt% of EAF dust. Mixing was con-
ducted in a Velp Scientifica mechanical stirrer for 1 h at 155 °C and
200 rpm in order to guarantee a good powder distribution and liq-
uid asphalt impregnation in the waste particles.
Powder distribution was observed with a Leica optical micro-
scope. The mix was then deposited in a glass slide and observed
in transmission mode. For SEM-EDS examinations, samples were
mounted on a glass slide and sputtered in a Hummer 6.2 system
(15 mA AC for 30 s) creating a film of gold approximately 1 nm
thick. The SEM used was a JEOL JSM 6490LV in high vacuum mode.
Powder size distribution was obtained from the analysis of the SEM
images using the Image-J software.
FTIR spectra were collected in a Shimadzu apparatus with wave
numbers ranging from 500 to 3500 cm1. Potassium bromide (KBr)
powder was used for this test.
Penetration tests were conducted following the ASTM D5 stan-
dard at 25 °C using a Controls type penetrometer. Softening point
tests were done following the ASTM D36 standard using a standard
ring and ball apparatus. Viscosity tests were carried out in a rota-
tional Brookfield viscometer at 60 °C in order to assess the high
temperature workability of different samples.
The penetration index was estimated from the penetration and
softening point results using the corresponding equations [19].
The asphalt-waste particle system follows Stoke’s law, which
uses gravitational and floatability forces, and density and particle

Table 1
Asphalt properties as supplied by Ecopetrol.

Test Units Result Other information Methods

Viscosity at 60 °C cP 242,000 ASTM D 4402
Viscosity at 80 °C cP 21,750 ASTM D 4402
Viscosity at 100 °C cP 3725 ASTM D 4402
Viscosity at 135 °C cP 395 ASTM D 4402
Viscosity at 150 °C cP 217.5 ASTM D 4402
Ductility cm 140 100 Asfalto VENT
Gravity API Grados API 6.9 ASTM D 4052
Density at 15 °C kg/m3 1021.7 ASTM D 4052
Penetration at 25 °C mm/10 60 60–70 Asfalto VENT
Penetration index N/A 1 Asfalto VENT
Mass loss (RTFO) g/100 g 0.48 1.0 Asfalto VENT
Softening point °C 49.2 45–55 Asfalto VENT
Flame point °C 294 232 ASTM
Solubility in trichloroethylene % 99.7 99.0 Asfalt VENT
540 A. Loaiza et al. / Construction and Building Materials 145 (2017) 538–547

Table 2
XRF results for the EAF dust, with loss of ignition of 11%.

Oxide ZnO Fe2O3 Na2O MgO Mn3O4 SiO2 SO3 K2O CaO Al2O3 SrO
wt% 50.40 21.54 3.38 2.55 2.43 2.12 1.90 1.32 1.20 0.77 0.004
Oxide BaO Cr2O3 P2 O5 CuO HfO2 TiO2 PbO NiO V2O5 ZrO2 LOI
wt% 0.472 0.26 0.172 0.19 0.115 0.035 0.025 0.020 0.006 0.001 11

Fig. 2. SEM images and particle size distribution obtained from them for EAF dust as received.

Fig. 3. Optical microscopy images for asphalt with EAF dust.

size are key factors [20]. Therefore, in this research the velocity for the penetration index and the softening point. In this investigation,
EAF dust particle drop was estimated. In order to estimate the stiff- the stiffness modulus was calculated at a temperature of 25 °C and
ness modulus for all mixtures at a specific temperature and loading a loading time of 0.002 s, which corresponds to a typical vehicle
time, the Van der Poel nomograph [21] was used, which employs speed between 30 and 40 mph [22,23]. The particle distance was
 A. Loaiza et al. / Construction and Building Materials 145 (2017) 538–547
also calculated using the composite materials theory for particle
reinforced composites [24]. The penetration, softening point, stiff-
ness modulus and viscosity were analyzed in terms of inter-
particle distance estimations.
3. Results
Fig. 2 shows scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of the
EAF dust. Fig. 2a shows that the waste particles are small and have
a very narrow particle size distribution, and some even go down to
the nanoscale (see Fig. 2b). This indicates that the particles are not
only hazardous because of their chemical composition, but also
because of their reactivity and potential to pollute the air, mainly
while they are being produced in the steel making process
Fig. 2c shows the particle distribution and demonstrates that
many particles are below 1 mm. Fig. 2b supports the distribution
Fig. 4. Samples with different contents of EAF dust: a) softening point, b)
penetration, and c) penetration index.
541
characterization since in that image most of the grains are very
close to 0.5 mm. Fig. 2c shows that about 50% of the particles are
smaller than the mean. In addition, the distribution is hetero-
geneus, which has been reported before for similar waste particles
[25].
Table 2 summarizes the composition of the EAF dust obtained
with XRF. The main component by amount is ZnO, with 50.48 wt
%. Fe2O3 is also present in a significant quanity, making up
21.15 wt%. These composition types are typical when galvanized
scrap is processed for making new steel.
Fig. 3 summarizes optimal images showing the EAF dust parti-
cle distribution in the asphalt binder. In all samples with the differ-
ent waste contents studied in this research, the distribution was
homogenous. This result was expected because the hot asphalt
was very good at impregnating the particles. It confirms that even
though the process is inexpensive, it effectively impregnates parti-
cles without particle agglomeration. This decreases the material
properties related to strength and durability.
The softening point, penetration and penetration index for
asphalt with EAF dust are shown in Fig. 4a, b and c respectively.
In general, asphalt mixes increase the softening point as the EAF
dust content increases. Only at 10 wt% is there a significant
decrease in the softening point. An increase in quantity of this cera-
mic waste increases the temperature of the softening point in gen-
eral, which can be very good for applications involving higher
temperatures.
However, 10 wt% of waste is the critical amount that breaks the
trend. This is important because it shows that at 10 wt% there is
another complex mechanism involved, in addition to the effect of
the harder particle reinforcement itself, in the mechanical and
thermal properties of the mix. As expected, the penetration results
from Fig. 4b show the opposite trend, i.e. the higher the softening
point, the shorter the penetration. The penetration index (PI) was
found with Eq. (1) [19], and the corresponding results are shown
in Fig. 4c, where P is the penetration and SP is the softening point.
1952  500  LogðPÞ  20  SP
PI ¼ ð1Þ
50  LogðPÞ  SP  120
The trend given by the viscosity tests was expected. As the cera-
mic waste increases, viscosity also increases, as seen in Fig. 5. How-
ever, at 10 wt% waste content, the viscosity is reduced, and from 10
to 20 wt% there is an important increase in the viscosity values. In
fact, it was not possible to conduct viscosity tests for samples with
more than 20 wt% of waste. These results also support that fact
that at 10 wt% waste the asphalt mix properties are changed
significantly.
In order to see the differences, SEM images were analyzed for
different compositions. In particular, samples were taken from
the surface of the mixes and prepared for the optical microscope.
Fig. 5. Viscosity tests for asphalt with different EAF dust contents at 60 °C. The
procedure indicated by the ASTM D4402 standard was followed.
542 A. Loaiza et al. / Construction and Building Materials 145 (2017) 538–547

They showed important topographic changes on the binder matrix,
as seen in Fig. 6. For samples with 1.0 wt% of waste, the surface is
relatively smooth (Fig. 6a), while for 10 wt% the surface shows flow
lines (Fig. 6b). This is a qualitative result that shows that the
asphalt binder is changed to make particle-particle interaction pos-
sible, which has a critical value at 10 wt%.
Fig. 7 shows EDS-SEM maps for different elements taken from a
sample with 10 wt% of EAF dust. All maps correspond to the image
located in the top-right. The corresponding quantitative composi-
tions are summarized in Table 3.
From these maps, it can be seen that the Zn and Fe contents are
very high. All elements are distributed relatively homogeneusly,
supporting a good particle distribution, but perhaps some signals
are from the disolution of the metal elements in the liquid asphalt.
SEM resolution cannot solve this because it is beyond the scale lim-
its and may be hidden or mixed with nanoparticle signals (and
most of the characterization technique limits). However, this is
an important consideration to evaluate in the future since if the
resulting ions form the disolution in the asphalt, they could have
an important effect on the thermomechanical behavior of the

Fig. 6. SEM images for asphalt with steel slag.

Fig. 7. EDS-SEM for asphalt with EAF dust.

Table 3
EDS-SEM results.

Element C O Mg Al Si S Cl K Ca Mn Fe Zn Total
Weight% 81.52 4.73 0.24 0.18 0.49 1.86 0.38 0.36 0.32 0.28 2.52 7.11 100
Atomic% 92.19 4.02 0.13 0.09 0.24 0.79 0.15 0.12 0.11 0.07 0.61 1.48 100
 A. Loaiza et al. / Construction and Building Materials 145 (2017) 538–547 543

matrix. The carbon and sulfur peaks in the spectrum are from the
asphalt composition. The most significant result from this analysis
is that the most hazardous elements such as Pb and Cr, found with
XRF and reported in Table 2 for the raw EAF dust, are not found in
the modified asphalt sample. This suggests that asphalt masks
their effect at levels not detectable by the SEM-EDS.
Fig. 8 summarizes all FTIR spectra. FTIR data for samples with
0.0, 1.0, 10.0 and 20.0 wt% of EAF dust show that when the EAF
is added, a new signal appears at about 2727 cm, which corre-
sponds to vibration of the CAH bond stretching from the RC@OH
molecule [26]. This is an important result because it proves that
the asphalt binder chemically interacts with the waste and sup-
ports the data presented before regarding the mechanical and ther-
mal properties.
4. Analysis and discussion
The interaction between the EAF dust and asphalt is governed
by the chemical and physical properties given by the bond, compo-
sition, particle morphology and size, and perhaps by other factors

Fig. 8. FTIR for asphalt with EAF dust.

Fig. 9. Asphalt microstructure as a colloidal system. a) Sol type asphalt, b) gel type asphalt.
544 A. Loaiza et al. / Construction and Building Materials 145 (2017) 538–547
such as ion dissolution in the liquid asphalt. The morphology of the
EAF dust particles, their size distribution and the surface area avail-
able for adsorption have the most important effect on the mechan-
ical and thermal properties, which were indirectly tested by the
penetration, softening and viscosity tests. Some of these consider-
ations have already been reported [20] for other modified asphalts,
which can lead to acid-basic Lewis reactions and may be associated
to covalent bonds, which in addition to the particle surface varia-
tions can decrease the interfacial tension in the liquid producing
a better stabilization of the waste. Several authors have described
the physicochemical interactions between asphalt and fillers and
have reported a more complex interaction than that of the
particle-asphalt interaction [27,28,29,30,31]. In this research we
propose that there are potential particle-particle interactions, for
instance due to the iron powder having ferromagnetic effects,
and some possible ion dissolution in the liquid asphalt. Future fun-
damental modeling such as molecular dynamics may give some
clues about this complex phenomena.
It is well-known that asphalt has a complex composition that
includes asphaltenes and maltenes. Maltenes can be divided into
saturates, aromatics and resins. A common 60/70 asphalt has 2%
of saturates, 73% of aromatics, 7% of resins and 18% of asphaltenes
[32]. Asphaltene is the most viscous and is polar, maltene is the
least viscous and is non-polar, and the resin has both characteris-
tics [33]. This complex composition has an intricate effect on the
mix of particles used in this research-a ceramic type waste with
a very diverse amount of oxides. Each of the particle types may
have a very distinctive interaction in the asphalt liquid. For the dif-
ferent curves we observed, at around 10 wt% of asphalt there is a
mix of all these complex interactions. Looking at the type of bond-
ing alone, we can see that the diverse oxides have different poten-
tials and therefore distinct interactions with the asphalt.
Moreover, asphalt is considered to be a colloidal material mix-
ture, with asphaltenes as the disperse phase and maltenes as the
continuous phase. According to its microstructure, asphalt can be
divided into two types: gel and sol, both of which are represented
in Fig. 9. In the sol asphalt, asphaltenes are well dispersed in the
maltenes, while in the gel asphaltenes they are not well dispersed
and tend to agglomerate in the maltenes continuum. This is
because the amount of saturates and aromatics are different. As
the amount of aromatics increases, the asphaltene dispersion
increases as well, because aromatics form a stabilizing layer
around the asphaltenes. The saturates have little effect on the
asphaltenes and that is why the asphaltenes tend to agglomerate
and form a gel structure [34]. The asphalt used here has a large
amount of aromatics and is therefore a sol type asphalt.
Asphalt with EAF dust particles forms a composite material
itself, where asphalt is the matrix and EAF dust particles are the fil-
ler or the reinforcing material. Three main reinforcement mecha-
nisms have been defined [28]: volume-filling reinforcement,
Fig. 10. EAF dust particle surrounded by the interface layer and asphalt: a) less than 10 wt% of EAF dust, b) more than 10 wt% of particles.
physiochemical reinforcement, and particle interaction
reinforcement.
One of the most significant asphalt-particle interactions is
described by the adhesion theory, where polar components in
asphalt are adhered to the particle surface [31]. Polar asphalt’s
components are asphaltenes, which are the most viscous part of
the mix. They adhere to the waste particles’ surface and make
the matrix less viscous [27,28,29,31,33,35]. The penetration results
in this investigation support previous research, where penetration
increases as the EAF dust content increases to 10 wt%, which must
be connected with the viscosity increase with more than 10 wt% of
waste, see Fig. 5, which most likely is due to the shear thinning
originated in the orientation of neighboring macromolecules and
their entanglement and immobilization given by the solvent,
[36,37].
Fig. 10a represents the mechanism that occurs. As the content
of EAF dust increases, the particle-particle interaction increases
and some particles even attach themselves to each other. This lim-
its asphalt impregnation in the particle-particle interface, as seen
in Fig. 10b.
The interparticle distance was calculated following the inter-
particle distance equation for particle reinforced composite mate-
rials [24]. The relationship is summarized in Eq. (2), where s is the
interparticle distance, d is the particle diameter, and up is the filler
content. As expected, when the waste content increases, the inter-
particle distance decreases, as shown later in Fig. 12a.
2 !1=3 3
p
s ¼ d4  15 ð2Þ
6up
On the other hand, the morphology of the particles is an impor-
tant parameter that contributes to the asphalt-EAF dust interac-
tion. Particles with an angular surface have better compatibility
with a polymeric matrix. The angularity of the particles can be seen
in Fig. 2. In addition, the asphalt-particle system follows Stoke’s
law [20]. The effect of gravitational and buoyancy forces and den-
sity and particle size are the key features, as seen in Eq. (3):
V ¼ 2ðqo  q1 Þgr2 =9g ð3Þ
where qo is the density of asphalt, which is 1.02 g/cm3, q1 is the
density of EAFD, which is 4.93 g/cm3 [38], g is the gravitational
force constant, r is the average radius of the EAF dust particles,
which is 0.27 mm, and g is the viscosity of the base asphalt. The
decreasing velocity of the particles reaches as low as about
2.66  1010 cm/s.
The penetration index is a quantitative measurement of how
the viscosity changes with temperature. Table 4 summarizes typi-
cal values with their respective interpretation. The mixtures fabri-
cated in this research can be applied to the construction of roads
because all values follow in the 2 to +2 interval. Only the mix
 A. Loaiza et al. / Construction and Building Materials 145 (2017) 538–547 545

Fig. 11. a) Van Der Poel nomograph, b) Stiffness modulus calculated from Van Der Poel nomograph.

with 10 wt% of EAF dust can be lower than 2 in some cases, sim-
ply because of its high variability in PI. However, its mean value is
in the recommended interval.
The stiffness modulus is another key parameter to determinate
the behavior of asphalt on the road. This was estimated from the
Van der Poel nomograph [21], as seen in Fig. 11, and was calculated
for 25 °C of temperature and 0.02 s of loading time. The loading
time of 0.02 s approximately corresponds to 30–40 mph of a typi-
cal vehicle speed [22,23].
Finally, Fig. 12 summarizes the estimation of interparticle dis-
tance for several parameters. First, Fig. 12a shows that as particle
content increases, the interparticle distance increases from about
3 mm for 1.0 wt% to 0.5 mm for 50 wt%. Also, for 10 wt% of waste,
the interparticle distance is 1.0 mm. Correspondingly, Fig. 12a
546 A. Loaiza et al. / Construction and Building Materials 145 (2017) 538–547
Fig. 12. Interparticle distance relationships with a) waste contents, b) penetration
and softening point, c) viscosity and stiffness modulus.
Table 4
Typical values of PI in asphalt cement.
Asphalt type
Blown asphalt
Conventional road pavement asphalt
Temperature susceptible asphalt
shows that for 1.0 mm interparticle distance (1.0 wt% waste), the
penetration reaches a maximum and the softening point reaches
a minimum, and for interparticle distances large than that, the
two variables stabilize. However, the most significant result is
shown in Fig. 12c. For a 1.0 mm interparticle distance (1.0 wt%
waste), the viscosity has a breaking value which separates the dif-
ferent compositions into two very different regions: below 10 wt%
(1.0 wt% waste) with a high viscosity and over 10 wt% with a low
viscosity. A 1.0 mm interparticle distance (1.0 wt% waste) gives a
minimum value for the stiffness modulus, confirming the results
discussed above.
6. Conclusions
In conclusion, EAF dust has a very complex and multi-
parameter effect on the performance of asphalt due to the complex
physical-chemical interactions of these two very complex materi-
als, each a multi-composite material itself. The penetration index
is 2 to 2 in all cases, which enables all mixes to be used for road
construction. EAF waste is harmful to the environment because of
its hazardous metal content, but this toxicity can be stabilized
using asphalt thereby allowing for the widespread use of this
material in infrastructure.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge the Research office of the
Universidad de Antioquia for supporting this research.
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