Cent. Eur. J. Geosci.

• 2(2) • 2010 • 124-131

DOI: 10.2478/v10085-010-0003-x

Central European Journal of Geosciences

Impact of land-use and land-cover change on

groundwater quality in the Lower Shiwalik hills:
a remote sensing and GIS based approach
Research Article

Sudhir Kumar Singh1∗ , Chander K Singh2 , Saumitra Mukherjee2

1 Department of Atmospheric and Ocean Science,

Nehru Science Centre, University of Allahabad,
Allahabad-211002 Uttar Pradesh, India,
2 School of Environmental Sciences,
Jawaharlal Nehru University
New Delhi-110067, India

Received 11 January 2010; accepted 12 February 2010

Abstract: Human activities have exerted small to large scale changes on the hydrological cycle. The current scenario
regarding groundwater resources suggests that globally there is a water crisis in terms of quantity (availability)
and quality. Therefore there is a great need for the assessment and monitoring of quality and quantity of
groundwater resources at local level. This paper presents a case study of the lower Shiwalik hills, in Rupna-
gar, Punjab, India, to trace land-use and land-cover changes during the past 17 years, with an emphasis on
groundwater quality and quantity. This study was performed in alluvial and hilly terrain. The results show that
the quantity of groundwater increased with the help of natural and artificial recharge due to change in land-use
and land-cover pattern (increased area of fallow land). The quality of groundwater deteriorated due to input
of fertilizers for enhancing the short-term soil fertility. Using a Remote Sensing and GIS based approach, we
show the final results in map form. In particular we highlight a potential groundwater exploration site, which
could be useful for district level planning. Our research shows that the change in land-use and land-cover
affects the quantity and quality of groundwater.
Keywords: land-use and land-cover change • remote sensing • GIS • hydrological cycle • groundwater • India
© Versita Warsaw

1. Introduction
Groundwater resources are not only the main water sup-
ply for social and economic development, but also a cru-
cial component of the ecosystem in arid or semi-arid re-
∗
E-mail: sudhirinjnu@gmail.com
gions [1]. The demand for water and land resources expand
with the increase of human activities in arid and semi-arid
regions, resulting in ecological and environmental con-
cerns [2]. Therefore it is important to establish the soil-
water-human (SWH) relationship in more detail. Earlier
studies indicated that human activities caused land-use
and land-cover change (LUCC) [3, 4]. Subsequently, LUCC
affected water resources, including both surface water and
groundwater [5, 6]. It is important to quantitatively ana-

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Sudhir Kumar Singh, Chander K Singh, Saumitra Mukherjee

lyze the relationship between LUCC and water resources. 2. Description of study area
Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System
(RS-GIS) technologies have been widely used to study Figure 1 indicates the study area in the Rupnagar dis-
LUCC at different scales: in the rural-urban fringe [7, 8], trict, which lies between latitude 30°32’ and 31°24’N and
to study the dynamics of LUCC in a water-shed region [9], longitude 76°18’ and 76°55’E. The geographical area of
to detect LUCC in a metropolitan area [10], and to assess the district is 2 083 km2 . The temperature ranges from
wild life habitats at different scales [11]. In addition, [12] minimum of 4°C in winter to 45°C in summer. Relative
pointed out the RS-GIS techniques that could provide re- humidity is high, averaging about 70% during the mon-
liable and up-to-date information about LUCC. RS-GIS soon season. The average annual rainfall in the district is
techniques have also been used to study the influences 775.6 mm.
of LUCC on groundwater. For example, [13] applied land
cover data in a soil and groundwater vulnerability assess-
ment system, And [14] combined RS-GIS with a soil and
water assessment tool for the management of land prac-
tices. Remotely sensed images can be used to predict a
wide range of Earth surface properties, including both cat-
egorical (e.g. land cover) and continuous (e.g. biophysi-
cal) properties [15]. Remote sensing provides an attractive
source of thematic maps, as it offers a map-like represen-
tation of the Earth’s surface that is spatially continuous,
as well as potentially being available at a range of spa-
tial and temporal scales [8]. In this study we used remote
sensing to distinguish the change in land cover, and to ob-
serve the relationship between a fall in groundwater level
(i.e. quantity) and LUCC in the study area. Groundwater
distribution is subject to wide spatio-temporal variations
depending on the underlying rock formations, their struc-
tural fabric and geometry, and surface expression. Re-
mote sensing data, in conjunction with sufficient ground
truth data, provides information on the geology, geomor-
phology, structural pattern and recharge conditions, which Figure 1. Showing the study area, Rupnagar, Punjab, India.
ultimately define the groundwater regime. Current re-
mote sensing technology offers collection and analysis of
data from ground-based, atmospheric, and Earth-orbiting
platforms, with linkages to GPS data, GIS data layers
and functions, and emerging modeling capabilities. This 3. Physiography
has made remote sensing a valuable source of land- cover
and land-use information. Their ability to complete these Physiographically there are four main units: the Shiwalik
tasks is hampered by the paucity of comprehensive infor- hills, valleys, piedmont plain and alluvial flood plain. The
mation on the types and rates of LUCC, and even less Shiwalik hills have slopes ranging from 25 to 60% and
systematic evidence on the causes, distributions, rates, most of the hill area is covered with subtropical forest. The
and consequences of those changes. We used GIS for the piedmont plain covers a large area with slope between 1 to
modeling, based on the score method. Different modeling 6% which is frequently intercepted by choes. This area is
studies indicate that agriculture is an important source of partly cultivated, and partly under forest and wastelands.
nutrients and heavy metals. Direct relations between land The alluvial flood plain is marked by the confluence of the
use, groundwater quality and surface water quality were Sutlej and Sirsa rivers with 1 to 3% slope. Most of the
observed in several studies at field and catchment scale. alluvial plain area is used for agricultural crops.

4. Geology
There are 11 rock types identified in the area:, sandy
silty alluvium, coastal sand, brown sand, laterite, lig-

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 Impact of land-use and land-cover change on groundwater quality in the Lower Shiwalik hills: a remote sensing and GIS based approach
nite, gritty sandstone, dolerite, pegmatite and quartz
veins, garnet, biotite, gneiss, cordierite gneiss, charnock-
ite and quartzite. The predominant rock types, charnock-
ite (120.60 km2 ) and sandy silty alluvium (50.52 km2 ) are
found in the central and western part of the study region.
We divide the study area into two regions based on this
geology; Precambrian formations and ‘recent’ formations.
Even though the majority of the study area is underlain by
the Precambrian formation (charnockite), the western part
of the area is underlain by the recent formation (sandy,
silty alluvium). In addition, various structures such as lin-
eaments and fractures are present in the area. The general
trend of lineaments and fractures is NNW-NNE.
5. Geomorphology
Geomorphology is associated with topographic landforms,
which in turn are related to surface runoff and infiltra-
tion. Geomorphological studies involve the identification
and characterization of the fundamental units of land-
scape. Geomorphic descriptors have been used to study
the relationship between surface and subsurface ground-
water interaction. The underlying lithology, slope and the
type of existing drainage pattern influence the genesis
and processes of different geomorphic units. The signif-
icant geomorphic units we identify based on their image
characteristics include residual hill complex, residual hill,
residual mound, pediment, valley fills, valley flat, flood
plain and alluvial plain. The eastern part of the study
region (29.67 km2 ) is covered by a residual hill complex,
whereas residual hills spread over the central and east-
ern part of the study region. Residual hills are the end
products of the process of pediplains, which reduces the
original mountain masses into a series of scattered knolls
standing on the pediplains. Groundwater quality moni-
toring in the Shiwalik hills and surrounding area was co-
ordinated in the year 2005-2006. The sampling locations
were selected using the concept of stratified random sam-
pling from the homogenous areas with similar land use,
soil type and geo-hydrological position.
6. Methodology, image classifica-
tion
Image classification applies to both post-classification and
pre-classification change detection approaches and can
be performed using either supervised or unsupervised ap-
proaches. In supervised classification, calibration data
must be sufficiently sampled from appropriate areas. In
unsupervised classification, an algorithm is chosen that
126
will take a remotely sensed image dataset and find a pre-
specified number of statistical clusters in the measurement
space. Although these clusters must then be assigned to
classes of land-cover and land-use, this method can be
used without having prior knowledge of ground cover in
the study site. The acquired pixels from different time
periods were classified in the ERDAS 8.7 software. This
software is capable of classifying pixels by both super-
vised and unsupervised approaches. In this study we go
for both supervised and unsupervised classification sepa-
rately on two remotely sensed datasets. An unsupervised
classification approach is based on an ISODATA algo-
rithm, in which the pixels were grouped into a cluster.
One hundred and twenty spectral classes with 12 itera-
tions and 95% convergence values were selected to per-
form unsupervised classification. Following classification
we recoded the classified satellite image. The result is
in the form of eight classes in Landsat image and twelve
classes in the IRS 1C LISS III. For better accuracy we
combined four classes (with scrub, without scrub, mining
or industrial waste, and plantation) into wasteland in the
IRS 1C LISS III classified image. For supervised clas-
sification prior knowledge of the study area is required.
Training sites were made by demarcating a polygon or
area of interest (AOI) for the known land-cover or land-use
type using the signature editor tool in ERDAS 8.7. On the
basis of these signatures the whole image was classified.
Ground truth information was incorporated in the refine-
ment of training site selection during final classification.
This supervised classification approach was based on the
maximum likelihood classification decision rule. The error
matrix of classified images showed that overall accuracy
was 88%; considered satisfactory. According to Ander-
son [16], the accuracy of classified images should exceed
84% for the best results. Figures 2, 3 and 4 show the dif-
ferent types of land-cover and land-use in the classified
image. The thematic layers prepared include: drainage
networks, geomorphology, geology, slope, land-use and
land-cover of the area.
Arc GIS 9.1 software was used for the preparation of
thematic layers. The multi criteria evaluation technique
(MCE) was used to assign weights and scores to vari-
ous themes and feature classes by assessing their impor-
tance in groundwater occurrence (Table 2). After assign-
ing the weights and scores, all the themes were converted
to raster format (using the ‘Spatial analyst’ extension of
Arc Info ArcGIS software). While converting to raster, the
scores assigned to the individual features were taken in
the value field. Then, dividing theme weights by 100 nor-
malized the individual themes. The ‘Raster Calculator’ op-
tion of spatial analyst was used to prepare the integrated
final groundwater potential map (GPM) of the area. The
Sudhir Kumar Singh, Chander K Singh, Saumitra Mukherjee

Table 1. Changes in respective classes in years 2000 & 2005 with

respect to 1989.

S.No. Class 1989(%) 2000(%) 2005(%)

1 River 1.7 1.6 1.4
2 Settlement 0.9 4 5.7
3 Cropland 45.2 42.6 35.4
4 Fallow land 18.5 23.8 33.3
5 Dense Forest 24 17.8 17.4
6 Salt affected land 0.6 0.9 1.1
7 Canal 0.7 0.7 0.7
8 Water body 0.9 0.7 0
9 Seasonal Streams 1.7 2.3 1.1
10 Waterlogged 1.7 0 0
11 Land with Scrub 0.9 2.6 2.7
12 Land without Scrub 3.2 3 1.2 Figure 2. The classified image of the year 1989.

Total Area in Percentage 100 100 100

Table 2. GIS modeling for assessment of groundwater resources.

Theme Weights Feature Rank

1. Channels Very Good
2. Alluvial Plains Good
Geomorphology 8 3. Terraces Good
4. Piedmont Moderate
5. Hills Poor
1. >1 Very Good
Lineaments 2. 0.75-1 Good
7 3. 0.50-0.75 Good
Length Density Figure 3. The classified image of the year 2000.
(m/m2 ) 4. 0.25-0.50 Moderate
5. <0.25 Poor
1. 0-50 Very Good
2. 50-100 Good
Distance From 6 3. 100-150 Moderate
the Lineaments (m) 4. 150-200 Low
5. >200 Poor
1. Sand Very Good
2. Loamy sand Good
Soil 5
3. Sandy clay loam Good
4. Silty clay Poor
1.Unconsolidated Alluvium Good
Rock Types 4
2.Consolidated Sandstone Moderate
1. <10 Very Good
2. 10-20 Good
Slope(mts/km) 2 3. 20-80 Moderate
4. 80-150 Low Figure 4. The classified image of the year 2005.
5. 150-300 Poor

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 Impact of land-use and land-cover change on groundwater quality in the Lower Shiwalik hills: a remote sensing and GIS based approach
map algebra used in the raster calculator is:
GPM = Geomorphology × 0.45 + Lithology × 0.35+
+Slope × 0.15 + Land use/Land cover × 0.05 (1)
Figure 5 shows the final groundwater potential map.
Figure 5. Indicating LUCC over the years 1989, 2000 and 2005.
7. Result discussion
Comparison of LUCC derived from images of 1989 & 2000.
After classification the comparison among different land-
use and land-cover showed either a decrease or increase
in area. A decrease in the river area by ∼3.7% was ob-
served due to an increase in the area of settlement. A
phenomenal increase as high as 330% was observed in
the number of settlements because of population increase
and also improved quality of life. There was a decrease in
the area of croplands by 5.64%, and an increase of fallow
land by 28.7%. The cropland area decreased because of
an increase in the population. The increase in the area of
fallow land suggests less rainfall. The fertility of the soil
changed due to excessive use of fertilizers. Salt affected
land has increased by 46% owing to the green revolution
in Punjab. The enormous use of groundwater, fertilizers
and pesticides could be the reason behind the increase
of salt affected land. The area occupied by water bodies
showed a decrease of around 16.67%.
Comparison of LUCC derived from images of 2000 & 2005.
The area classified as river in this case also shows a neg-
ative trend; a sharp decrease of about 14% of the total
study area. The data signals an increase of settlement
around 45% of the total study area. The cropland showed
a decrease of 16.91% and dense forest cover showed a
decrease of 3% of the total study area. There was a sig-
nificant decrease (> 75%) in the area of water bodies in
2005, as compared to that in 2000.
128
Conclusion derived from LUCC study from 1989 to 2005
Within the period studied, there was a continuous de-
crease in the area of river (17%), dense forest (22%), crop-
land (31%) and a significant increase in the area of settle-
ment (534%). The main reason for this pattern of land-use
and land-cover change may be the increase in population
size and per-capita requirement of natural resources. The
land with scrub increased considerably (214%) over the pe-
riod, while land without scrub registers a decrease of 63%.
The total increase in salt affected land is around 94%. The
area under water bodies and under seasonal streams dis-
plays a negative trend and the total decrease is 81% and
36.5% respectively. Graph 1 indicates the overall changes
over the time period studied.
8. Impact of change in land-use
and land-cover, groundwater Quality
Analytical data can be used for the classification of water
for utilitarian purposes, solving problems of saline wa-
ter intrusion, or ascertaining various factors on which the
chemical characteristics of water depends. For greater in-
terpretability, the analytical data are presented in Piper–
Trilinear plots. The Piper diagram is extensively used to
understand problems concerning the geochemical evolu-
tion of groundwater, and consists of three distinct fields –
two triangular fields and a diamond shaped field. The per-
centage equivalents per mole (epm) values are used for the
plot [17]. The overall characteristic of the water is repre-
sented in the diamond-shaped field by projecting the po-
sition of the plots in the triangular fields. Different types
of groundwater can be distinguished by their plotted posi-
tion, occupying certain sub-areas of the diamond-shaped
field. Piper–Trilinear plots were made for the samples col-
lected during field visits. Aquachem software is used for
the plotting of Piper-Trilinear diagrams. From the plots,
it can be found that calcium and magnesium ions are the
dominant cations. Most of the points fall in the field in
which strong acids exceed weak acids. The final piper di-
agram shows the overall water quality in the study area
(Figure 7). This can be explained in terms of the con-
centration process, which is dominant during the summer
period when evaporation exceeds precipitation.
The majority of ground water samples belong to the bicar-
bonate type, whilst four samples belong to the sulphate
and chloride type. Among the cation facies, more than fifty
percent of the samples belong to the calcium type and a
little less than fifty percent fall in the class of sodium and
potassium type.
It is good to moderate the quality of groundwater for drink-
ing and irrigation purposes. The high salinity and high
Sudhir Kumar Singh, Chander K Singh, Saumitra Mukherjee
Figure 6. Map identifying potential sites for groundwater explo-
ration.
Figure 7. Piper diagram of groundwater quality. This was derived
from the year 2005 pre and post monsoon groundwater
data.
sodium concentration in soil may be attributed to improper
use and contamination of dug wells. Groundwater quality
was determined by laboratory analysis for the suitabil-
ity for drinking, agriculture and other purposes. Chemical
analysis of groundwater samples revealed that at a few
locations within the study area the groundwater was of
good quality. Remaining site samples were of poor qual-
ity. Since the major proportion of groundwater samples
were collected from residential areas (the major land-use
class of the study area), the impact of different residential
classes on water quality is discussed. The correlation of
land use with water quality indicate that the extent of wa-
ter quality deterioration has a linear correlation with the
residential land use subdivided into dense, medium and
sparse categories based on population density.
Measuring the electrical conductivity of the water is often
used as a rough indication of natural groundwater qual-
ity. Water here tastes more brackish due to higher lev-
els of EC. Higher concentrations of nitrate (as observed)
could have been either due to excessive use of fertilizers
or due to leaching. Higher levels of Ca and Mg indicate
the active role played by weathering in the region. The
greater than normal concentrations of Zn, Cr and Mn were
observed; reasons being discharge of industrial effluents
for Zn and Cr and dissolution of MnO coated pebbles by
water for Mn respectively. Cadmium, which enters the
water through disposal of waste-water from households
or industry displayed higher concentrations, which are a
cause for concern. The groundwater table shows spatial
variation in the district: in the hills sub-soil water is more
than 15 meters deep, in foothill plain and dun, between
10-15 meters, and in the upland plain between 5-10 me-
ters. Nevertheless, the upland plain has an abundance
of good quality sub-soil water at shallow depths. That is
why tube well irrigation over this terrain unit has been de-
veloped extensively. Water levels during May 2001 show
that there has been a decline in 74% of the district area
whilst in May 2004 it is observed that there has been a
decline in 77% of the area.
Comparison of 2001 and 2004 water depth fluctuations re-
flects different trends, with levels remaining the same in
some places (Ahmedpur, Brahampur, Dhair) while falling
in others (Hardinamoh, Saijowal, Ghoga) during 2004.
This may primarily be due to over exploitation of ground-
water through tubewells in these regions. In addition we
observed a rise at some places (Mianpur, Chanalon and
Dumewal) in 2004.
Comparative analysis of decadal mean water level gives
a much clearer picture, as barring a few regions (Bhalan,
Ghoga and Saijowal), we see a decline in water level
which indicates that over-exploitation of groundwater is
putting stress on water resource capability. The threat
of intra-regional disparity in terms of water endowment
looms large in the region.
9. Conclusion
Groundwater quality was determined by laboratory anal-
ysis for the suitability of to different purposes such as
129
 Impact of land-use and land-cover change on groundwater quality in the Lower Shiwalik hills: a remote sensing and GIS based approach
drinking agriculture etc. Chemical analysis of samples
revealed that the groundwater at a few locations within
the study area was of good quality, with the rest being
classified as poor quality. Since different samples were
collected from areas categorized as residential or non-
residential, the impact of different land-use classes on wa-
ter quality is discussed. The correlation of land-use with
groundwater quality indicate that the extent of ground-
water quality deterioration has a linear correlation, with
residential land-use subdivided into dense, medium and
sparse population density.
An analysis of the nature and rate of land use change and
its associated impact on groundwater quality is essential
for a proper understanding of the present environmental
problems. Human alteration of water resources is a major
force which adversely impacts groundwater through over-
exploitation and discharge of non-treated effluent. The
amount, quality and extent of groundwater resources are
important for natural resource managers and conservation-
ists. A prerequisite for an effective conservation strategy
is a continuous and consistent monitoring program on the
state and spatial extent of groundwater in a cost-effective
way. The analysis of multi temporal pixels yields valuable
information regarding the identification of potential sites
for exploration and artificial recharge. This approach is
simple and cost-effective to implement, has sufficient rigor
to be used as a planning tool to help prioritize groundwa-
ter quality and quantity for further investigations, in or-
der to propose conservation measures or quality enhance-
ment. Managing water level fluctuations may therefore be
an effective tool for the quality and quantity improvement
of groundwater resources: one of the key research and
monitoring priorities identified by this research for future
conservation strategy as being essential in influencing in-
tegrated management.
Use of remotely sensed data for monitoring purposes re-
quires periodic updates of two basic sources of information
on LUCC data and indirect and direct information about
the quality and quantity of groundwater resources. These
data represent useful information for resource managers
to support their efforts to conserve the natural resources
and to advise the local community on the changing status
of groundwater resources. Remotely sensed data of nat-
ural habitat integrity provide a framework for large-scale
groundwater assessments. This landscape assessment can
be readily updated and therefore can serve as an effective
monitoring tool for water resource management.
130
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