Lakota Bruce Ingham Languages of the World/Materials 426 2003 LINCOM EUROPAPublished by LINCOM GmbH 2003. All correspondence concerning Languages of the Worid/Materials should be addressed to: LINCOM GmbH Freibadstr. 3 D-81543 Muenchen LINCOM.EUROPA@t-online.de http://home.t-online.defhome/LINCOM.EUROPA www lincom-europa.com All rights reserved, including the rights of translation into any foreign language. No part of this book may be reproduced in any way without the permission of the publisher. Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP Cataloguing-in-Publication-Data ‘catalogue record for this publication is available from Die Deutsche Bibliothek (http:/Iwww.ddb.de) Printed in E.C. Printed on chlorine-free paper ISBN 3 89586 849 3 to Erie and Maryan tanya min poLakota Contents Abbreviations 0. Introductory remarks PHONOLOGY 1. Phonology LL Vowels LLL Vowel juneture 12 Consonants 121. Aspirated plosives 1.8 Syllabies 14, Stress 15, Phonologtal processes 15. Vela fronting 152 Nasaization| 153. Stem final change 154, Stem final vowel about 1.6. Phonological variants 17. Sound symbols MORPHOLOGY 2 Morphological processes 2.1 Sten fedupieation 211 Stem redupleation m adverbs 2.12 Stem reduplcation in posipasitions 22. Stem truncation 3.The noun 31. Primitive nouns 32, Complex nouns 33, Compound nous 34, Inalienable nouns 35. Kinship nouns 35, Aunbutive nouns 37, Nouns formed with the Sed paral ananate suffix -p 4. The verb 441, Personal pronoun prefixes 4.11. Clas I verbs 412 Clas I ve 413 Clas 111 verbs 4.14 Irregular verbs “4.1.41 Sub types of Ch 4142, Other rep 4.15, The imperative 42. Valeney 421 Reflexive 422 Reciprocal 423, Dative and benefactive Ditranstve/reciprocal Causative 43. Instrumental prefixes 44 Locate prefises“i Lakote 45. The indefinite patient prefix 48. Norfiite werd forms 4611. -piform usages 482 Plan stem usages 47. Mod-aspect suffixes 4T.1-47 21. Detaled description of the suffixes 447.2 Order ofthe modal aspectual suffixes In sequence 48, Motion verbs 4811 Basle motion verb 482 Posseasve motion verb 483 Basi bringing verb 484, Possessve bringing verb 485 Basic dative verb 486. Possessve dative verb 4.87, Posessed patient bringing verb 488 Fetching verb 49. Combination verbs 49.1 Combinations of diferent motion verbs 4.10, Verbal formative: 411, Impersonal verbs int 4.12 Auslliary vers and other elements 418 Auxiliary verbs of ume/manner refer 414 Complex verb structures with 0 5 Demonstratives Demonstrative pronoun 6. Postpostlons 861. Baste postpesitons 62 Derived postpositions 6.3 Use with the personal pronouns 7. Adverts TL. Primitive adverbs 112 Manner adverbs formed with -ya -yan,-yla 173 Manner adverbs formed with -kel 74 Manner adverbs formed with “kiya 713. Manner adverbs formed with =e 8, Other forms 77, Locational adverbs formed with ta ~takiya 78 Plain stem usages resembling adverbs 79. Complex phrase adverbs 7.10 A note on adverb usage 8. Conjunetions 81, Conpining conpunctions 82 Subordinating conjunctions 821. Conditional causes 822 Time chuses 823, Miscellaneous types 9. Pronouns {9.1 Personal pronouns 92 Interrogative and interogative-indeinae pronouns 10. Cueumstantal stems 10.1. Meaning of the stems 10.11. 10..8 Description ofthe iividual stems 102. Further morphological elements occuring withthe stems a he a Fa 5 % s % a a = 38 2 2 0 o 4a a a 8 48 “4 44 44 4 4 4% % Lakota 103. Other derwations from the stems 68 04 Other formations from "hag, -hugwety, hag -hup hig Time 68 10.5, Negaive forms ofthe stems «8 1, Mscellaneous particles and affixes 70 1.1 Exelamations 70 TLLL= 1116, etwvigskayas syuwgshas, wuwigskans, wank'eya ‘unhuahe, hah, hoteyas sehagle 7 1.2. Modal/atttudinal sentence elements 70 TZI-1126. sehapstuk', 2 0 tase_kacas ea. tok' to's (hin tna, CK nahans, funk. bps, tse 70 1.8-The inlensive suffix -hew/e/ 71 18 ‘The declarative sentence markers ya, -yela “we, -welb and sto 72 SYNTAX 12 Sentence steverure IZ. Simple sentence 12.1. Equational sentences 12.12 Verb only structures 12.13. Verb plus argument structures 1214 Topic and comment structures 121.41. Types of simple phrase took structure 1214.11. “11.14.15 Deserption ofthe types 12142 Condixonal clauses formed with ki/k'an 12.143, General order of ther elerients inthe sentence 122. Complex sentence 12.211 Pain stem embedding 1222 Sentence embedding 38 nomiealzation 12221, Time clauses 12.2 Sentence embedding a8 a modifier of a noun phrase 12233 Relative clauses showing the T-words 12232 Headless relative clauses 18. Noun incorporation IL Noun incorporation in verbs TLL. Adverbs containing incorpo-ted elements 14. Noun phrase structure 141 Simple noun phase 142 Attnbutive structure 14.3 Poseestve structure 144 Quantifiers 145. Other elements as noun phrases SEMANTICS AND LEXICAL USAGE 15 Semantie features 2 151. Actual versus potential meaning 92 TELL Future and past coloesting with ki or Eup 92 1512 Emphabe use of Ruy 93 15.13 ktuy marking a noun previasly referred to 93 15.14 Actual versus potential distinction with wap/wanjt 33 15.15, Actual versus potential diction with taku and fakupl 93 15,16, Actual versus potential dstnetion with eva/k eya and etay 93 152. Verbs of being 93 Texts 18. Texts 95Lakota Text 1 Hunting eggs in spring. Bushotter text 181 Text 2. How young men and young wonten behaved towards exch other ‘among the People. Bushotter text 111 ‘Test 8. War eustoms. Bushottr text 110 ‘Text 4 Holy men and healers. Bushotter text 109 APPENDICES. 17. Appendices 9) Tribal names 1) Lakota names for items of white culture o) the Lakota time system 18. Bibliography 19. Index % % 102 105 105 to 07 10s Ho Lakota ix Abbreviations Grammatical terminology 0p merional-xe ten ihe eal colletve wen, ne br sate be Din Sirs tectrca i ted exci eI parson pronnin foe foes marker yas a {trenton ite ab bc im Imperative 0 9 we 70-70 tnt inlet person put) tos tnefnte prt tnt inferential at tnt infest cfs cand eae ar suns“ Inter iterogne ee i pas eal ns fake le ise Dente suit a * ron pra Ph rapes th moon ved tee ra tng pray thee prson pom far Pos Pome £8 Re gh: Prob probate pny sce Ree tetra ct ea redupatd fil rele ee ip fel talon aby sre ting Sing odstingus sng nthe nd person pronoun nye you : ong ws srr Top. topic . ad 5 eon dependent 8 Sources used in the examples B Buechel, Eugene, 1999. A Grarmmar of Lakota: The Language ofthe Teton Siow Indians. Rosed SD. Rosebud Educational Society ep Boas Franz and Deli, Ela C_ 1941. Dakota Grammar. Washington US. Government Printing Office. BD Bucchel Eugene. 1970." Lakota English Dictionary. Pine Ridge SD. Red Cloud Indian Schoo, Bo. Bushotter Papers Tests by George Bushotter 1887. Manuscript 800 Dorsey Papers: Dakotw Te'on G.1-1.8) 03, Sinthsonian Inston National Anthropologie] arehvesBY cal Dal DIF Hk Kil Le Pu SL. Siol Lakota Bucchel Eugene, 1978, Lakota Toes and Texts Pine Rie SD: Red hod iadian Scoot Rood, Dvid Sand Tayo, Allan R._ 1976, Lakhots Grammar or Begining Latha, vl 2 Boulder: Universty of Color Lake Propet Delors Ella C. 1982. Dakota Texts (Pobleations ofthe American Ethnology Society) Frane Bos lel. New York GE. Stechert &c0 Ako ISP reprint. New York AMS Press Dakota Indien Foundation Aches. Chrnbersin SD. Rood David Sand Tay, Allan 1908. Sete of Lakota, 9 Souan Language. In Ives Coddard lel Languages vol 17 of Wiliam, Strtevant el Hondboot of North American Fodtans. Washington SthsontanInsttuton. 40-482 Kil Rado Station. Porupine Sb. Sr, Ivan. 1986, Lalo Eyopaha Kendall Park Ni Lakota Boks Post, Regina. 2000 Lakota pstpostns, /AL 66 it 157160, Bikck Best, Ben and Thee, D.19T8 Songs and Dences of the Lekota Aberézen SD; North Pins Pree Solzman, Wiliam S.ndaed A tape of tranalaton into Lakota of some pags of Stoleman, William, Si. 1986 The Pipe and rst € Gres Sion Dato. Pie Rige SD Rei Cod Lian Scho Lakota 1 0. Introductory remarks Lakota 8 one of a group of closely related diaees spoken in and near the Northern Plans of ‘America. By chance the name ofthe language hvolves a consonant which varies across the ‘aalects and so there Is no one name by which the speakers can refer to the whole group. Hence they refer to it as ether Dakota, Nakota or Lakota depending on which dialect they speak Linguists, however, often often refer tothe group as Dakotan. "The speakers are referred io in general parlance as the Sioux or Dakota Inthe south and the Assiniboine and Stoney in the north. They refer to thernsehes as either Dakota, Nak’ota or Lakota depending on their dialect, although also using ether tribal group names. ‘The names Sioux and Assiniboine are derived from names used far them by thelr Algongqulan neighbours to the east, Sioux being derived from Nadwessiwv enemies, strangers’ and Assiniboine from Asinly Pat'Stone Stout! fom shih the name Stoncy is also derives The dstibution ofthe dake as follows. A group east of the Missour, the Santee of Minnesota and the Yankton and Yanktonal to the southwest of them, speak Dakota, These were the first encountered by Europeans, the French reporting them vest of Lake Superior from the mad 17th century, hence the common use of that name for the whole proup and forthe states of North and South Daketa. ‘To the west across the Missouri hve the Tetons who speak Lakota and to the north te Assiniboine and Stoney speak forms of Nakota. Traditionally the Santee, Yankton, Yank-onal and Tetons regarded themselves as one ‘ovate ‘nation’, referred to as the ‘Seven Counell Fires’ Ost Sakowig and often nosiaday’s referred to in English as "The Sioux Nation’. This concept did nat originally Include the Assiniboine and Stoney. Nowadays, however, meny would include these last 0 aso among the Sioux Nation Culturally the Lakota were part of the plains horse culture which depended on the buffalo or bson Tor thelr livelihood and of which the Lakota were the most numerous and Powerlul member. ‘This culture floured fromthe mid 1700s withthe acquisition by therm Of the horse which lead to a militarily organtzeesocety of great self confidence and with 3 marked tendency towards eanspieuous consumption, display and adarnment.-As such they had more in common with other non-Siovan plans Indians such as the Cheyenne and Arapahoe, with whom they alled thernseives. than they did with farming Indians of the Slovan stock who had been on the plains since at earlier tne Dakotan isa member of the Siouan grovp of languages, which takes its name from the Lakota or Sioux the largest group arnong them. ‘This terminology goes back to J Owen Dorsey who fist used i in 18882. ‘The branehes ofthis family from west to east according tone classification? areas Follows (languages marked * are now thought tobe extinct) Crow, Hidatsa Mandan Dakoran Chivere (Oto, Mssour" and Lowa), Winnebago Dheghiha including Omata-Pones, Osige, Kansa and Quapaw* (Ohio Valey including Ofc, Biloxi, Tu:elo", Sspon", Oceaneechi* and Moneton* Catawba" and Woscen® Geographically the group stretched originally from the Craw in Montans to the Ofo and Biloxt in Misisppt the Tutelo in western Virginia the Sapon, Moneton and Occaneech i {the Virginia and North Carolina, the Woceon in North Carolina and the Cataws tn northern South Carolina. As a group they are thought to have originated inthe eas, some of ther "This would seer tobe a reference to the practice of cooking with heated stones, 2 Dorsey, 0. 1885 919-29) 2 ‘The classification followed here is taken from Godard 19969) itself being & madification Of the erly classftation of Voogeln (194).from the Oni valley. However the historical study of Ameriean Indian languages &s a ‘complex matter, hampered by the lack of histoteal records before the advent of the Europeans, and & outside the range ofthis brief account, O.L Present situation of the language and people Nowadays members of the Sioux Nation Ine either en reservations or in other parts of the USA and Canada, ‘The present reservation population are to a great extent distributed According to tribal band origin and this has had the effect of preserving the dialect divsions. Dakota speakers live mainly in Minnesota, North and South Dakota, Manitoba and Saskatchewan with» group also at Fort Peck in Montana. Lakota speakers are In North and South Dakota and also at Wood Mountain Saskatchewan, and Nakota speakers are divided Into the Assiniboine in Montana and Saskatchewan and North Dakota and the Stoney in Albert, |i is difficult to give an accurate estimate of the number of speakers of Lakota although one recent survey gives them as around 20000. In fact monolingual speakers are probably very ew and mos fluent speakers ae ofthe older generation, However strenuous efforts are in progress to preserve the language. I taught in schools aed eal universities and the Sinte Gleska University at St Francs on the Rosebud Reservation is a main centre for its preservation and teaching. ‘Two radio stations also exist, which broadeast in English and Lakota, Kini Radio on the Rosebud and Kil Radio at Pine Ridge. Lakota has been written since the [8th century, when missionaries began to work among the Dokots of Minnesota. Religious texts and a newspaper were produced end lat "he prectice of writing was intraduced to the Lakota In the west. ‘These early efforts are associated with John Willson and Stephen Return Riggs among the Dakota and Eugene ‘Buechel among the Lakota, who also produced early dictionaries and grammars. In the caller peried and during the early 20th century when the telephone was not ieapread and ‘when fever Indians knew English, the language wa regularly used in ltter writing, Different systems have been used in the past to represent sounds not occurring in English or for which Engiish did not have a separate letter. Earlter systems were based on usages in other languages. ‘This the letter fas used as in French and -g- was represented by. The use of ‘x for -s- in some cases was perhaps based on Spanish and the use of for -K 1s seen in the orthography of some Bantu languages, More recently linguists and Indian scholars have evolved different systems and the system used inthis book is close to, bot not ndentiea with that used by such writers as Albert White Hat, Jerome Kills Small and the Sinte Geska University. 02. Introduction to this grammaties)sketeh ‘The arrangement of the material in ths sketch follows the conventional arrangement of ‘honolegy, morphology and syntax and s then followed by a section on senate alexa lsage, which seeks to explain aspects which would not be accountable under the earlier sections. However, because Lakota is typologially very different from a European languages, certain Word types may not be found in the expected place. Thus for Instance there are no adetives since the Function of English adjectives is served by tative verbs in Lakota, Also the interrogative pronouns or wh- words are found partly under pronouns end partly under the system of circumstantial stems in chapter 10. Therefore, where the contents page does ‘ot yield an em sought, the reader should consult dhe index. Wherever posible, example sentences are taken from published texts and their source Indieate, so that their authenteity can be checked, ‘This is importent ina language, which oes not have an extensive literature and were native speaker are not easy to find cutsie the language ares Lakota 3 1. Phonology The Lakota phonolotal ysem is composed of woes. consonants a ses although the lle ean be reguded as prditble roman uerying structure ial bt afew cases The ‘owes and consonants are presented below with hel phonetic description ad ake to her Prononeaton va English, where ths thought skeful. "The sptem of notation sed ere ery closet that of Bueche 1939) and efect Tay well kn system whch ean be Tegared as speling system as tis one often owed. Cher systems ate aso usa however and in parte the dstintion between plan and aspirated bstruents shown under 22. telow ino often reprsened in normal speling as wed In lier wring. books articles, publ notees and more recent e-all 1.1. Yowels There are five plan and three nasalied! vowels in Lakota lke American English’! n hop like Engst in be ike English 'y"in ety like American English on ope like English con Boot ‘open central vowel half epen front vowel close front vowel half open back rounded vowel close back rounded vowel 2 nasalzed open vowel like Preneh un ‘one? 1) nasalized else rant yowel no real equivalent, but nearest to Enlish (id in tk lun nasilized elose back rounded vowel lose o Franch on‘ene Note the convention thatthe inal sequence nls represented inthe orthography as -anl ‘This occurs in the stem -hagl occurring in many time expressions 1.1.1, Vowel juncture. Sequences of vowels e2n occur in Lakota, but are not regarded 2s diphthongs and are treated a5 occurring in separate syllables. In the mappity of eases they will belong to diferent morphemes. Certain veel sequences are regularly separated by 2 gta stop > as are aug in waug Ive and on ole word, pronounced (watuah [oye In fact all vowel sequences except He and fa ate separated by ~~. Examples showing ~ Include op‘euot uppi lope'unt unpl ‘we buy’, eug (o's ‘culture, euot'p! (cunt Ip we ‘encamp’. ‘Examples without ~= ate those where -- precedes -a- or -e~ asin sap api “Tanguoge’ and tele he spoke, where a glide -y- occurs between the wo vowels. As bath of these are predictable and can be regarded a surTace juncture features, they are not represented ip the spelling of words hare. ‘Another environment where a glottal step occurs is where a vowel intial stem tke opty ‘buy’ fellows a consonant final stem like wal Tood asin wot opetup "buy food. In ‘cases lke these the glotal stop willbe represents in the spelling because the reader would ‘ot otherwise know that two stems were Involved and Would not beable to correctly supply the 1.2, Consonants The Lakota consonants include obstruents, friatnes and eontinvants, Obstrvents These include plosives and affricates. They may be voice, voiceless, vokeless aspirated or oreeless ejectne. However the voiced plosives are confined to consonant clusters and {0 Initial position in a few onomatopaete words ard to final position in truncated stems [ise 1.53, Stem final change below). The plain voiceless types are tense and have short vowel4 Lakota ‘onset time, ‘The voleless aspirate type has a longer vowel onset time and marked aspiration The aspiration may appear a8 votecess ular icaive In some cases, particularly when preceding the back vowels se below under 1.2.1. Aspirated plosives). ‘The ejctive type is followed by a glota release. ‘They are a follows: > ‘voiced bilabial plosive like in blue Polls bilabial plsive like pin speak PF —vojceles aspirated bilabial plosive ike'p' in peak P voiceless bilabial eyective like Followed by the gota stop 1 voleeless dental posive lke in stl Soleless aspirated dental plosive lke in tl Y —Wojeeless dental eetive lice followed by the glotal stop @ —volced velar plosive like in glue K —Soiceiess velar plosive like skin Kvoleeless aspirated velar plosive lke’ n kin Ksoleles velar eectve like followed by the glottal stop Voices palto-alveolar affriate like ‘eh in rich € voiceless asprated paato-alveolaraffricate like ‘chin chin € _volcelesspalato-alveolar elective like -ch followed by the glottal stop ~~ “The difference between -c~ and -< ts hard to perceive and some speakers have sad to me that they eannot realy distinguish the 10, Frscatwes These may be voiced, voseless or voiceless glttalized 2 Volced alveolar frcative lke tn 200 = Vojceles alveolar friative ike $ in 50, 8 Vojceles glottalzedalveohr freatwe like ‘followed by the glottal stop 1 Sojced palatoalveolar festive ike fn Freneh jeune yellow 8 Nojcelesspalato-alveolarfricative ike ‘sim ship 8 volceless glottalzed palato-alveolar fricative Tike ‘sh followed by the glottal stop *- @ —Volced uvular frieative like the northern French or German A Nojeeess uvularfrcative lke Spanish’ in Jerez or German ‘ch in Bach NY voiceless gottalized ular frieative lke Wy followed by Vorelesscontinaant Th voales cavity fretion ike W im hat Voteed continuants We Vole Iabio velar continuant ke "Wn wasp Y- voiced palatal continuant likey im yet 1 ejed lateral continuant lice Pin ap m—oled bilabial nasal voted alveolar nasal hike ‘in noe Lakota 5 1.21. Aspirated plosives. Where the aspratal phsives -p -- and -K> occur preceding the sowels as, as cup, o- and somtimes -e- the espraion may be lathe form ofa wl ‘oleless fieaive (hl, Thus p' head's pronounced iphal. pre grasss pronounced phe, ogo ‘counsel mar’ is pronounced Iphogo, ate "vind pronounced Ithatel,Feca "be new I pronounced (thecal aka ‘enemy’ is pronouneed [thokal r'unpi he was born’ \s pronounce {huapl Kata'be hot ts pronounced ehatal Fagg ‘crow fs pronounced kha Ke turtles pronounced fkhel and K’ "abo" i pronounced io, 1.3. Syllabies The Lakota syllabic system allows syllables © been with a vowel, a consonant or ‘consonant cluster. Syllables inthe basle form cf the word must end In a vowel, However truncation of stems See 2. Morphological processes) which results inthe eison of the final vowel -a can produce eansonant final syllables, hich are mainly non final components of complex words, The consonants involved are $f, band g. Examples include mas- iron fel1uns-"Torgesting, maf earth, KaP Wot, sablack’ ad was‘ stron Consonant clusters invaive the folowing types voiceless plosive + ploswe/aftriate pls pey tk ky kt Voces plosive + ficave ps, pk ploive st, St, sk, Sk, hts voices frieatwe + eontinuant si sh, si Sm Sy srs Inns voted plasive * continuant bl, gm, ew gtr gl and voieed continuant continuant smn®. Examples are pie buffalo, pcelyela ora short time, the ‘be heavy’ "but, kpagla be small, ground up, Kte “kl, psip ‘ice. pig ‘onion, leak, ksapa ‘be wise, ksupt ‘embroidered, sto’be smooth, Sela'admire, ska se white, skag ‘mow, htalehay esterday Suvufa"be small, fine sla ‘grease; snasnn in’, Ara be deep, Slo"melt, Anno, Hee tea ‘nna’grant, be ake, bleza'be clea, gmuza'be ches. gwube curd, graskd rag. lek ‘be spotted! mini water 14. Stress Word sess Lakota is very requ. The srs of word normally oceurs on ts secre Fvlbie asin wien mart. In eran general specfable condos wil occur onthe frst syle Often the merger of wo pefneso pref wth stm eases testes o move tora fal slab, when fs olin sylable as ben elds a nwa beck © na Shops pte weapon «arraps, thc ugze his tingioms f-wékdcugze In these srs wale marked by an cute accent == Some other examples also occur of intial stress associated with particular ‘worpholopel elements These include words involving the demonstrative cements fe ths be that and Tht yonder sn the nlite petn totes mtd hee tas Aatu'ts there tke somehow, tu someting ‘An important set of exeptons tthe ma role re dy lb stems ending i rand preceded by avicelss cbsraci or chaser or aoe frtave, Tse mally have ial pa "be bl’, cp' beaver sta "ole, ste many, sca ba ska be st {ke Stanger, ener blaze ‘bust ope, mazes. bza ‘be clear, manda ‘wolverine. Riga ate mga e¥grket aaa" hard rn. aga a, Innaaga"vowt sat fat hsb long sabe pote ‘Therefore dsylabe stems, which donot follow ts rule and have have their stress marked as in okd ist suta be Tir’ Words which are dsylaie, bu whieh involve a pret fellow the second slablestees Fle of nt another tay of looking at they stress ther ste sable as tp waste good, o-st be strange, deformed from the Stem =ste- appearing in stelf‘admire. Certam slfies ae enelities to the ead of the word syllable ses, wil $ tks possibly a contraction from tuk's‘but’ 114s the only cluster volving an aspirated plosive6 Lakota such as pt Sed plural animate, -kta/e Fu, and -snt Neg. do not effect the sires and these ‘words are stressed on the appropriate stem vowel, as in t-pu they dwell, W-snt ‘he did not come’, dg-kte‘he wil be kiga-pthey made, kigesnl'he did not make kigiarke "he will, make’ ‘A numberof other miscellaneous lxteal exceptions occur, which cannot be explained ‘any of the above ways, ‘These include wigyag woman, dgle Shit, Sleess will therefore bbe marked in these also by the acute accent ~~ enly where the normal rue of second syllable stressor the rule of intial syllable stress in dbyllabe stems of the type mentioned above docs ft apply 'Slress will only be marked for these exceptions in earlier sections of this description [Normally tn writing Lakota the ses Is ot marked a it can be widely predicted by somneone with a knowledge ofthe language. 1.5, Phonological IB.L. Velar fronting. Fronting effects the velar plosives -k:, -R> and -K in the environment of the front vowel -F which become, >and ~~ if preceded by ccekiyn adress, Ka mean’ and KU "give become cetyay “a and ~cl when the prefix r= you's involved as In cenicyapr they address you, napithey mean you' and nicupr ‘they we you! 1.5.2. Nasallzation. Nasalization can spread progressively in a word from an early nasel consonant or nasllzed vowel. Hard consonants such as obstruents and freatives have the effect of blocking this, stile soft consonants auch as continuants do not. This the verb ‘waoyagka ‘see’ les nazalitation inthe second syllble ofthe Ist person singular wane’ See, beeause of the effect of the hard consanant-b-. The Ist singular patient prefix r3a~ and the Ist person plural prefix up-are influencal in this and can introduce nasalizaton into hom al stems asin ae goes, upyanpi we go and cay tea, bring up cafimayanpi ‘they brought me up In some eases the naslization ean app in a later syllable after being blocked in an earlier one, asin wapunkicyagkapiwe see each other. ‘Nasalzation may spread to effect the the consonant -F and the sequence bl- in some words, AS mentioned below uier 1.54 Stem final vowel abla, final vowel cr ~ ag changes in oertain positions to ~g~ ie. where f precedes the future marker -kta or the \word and asin ap he hit, apn kte"he wl hi. If such a verb contains the consonant ~ 1 or the sequence ~bl- in its final syllable, this will change to -a- or -ma~ in sueh circumstances; compare ap'e “he hit. ap'g Kt ‘he wil hit, e'you go, nig te you wil go ‘lal go, mrtg kel will go, shanbia “he dreamt, shagmnia te ‘he will dream’ Note however sblable'l went away’ sblamnig kte"l will o aay, where only the second -bF= sequence, which i near tothe -ip i effected ‘Nasilzation of a vowel ie often deleted in certain stems when a nasal consomint is Introduced. Stems such as 1yupka ‘seep. yanka ‘sit’ may become denasalized with the Introduction of the m-prfix"T as n amupke,wmuke't sleep, mapke, make" sit 1.53, Stem final change. Stem truncaton, which is» morpho-syntactic process concerned with Sentence embedding and noun ineorperation and snvalves the elision of the final vowel “a, can result ina change inthe consonant which preceded 1 nthe full form. "Ths involves devotcing of frleatves and vocing of plosives as follows z>s,]+% 8» 8,t> he» p> band og This illustrated by the following pairs maza ‘ron, metal, maswaKsica tn plate, metal plate, kung Tonge, aek ups waste easy to forget, caga ice cota ice dwell, Eskimo. Ka ‘be hot, Kala ‘heat, make hot, sia be bad, siawac'i'itend evil towards, apa’ball, Cabskarapibal game, was'aka ‘be srong, wasgiciya‘make oneself strong 1154. Stem final vowel ablat, Certain verbs havea final vowel aor -ag which changes to ~ in final position or preceding certain other elements such asthe negative marker =tni and Lakota 7 snd the topie marker Lyk and changes 1 ~o preceding the future marker -Kta or the ‘words naan! and mais‘. ‘Thus if we take the verb apia/awaphit, we find app they Fat, but ape ht, ape snihe didnot bit, apig-kte he wil i. This alternation is shown when eiting a verb item by citing the 3rd person nthe non-final form and the Ist person in the final form as ap‘a/awape, Others, where there kno Ist person form, ii ited a5 — a/e-ot~an/e-as in han be ina plac’ of tall objets or yukon "exis 1.6, Phonological variants “The consonants hr, and -g- vary freely In some words and are seen with both spellings in such examples as yugica, yuiea ‘arouse awake’ and huhnaga, gupnaga burn up. Variations wth regard te nasaization ako occur, with nasa eed ane non-masalized vowels as numa, ‘ma ‘ther’, ungna, ogna ‘perhaps, fenaugs, lena both, oge'ua, ogintuy ‘pul a cover or ‘wrapoing on something ec'amuo, carnal dl mug, mu" use, Aud, al"YOu Ue The eonsanant *h- when medial s somtimes omitted or changed to-)~ in some words as in wak'anheja, wak anyeja chil! and iTahanung, 1" 2anugg, 17ayanung ‘on both Sides, ungnahehct ungnayenic perhaps. Here ternative forms are mentioned as varsants ‘where I have noliced them. In some compound words dehberate and relaxed pronuneations are possible often rnvolving the stem Tinal change mentioned above. These involve variants which teat the ‘compound as either having or not having a syllable boundary between the two elements of the compound. ‘Thus one fins cabot and eager lee house’ « c'aga ice’ and of 'weling pelianjag and petianjan lamp’ « peta fire’ and /ianiog ight. In these the first the Selierate form and the secon a fast speech fort LT. Sound symbolism ‘The fricaive consonants participate ina system of sound sybolism, where certain members of the group ean be regarded as stronger’ for serantic funtion than others. In ths system, the uvulars are stronger than the palato-alveolars ane the palto-alvolas sronger than the dentals as follows: s» $ > and 2 » >. This snot a freely productive. process, but a significant number of examples occur. In some cases the relationship of relative semantic ‘strength’ is obvious. Tn others it not and the process produces only semantically relied tems, Related tems include ‘earsleca ‘spit, Kasleca spit (of wood), kaha spi’ ‘es thus, hé'e thus ka sioka ‘knock off, karhlokakaock a hole sap be black, sapabe dit sla" ol sia"be bald, sot ‘be cleat, Sota smoke, Bora ‘be grey, aste"be good, wate sti "be bad.8 Lakota 2. Morphological processes Lakota relies heavily on morphology for all grammatical functions. It concentrates its morphology on the verb, asthe relationship of the verb (oats arguments, sueh a8 agent and patient, i encoded on the verb rather than on the noun iself and there # no noun case ‘marking. The processes of affixing, reduplication and stem truncation are employed -Affixing inludes prefiving,suffixng and infxing, Some of the infixes ean be regarded as earlier prefixes which have then been enclosed by later prefixng, though in sore cases the infxes are infied in what one can call ‘spitable’ stems, which cannot be analyzed nto separate morphologeal elements ‘An example of the fist type i naftaka ‘kick’ which infixes the personal pronoun profes a5 in nawahtaka'l kick Gum and namahiaka he kicks me. Here the element ni 8 prefix signifying action by the feet. However the stem mani‘walk’ also infixes them. asin ‘mawani'l walk but here the stem mani cannot be analyzed any Further torphologiealy “Thus we can refer to as a splitabe' stem 2.1, Stem Redupltcation Verbal and adverbial items are frequently reduplicated to give distributive, repetitive, IntensWve or plural meaning. Posipositions ané nouns show this more rarely, though rote the ‘word fathate magpie, which involves reduplicatin of non existent stem hate nd may be ‘onomatopoeie. ‘The fedupliation occurs usually on the originally stessed syllable of the stem. Stress then follows the normal second sylable stres assignment, Redupliation i not fentizely regular, but the majority of examples can be accounted for in the following wa) “Monesyilabic stems simply redupliate the whole stem a In ska/skaska be we h,t> el p»band k» g. Thus the nov ‘maza ron, metal ean be joined to the noun waksia ‘pate’ to give maswaksica tin plate, metal plate, the verb ektunja “forget can occur with aya ‘become’ to give eR became forgotten, caga ‘lee, can be joined to the verb or Tie it to give cabrio ice dwellec, Eskimo, ce ‘name’ can be joined to the adverb f'saiayan “clearly” to give Ccastanigyan Yamously, sea ‘be bad can be ined to the verb awiyueag “ink about to {ve silawiyukcay “intend evil towards, and Capa ball! can be joined to skata'pay’ to give abskatap tall game This produces compound words with the stress occurring on the second syllable of the compound, However in the conventional speling they are sometimes writen a8 10 words and sometmes a one As willbe seen from the above exemples stem truncation occurs in the production of ‘compound verbs or compoure! nouns. 1 ean also aceu inthe formation of complex words involving suffives. Most suffixes wil have ths e'feet on the televant stem types ncloding — up ver Formative, ie Rel,’ without and -ya Causative as in east Ug be Tamnous (< ae ‘name’, wa'agic ya ‘make oneself strong’ (« was'oka ‘be strong Itaztbe'o ‘Sans Ares, ‘Without Bows! («rtazipa bow and Kya eat, rake hot «stb hot),10 Lakota 3. The Noun ‘Nouns have in essence only one form as there 48 no separate form for the plral, ‘Thus the ‘word wéiwapi stands fer "book or "books. Nouns ean be divided int primitive, complex and ‘compound depending on their morphologial make-up. Primitive nouns are those in which there Is only one stem, with no affees. ‘These Inelude such nouns as oka ‘stranger, enerny, Kol rien, paha hill, mila‘knife. Complex ‘nouns show added derwational morphology an wéwap ‘book (wa“indefiite obec owa- ‘write -pr'Sedplur actor), wounspe knoivledge’ wo abstract noun, ugspe know how to, ‘cay ‘ype’ [o“locabonal, cae ‘name’, apa bulfalo bull (Ca~ ‘ruminant, ¢apka be large. Compound nouns involve more than one stem. In most cases one of the stems fina ‘uneated form (ee also 13. Noun Incorporation below], Examples include wolak’o/-kagapi "peace treaty’ Iwdlak’ol- from w6lak’ata ‘Tiendship, Kaga ‘make’ ~p ‘Sr plur. actor, ftp tps ina water ab, we teas our pr 3.1. Primitive nouns “These may be monosyllabic or disylabic and more rarely multsylabic. Most nouns of more than two syllables, however, involve some morphologieal augmentation, such as affixing oF reduplication. Some of them also are thought to be borrowings from European and elgbourng lian nguazes. Expl of omsyabe ad sya ours ele the allowing “mouth sta toot 8 armpit mils nite ha ‘Skin mia ‘metal he horn’ sink dog" he ‘mountain’ mike roy Sip at, grease! wakps river’ Bi ‘wer bah tall pa ‘hea ape Thane? Wwe “Blot is arm rani water a ‘eye ay ‘tre, wood! ‘yan Stone hig ‘hair oh bone su Seed maka ‘an 5 Toot ‘maki skunk! hy "tooth ac hie!” nasi, train -Multsyllabie primitive nouns inchde the following: azipa “bow ‘mueca ‘sake’ wanacanka ‘shield’ wahukeza ‘spear Wwahiokpe ‘arrow’ wak'enyeja ‘chil wwableniea ‘orphan! OF the above however, sme, although nav from a synchronic point of view wnanalyzable, look as though they may have had a previous multimorghemic stage, Itazipa bow for instance is thought to be related to a root meaning ‘plerce, appearing In Lakota now as =jpa 8 in ppp ‘sting, while wahac'ayka shit has the elements wa- "indefinite, askin’ can ‘wood’ “ka ‘noun formative’ and may refer to the hardening of skins to wood-Ike consistency to be used a shiek. Wahok'eza contains the elements wa indefinite, hu bone, branch, Keza’be pointed’. Wahinkpe contains the element wahig arrow head’ which occurs ‘elsewhere as wapht ‘arrow tooth, point’ and kpe, which resembles pe'sharp. Loans from Lakota u other Indian languages and European languages include cuwaculues ‘scarecrow (Pawnee) Ieuk se pig Freneh ochon, Ruakuol pickle English ‘cucumber or Erench comeombr! ‘Saglasa'Sriush French Les Anglais ‘32. Complex nouns CCamplex nouns consist ofa stem and affies. Some ofthese affixes ecu also in verbal and ‘adverbial words in which their meaning canbe said to be in essence the same. They are 10 the main prefixes, but ako tnclide a limited number of suffixes. ‘The sufives include the following: “ka devertal suffix. Nouns snieating human attributes formed from verbo stems often have thi suffix as in the following examples: witkotkoka "Too, foolish person, ‘wagluhahoka greedy perso oka ‘onc who obeys chocrully’ la iminutive marker. ‘This six occurs widely, sometimes with diminutive meaning and other times as an inseparable part verbal noun or abstract concept marker. ‘his prefs whic $8 derivable from waro- 's the most general verbal noun marker, very often forming doublets with other forms from the same root with the sufix-p! with a slightly different meaning Exainples include the following: Wsawagyake Bureau of Undian Affaire (cae protection), wee'ekive ‘religion, woR ug illness, wognaye “deception. Wyle jpasession: wowyuteag thought, wojice riches. dap I noun of instrument marker. Examples include usa Sessors, yusloke’ key 5 Bur see below 12.2.2. Sentence embedding as 1 nominallzation onthe posible verbal baracterization of these Forms,2 Lakota Wis noun of instrument marker. ‘This prfis, which is derivable from sva~ plus = mentioned above regularly produces nouns of Instrument. Examples include: wiealy “Tart weap fork, weasto brush, wle'ao Toarker, perl, wipe Weapon’ ‘wie noun involving hurhan beings as the obect or subyect of the verb or possessor of the Teferent. It can also indicate specifically male human involvement. Examples Include wie'snasu ‘human beaitl, wie'asote ‘extinction, dying of many peopl, wwie'at'ansna ‘batchelor, wi'at'oka ‘male captive. In some cases the -a of wie’ merges witha flloeing vowel asin iie'sta human eye’ sta ‘ye wic6- collective action marker. This prefix sometimes Indicates the involvernent of large ‘numbers of people or groups of eople inthe ation. In other cases st purely indicates the involvement of human beings. Examples include: wic'ok uf ‘plague tlness, wieookagnige understanding, wicta crowd, multitude, wicoje'age ‘generation, vwicoje"nor, wien ealousy, wicon fe. piri, wicotY encampment, village! fia nouns involving @ ruminant oF grazing anieak /ar'agka ‘buffalo bull, ei ‘deer {aha buckskin, Valo "resh meat niga buffalo paunel (used 38a receptacle, ap! tuffal iver hhol- nouns involving fish hojpateish-net’ hoicawa ish hook, howaworka sh drying rack onagilt tadpole, o'spu fish sale hod voice: okagapi ‘flute wir female: wicigcala ‘ite gi, wsap vegina, winupheala‘ld woman ‘arrow’ wapht ‘arrow head, wagsaka ‘arrow shalt’, Wawak’ag ‘Sacred Arrow’ srieostake lint headed arrow” {A third prefix ho- also occurs, indicating connection with the camp circle. Though this rormally occurs in adverbial expressions. 33, Compound nouns Compound nouns are those formed from more than one nominal stem, from a noun and a ‘verbal stem, from a noun plus an adverb or rarely a noun plus an impersonal verb in ta. I these compounds the meaning of the compound is often specialized and constitutes more than the sum af the twa components. Thus sstamaza ‘eyeglasses’ compased of isaeye’ and maza ‘metal, mnisa ‘wine 1s composed of mi 'Water and sated’ I some eases the first stem in the compound Is in the truneated form. ‘The distinction between compound and complex nouns ts not entirely elear-eut since some of the prefixes occuring In the complex type are themselves reduced forms of nouns. Examples are given below showing ‘bo for eomparion the original form of the shortened stem where relevant: (formes of two nouns or noun and verbal stm) (‘aga ‘ee, su Seed, (Stamaza ‘eyeglasses’ isa ‘eye, maza ‘metal, ‘maswyokatag ‘nal! (maza ‘etal, wi- ‘instrument, 1yokatap rive i, suogbloka ‘stalion, Sugpwiyela "mare (Supka ‘horse’, wiyela ‘female, walicaske'anehor (vata “boat, instrument, kash ie, fi), valsigte helm rudder" wata boat, sitet “Many proper names are compounds of ths kid: Tiacibe'o Sans Arcs’ Utazipa "bos, c'o ‘be without}, Mpik’agwoja "Minneconju, Planters by the Wate’ mra'water, Kanyela ‘near, woju'plant, Sicaggu Brule Burnt Thighs (sie‘n ‘thigh, gu burn, Lakota B formed of nov and adverb) In this structure the adverb modifies the noun, and may follow or precede t. In some eases the two words have merged and share one sess. They ean also savolve truncated ems 85 in Kul «Kuta "below and sa, sat- sata pole below, Examples Wwic'asa fohapketa, ‘foreigner’ (ran far vay), Oup Lecala ‘New Dea! (way of fe recently), Wiyahiyanpatanhag Tehan Far East (om the eat faraway’) Ku! wicasa ‘Lower Brule’ Chelow man), sat-plakigyan, sl-glakinyag meat drying rack’ (pale ressways, Wicafip! Ovania Poe Siar” ‘Sar in one place), Anung Pte"Double Face’ {on both sides fae’, ehegn’ wibtap ‘ol time customs’ Hong ago custom {formed of noun and impersonal verb sn -tul Here an impersonal verb with the suffix “tv folows the noun as @ medifier, ‘The verb ‘expresses the location of the noun, ‘There are very few examples of this type of ‘compound, Examples wie akapty human being (i. man being upright), Suqg manitaeoyote (it. dog, being Inthe prairie, wanrutu'whale’ (hit. iidefinite being in Wate. Nouns can be further subdivided on semantic-syntactle grounds where certain semantealy efinable groups consistently show particular formal characteristies. Such noun clases Inelude inalienable nouns, kinship nouns and atrbutive nouns, which are dealt with below 34, Inalienable nouns Group a) ‘Words which denote parts of the body and certain others such as ofe ‘words oan ‘ded’, ce ‘name are naienable and as such are thought to always have a possessor. Therefore hhape means wnherenty ‘is, het band. They will almost alvays oceur with a possessor Indicated either by a possessive prefix or by being in construction with another noun as possessor. Body part nouns do not normally stow the ded person possessive prefix perhaps because oftheir bviously inalienable nature, perhaps also because of the possiblity of confusion with the mminant marking prefix r2~ Examples ae the following: ‘minape'my band rinape yur (ing) hare? Uupkinape’our fell hand” — ugkinapepr lnapeps'your (tu) han ne band" mite words nioie ‘your (sing) words’ iow ‘your (plu) words pki ‘our level hands! upkioiepr'ovr ined words tore hs words! orep thei words! Examples with a noun possessor are of the type atkuku nage ki"his father’s hand’ If no Dossessor Is known they are marked as human by the prefix we" or animal bythe prefix fa Le wieanape means ‘a human hand, someore’s hand’ aha ‘animal skin’ ad wie'sho Someone's vote’ oF wicanata ‘someone's skull when disembodied 2s in wieaho wap nah uot ‘they heard a voice Gomeone’s vole. wi'unaa 2eca wan Ista okpakpasyela okagmigma ‘nyu dea umman skull dried and bland, with te eye sockets hie caves of blackness rolled into the roan Bel T91 Words occurring with these prefixes include ob ap ‘dees, c'aje ‘name, ofe ‘word, awactg ‘intention, mind’, woksape wisdom, wélviyukean "though. Note that words beginning with the prefixes wo or o- merge this wih the €2= refi to give ¢6-as in aie this wor, Caksape his wisdom, rowivukeay his thoughta Lakota Group b) ‘A Turther set of inalienable nouns take the prefix set mit, nit, upkits: ‘They occur as follows ‘mitakole ‘my trend hifakols "your ing) friend? niakéolapt "your (lue friend Upkitakola ‘ourlexcl friend” upkitakolpt “our lined friend (akolaky his frend (ak oekup! thei Tend “These are tems regarded as being not ialienable, but of a particular close relationship the owner asin mitak’ol ‘ny friend, mitamak’o¢'e ‘my country’, mizaki'ta ‘my solder ‘mitasupkamy horse, mitacanugps ‘my pipe. ‘The sux -ku occurs wit the Srd person. CSmbinations withthe word Koa Trend shown above, which falls partially into the kinship {group shown below under 3.5, Kinship nouns, Other items such as mak'oee ‘country’ would Fat show i as a Cama ac his country ‘Some words such as de word can show both patterns occurring as mote and mitole “iny words 35. Kinship nouns Kinship noun are those which refer to human relationships. “These will also inherently always be involved with aeo-relative, marked either by the possessive prefixes or by being tn onstruction with another noun. In these eases they wil show the possessive prefixes mi- "my, ni='your, pki "our as above or Sed person possessive Sufix Specialized for kinship ouns-ku or “#0 "hi her a8 ‘mecigkss my son flcigks!| —‘your(sing] son’ nicinkpi ‘your (pur son Luoctoks! — ‘our fexeD son” ugeZDKSIpi_ “our nel son’ cloksiteu "his, ber son! ccipksitkup! “thelr son! wie'8a cioksitku ks "he man's son ‘The only time when these occur without a co-relative[s when used as aterm of address where the Understood cortelatve as in cupks ‘Oh my daughter, ate'Oh my father and ‘cocasionaly when referring to one's own eeative a tate omakivake my) father tld me Note however that eros meaning ta have asa relative are used es often and perhaps more often than these. These invaive the causative sUtTix~ja asin cloksiya have a a sn inaya have as 2 mother, hugkaya "have a8 an ancestor, which can occur in phrases Ike Cinkstwaye kihe worn | have a son, my on, inauaye k'the one | ave asa mother, my ‘mathe’ hugkane'upyaqpl ki hena those we have as ancestors, our ancestors. items of this clas are listed below showing Ist singular and 3ed singular affies. Those marked with the asterisk * donot show the expected affix for that person. The words {for husband and ‘wife do not occur insolation, Duk only with a relational affix. The w \wigyag ‘woman’ and wic'asa ‘man ean be Used forthe unrelated concept asin wicasa yuha Snu'she has no husband’ oF wioyan num wiceyeha he has two wives Lakowa 1s ‘father im taw’——eugkans! fu unin ‘mother inlew ug ach" ak “ban Iagrak swage tase wider brother lye cveks “elder rath ble eb tibloke ‘of 3 woman younger brother “0 sinkakw “elder ster taoke iene fankek ‘elder ster cave caw euwekw ff 8 woman Younger sister tanks! mien ‘anksiku ofa mas ‘Younger sister” rapa mitonka taokaku ‘bother in law Yaghan anh? tanhaoku ‘of 3 mad brother nw sive sie sick of woman’ stern hank hla hankake ‘ster inti scepaa cepa" seoyanka of 2 womar! m an ‘make paternal eousin Sikes) ace siento of woman ‘male maternal onhanst cosn of @ man” ‘nuns aphansithe tense teal "egos sept seqpansitku sin of wom Yerale materat hankasi ala tanta ‘maternal unc ksi lls faterotaune fui mifunig “ternal phe of woman’ eotka sororlnephea Cupska Canshaku ott! Vrateral niece von tpt ‘pak ‘of 8 woman’ = srornese una fnp Sup For the terns marked with an asterisk the prefix for “my” does not occur. The prefix for relationship baste form ‘my’ “hismher’ grandmother’ uel une Kinsitke ‘grandfather? upkasila—enifunkasla Pupkasitha ‘mother tna inat ugk “father ate ate atkuku ‘eb inca micinca inca’ ‘on inks icin ccigksitku ‘daughter eunks———mictunkst eunwitku ‘grandehl akon mifakop, akojkpaku ‘you" does, however, in kag your grandmother, nvhuy your mother’ niate Your father, ‘utupkagst "your father n law" nuk'ug, nikeas Your moter tn law, nieve your elder brother fto.@ mani, ni07blo ‘your elder brother to a woman), nicuwe Your elder sister (ta ‘man, n’aghag "your brother in lao a man, ase’ "your brother in la” (toa wom tuhapa "your sister in law" ko 8 man), nisep'ag "your sister slaw” (to.& Woman. nise28 {your male paternal eousin (io @ woman) nit aghenss'Your male maternal cousin (oa man, Iscep'anst your female paternal cousin iio a vernan, nuhapkast ‘your female maternal ‘ousit lo a man), ni‘oska ‘your fraternal nephew’ Ito a woman), nitunsks "your sororal16 Lakota nephew (toa man) tj Your fraternal nee’ a woman, miwnlag ‘your soroal nice! Tr the cave of the relatives given here, when referring t0'my:, ane would ether use the tope marker ki or the relation naming verb using the sux ~ya asin Canhags kite ‘male cousin’ or faphagstwaye kr'the one { have asa male eousin, both of which mean ‘my ‘male cousin fof a man). For cinca “chino Suffix occurs for the 3rd person asin wei ‘ince Ky'the chil ofthe man Note thatthe Lakota kinship system counts mother’s sisters as ‘mothers and father's brothers as Tathers. Similarly the chilren of both of these are counted as ‘brothers’ and ‘sisters, while a wornan's sister's edren and a mans brother's ciren are counted ‘sors! and “daughters, Hence there are no specific terms for ‘paternal uncle’ or ‘maternal aunt or the cousins and nies ane nephews who would result fom them. 36. Atributive nouns Certain nouns are Formed directly from the verb stem. These are often a type, of wall normally ‘come in Initial position before the stem, while ther prefises may come within the stem ‘Some varlation oeeurs with regard tothe postion of upi-sith vowel initial stems so that ne finds such examples as ap'eugt upp or unkoy'et upp ‘we buy ‘These are occasionally showin later inthe description. The fllowing gives examples of the use of agent and patient prefixes occurring together: owscawale "| seek them! owscayale ‘You Gingl seek then’ owk’ayalepl ‘you (plu) seek ther" fowicalebeseeks them’ owicaleph they sec them! ‘unkowicale ‘we lecel) seek them’ uakowicalep! “we lincl sek then octte ‘Lseek you Ging? exit 1 seek you (plu? nile “he seeks you sing? onset “they seek you (ng), he seeks you plu) they seck you (blue? ‘unkonlopi “Wwe incl seek you fomayale "you Ging) seek me’ omayalep! “you iplur seek me?20 Lakota comale he seks me" comalep! “they seek me ukoyalepl "You pD seek us incl? uugkole ——“heseeks us(exei"” —upkolepi ‘they seek us lexel” Notice thatthe following forms have two possible interpretations oni! they seek you (ing) ‘or (luo ofthe seks you (pr? uokolehe secks us eel! owe (xe sack ir, unkolept we Utne! seek him he seeks us inl! of "they seek us (ine!) or lxcll. Certain interpretations ‘would be semantially impossible Le, unkoyelep! cannot mean you (pl) seek us (exc, since the exclusive Wwe’ implies You and I’. The same form however could stand for ‘you (sing) seek us linel! or "you (plu) seek us (nel, since here ‘us could mean ‘me and others. With the non-splittable stems, iF wie'-"them’comoceurs with upf-"we can produce 3 merged Form wietug-as in wietuoyuzapr we hold ther Certan verbs of motion and verbs expressing collective action do not use the plural suffix “pr forthe third person plural when expressing an action carried out by a group. These add the prefix a- which merges with intial stems to give & Examples inclu au “they are coming’, ahi they arte, agl they arrive home, éyupke ‘they le dovin say the right (from syugkal, eyuwege they cross over’ from Iyuwegal, émniciye ‘they assemble {from mniciya, perhaps earlier imaniciya) © Stative verb Kuja be tt sing, exclusive plu, Inlusive matyp ‘1 aml nikue ——"youlsingare ul’ nik’uyppi "you (plu are Rue he sh Kup. ‘theyare ll ‘unk ye ‘welexellare ill’ unk'ujaph—_‘We incl are i 4.1.2. Class 11 verbs. This class, which involves mainly, but not exclusively, verbs of active meaning, ineludes stems in initial y= where the Ist and 2nd persons show Bl-and =f In these verbs the y= element may be initial or preceded by other prefs. Examples Wt tial y yuza ole? sing, exclusive plur, inclusive blaze hold luxe ‘you sing) ok uzapt_—— ‘You (pl) hold” ye “he holds yuzapi ‘they bo Unyuze —“Wwelexe) hol” inyuzaph "we ine okt With non-inital > ayuta ook at sing, exclusive plur, inclusive abluta ook at alta ‘yo alutapi "You plu ook at ayula ‘he looks at” ayutapt ‘they look at ‘upkayuta —‘Welexel look at” —_unkayutapl ‘we (ine look at” ‘Obpct preives precede the subject prefixes in the normal way giving such forms as mayuze The hokis me’, myuze ‘he holds you, wic'abluze | hold them, emayuta “he looks at me’ awicabluta' ook at ther. With the 2d person forms, fa Ist person patient i involved, 2 Complex type of form involving two separate realizations of the 2nd person marker occurs fing forms such as mayaluze'you hold me, ugyaluzap'you bold us linc, amayaluta ‘you Took at met and upkayaluta pi'you lok at us ine. Lakota a 4.1.3. Class 111 verbs. ‘This clas which involve mainly, but net exelvsvely, verbs of stative meaning, ineludes stems in trial y= where the Ist and 2nd persons show rm and n= In these verbs also the y~element may be inital or preceded by other preaes. Examples With inital 9 yak ‘st sing, exclusive plus inclusive mayest napke ——Yousit nagkapt ‘You lr! st? yanke Thesis yaplap! they si” Uunyanke ‘We leel sit Uoyankapt Wwe nel si” With non-intialysyupka he, sleep ‘sing, exclusive plur, inclusive imujke Te munke oud be inunsaph “you plu ie rune he les yunkapl ‘they te uupkiyunke ‘we (exel he upktvupkapt ‘weline het As with Class IT above, object prefixes precede the subject prefixes in the normal way, although they are rarer as these verbs are mostly of state meaning. However because of ‘the fact that Lakota often encodes the object o! a postposition in the ver, some eases do ‘ccur such as akan! mayapke ‘he sits on me, ef maye he goes to me’ ob uanivagpy we go ‘with you (put? and akan! mayanapke you st on me’ aap! ctyagke' ait on you, showing the postpostons akapl ‘on "tc. Rey wth and ob th (pan 4.14. Irregular verbs. A number of verbs are Fregular in not falling into one ofthe three ‘man classes exactly, sometimes showing charac erties of more than one elas. ‘These are treated below grouped as far as possible with reference tothe main classes. Only the Ist 2nd and 3rd singular and Ist inclusive forms are shown Fr brevity. 4.1.4.1. Sub types of Class III. A number of vets resemble Cass 11 in having ae as realizations of It and 2 persons, but show a vowel inal rather than y~ These include up use mistnme 1 step nag you sng) use’ ——rastine "you sng sleep! ua he uses ‘Buome ‘he sleep ugk'unpt —‘Weltne use’ upkatiomapi "we (ne sleep ‘The vere ups smoke a ip of ths ype, bu ermal ccs na compo oman Eagnugmunps Cagnugnugps "you sing) smoke anounpa “he smokes annunk'uppapt "we linl smoke! ‘The verbs cup do! and ec "Hink’ and derivatives ofboth ofthese suffix rather than affix sothe ofthe person markers: ecamuy To ecanm “I think ecanun You ing) de eam) you Ging thank” en The does ein the think ec'upk'unpl we line ‘upkecinph ‘we inl think2 Lakoww [Ako awacianm(/avactp/awavokectnp ‘nk about, he‘agmi/hecia/heupkeeapt think that wacgmi/wacin/upwac'ines ‘intra 44142. Other irregular verbs. ‘The vetb igyanka/e ‘run’ shows the prefixes of Class | and prefixes resembling those of Clas I watmnagke ‘trun! yainagke ‘you (sing) run! Inyanke —heruns uupkioyankapi ‘we GneD run" “The verb yuta eat shows the prefixes of Clss | an the’ and ‘you forms ane y= forthe Sa person characterises of Class LT and 1 wate eat vate ‘you ing! eat” yore he ets Unyutaph —‘welineD eat The verb eya ‘say’ and ts derivatives heya say that, leya ‘say this’ and the verb hip ‘come fut are. aly iregular showing thelr own specific infies for '' and you! while showing athe Sed person. Hivu show pref es of the Clas 1 type in adios ope say wat ‘comeout che ‘you sing) say’ yahlly "you (sng) come out” eye whe says byw “he comes out ‘pkeyapl ‘We ine say ‘uohiyupi —‘welinel core out" 4.15. The imperative. The imperative s formed inthe same way with ll verbs, ‘There are ‘Suffixes marking singular and plural with forms appropriate to male and female speakers. ‘The following scherme shows these with the verb inn hurey ale speaker female speaker singular inahni yo inahniye plural nahi po Inahp ye, span pe “The negative suffix Sn, when involved, precedes them, asin the following forms for ‘do not hurry? male speaker female speaker singular nahn snl yo nani sn ye plural inahnisni po Iaip sl ye [Note that wth verbs with stems 4 final -u un or “othe form ofthe suffixes is wo and ~ wweas in ku Wo ve hin? (mate's we give hint (erate 42. Yaleney ‘The verb shows prefixes and suffixes which mark the valency of the verb te. the type and felationship of the arguments assotated with ‘The arguments Include ‘gent "patlent ‘possessor and ‘instigator and notions such as eflexve,"eciproca, "benef active, causative nd ‘ditransitive. Verbs are specialised very often for animate vs inanimate agents and patients Thus verbs which are marked as reflexive such as a8kiskifya become confused’ Ean only be used with an animate agent. So this verb for instance can only mean 's person Lakota 2B bbecames confused’. On the other hand certain verbs ean enly have an inanimate agent‘ Sieh as osni‘become color aisha become complicated which can only refer {oi Le ‘the weather’ or "the worli” ot "it" te. "the problem, the matte’ Similarly verbs with the dative and benofactive prefixes kor kict-mearing or, forthe sake of can only have an animate patient. So kiciyuwor ania ‘straighten for" can only mean ‘straighten for someone find never ‘or something. ‘The various valency possbiiles are illustrated in the following: 42.1. Reflexive. For Class | verbs the prefix ic1- occurs as with the verb gnayan deceive micignaye ‘I decetve myself" hiigraye "you deeawve yourselP agp "you deceive yourselves ieignaye “he deceives humsel™ ieignayanpl "they deceve themselves uunkicignaye "we (xe) decenve ourselves’ unkiegnayanpl Wwe linel deceive ourselves Verbs which infix the personal pronouns such as pte hi’ Would infix the ~ic}-segment as In aig’ ‘he hits himsel’ amicipie' hit myself, anuep' ‘you hit yoursell’ augkic pps tinkakicip'ap'we bat ourselves. Class 11 verbs and occasionally verbs withthe instrumental pfx ka-show a marker sigh, Thus the verb yuza hoe’ yieks the form iluza "bold onesel” and kaska bind’ yieks (laste as Follows rmighize ‘1 old mysel? righize "you hold yoursel”—nigapi “you hold yourselves ‘pluze Theholds hinsel” —igluzaph “they hold therrselves Uokigluze ‘we (eel hold ourselves Ukighuzap! ‘we ne hold ourselves’ rmiglaska 1 bind mysell niglska ‘you bind yourse”—niglakap! ‘you bind yourselves folaska —‘hebindshimsel” —_ighshaph unkiglaska ‘We (sel bind ourselves ‘okiglaiap! ‘we ine bind ourselves “Thay bind themeelves Verbs with the instrumental prefbe pa- show prefix skp- so that patitan ‘push’ gives ‘mikpatitag "push mysel", nikpstcay ‘you push yoursll ikpaitan he pushes himsel Uipkikpaitanpy we push ourselves 42.2. Reciprocal. The reciprocal form is used oaly with plural agents, 1t involves a prefix kl which fuses with the 2nd person prefix yao form eer Examples are Uunkietgnayanpi yéeignayanpl Eicignayanp! “we deceive each other ‘you deceive each other “They deceive each ofher Wao'unkiciyankapl ‘we see each athe? Wwanyecyankapi "you se each olher Wwankielyankapt ‘they seeeach oer 423, Dative and benefactive. ‘Two prefixes ki-and kieprodce these forms. The f tndicates an indirect objet and may’ or may not indicate an action to the benefit of the Berson involve, the second indicates an action performed forthe benefit of oF in place of Shother parteipant. ‘The prefix kici very similar tothe reciprocal marker kic except4 Lakota for its characteristic stress and in some eases verbs showing these two are almost indistinguishable in form. ‘The prefix ki alo homoponous with the possessive prelix ki mentioned below under 4.2.4, "These prefixes may in some cases merge with the agent Imatking prefixes war ya~'you' andthe patent marking prefix mame’ producing iia Sllable stress in some forms, Also the kicf- element mey appear a8 cf- in fronting environments as shown below Dative foyaka tell) Benefactive kciystan inish for) cowakiyake ‘tell! ‘wéetyusiag 1 finish for bie foyakivake ‘you Ging) tell to! yéewyustay ‘you [sng finish for him” okiyake ‘he tells ot Ktyustan ‘he finishes him! Tugkokiyakapi ‘Wwe ine) tell to! unkiiyustanpl ‘We ne finish for hint Here the verb okiyaka ‘tel? shows no mergers, whereas Klciyustap ‘finish for’ dees, More ‘complex forms of the later Inclide myeeilustan you finish for me’, uayeciustaopy "you Finish for us wicayeciyustag/wie'ayeclusta "you finish for them. Some dative verb forms also show these mergers as with kic® ‘invite, summon” wweeto site! yee ‘yi sing) invite’ yop! “you plu) ante hice he invites! Kicopt ‘they anvte’ tupkleo —‘Welexcll invite” unkieopi_—_‘we (ine nvite’ Also mic’ "he lovites me’, ne‘ "he invites you miye‘o ‘you invite me’. a some cases the iki prefix merges sith a following K- inital stem as with kieaga ‘make for’ from kag “make, which produces micage he makes for me, nicagehe makes for you, miyecage you make for me, cieape'l make for you “The verb okivaks shown above, being from oyaka ‘relate, tell and afew other verbs Gerived from Initial y~stems may also show forms with both Class | and Class 11 prefixes Indicating 1st and 2nd persons as in owakiblske"l tell to! and oyakilke you tll to. More Complen forms. inelide onieiyake ‘he says to you, upkontelyakap! ‘we tell you’ ‘omayakiyake/omayakilake ‘you tell me, unkoyakiyakap/upkoyakilakapt ‘you tell vs lugkowictugyakapr oF unkewicayakapr‘we (el them’ 424, Posessive. Verbs ray Indicate posession ofthe typically inanimate patent ofthe verb by ts animate agent. ‘Ths marked by a prefix ki-or with Cass I verbs gh. The mergers mentioned above with dative and benefactive forms are also sornctimes seen with the possessive usage. Examples: logerun boy? (yopeya ‘set opewakitug ‘I buy myown! — iyoplewakiye ‘I sell my own? opeyakituy "You Buy your own’ iyop'eyakiye "you sel your own! opekitun ‘he buys for himself” sjopekive“hesells is own’ (yvza ole) (oyuspa ‘rasp raglsze ‘1 hold my owe’ owagluspe I grasp my own Yaghize ‘you old your own’ oyagluspe ‘you grasp your own’ shure ‘heholds his own’ opluspe “he grasps his own’ (Other examples include akiro/awet’ "have a birth mark, tattoo, gluha/wagiuha "have one's ‘own, gluta/wagluta "eat ones own, iyekiya/lyewakive ind one's own, recognize’ or ‘sed ‘one's ov, nagivekiva/nagivewakiye Yernpt one's own (relative, okile/owakile ‘seek one's Lakota as 425, Ditranstive/reciprocal. A pref i, po tobe confused with 7 the reflexive marker, denotes one of two things either that an animate agent performs an action with one, usualy inanimate, patieat invlving i with another or that two inanimate arguments are involved together, usualy asa result of an action of the fist type By an animate agent. The prefix fet always precedes the verb stem even if the personal pronoun prefles are infixed as Show below sitransitive Uiopreya’se) ictyopewaye "exchange for th} retiyopeyaye you eng) exchange fr th reiyop'eye The exchanges for is? leyopeunyanp! ‘we linc! exchange for (sth reciprocal ieWovake be connected with (hl be connected together" ‘eleakinza “creak by rubbing together" Examples include fe'jeaska 'be tied 10 fe'R'oyaka/e “be connected with’ Ieiyop'eyaAettyopewaye ‘exchange (sh for ‘sth’, ie Koyagya/Ie Kovagwaye ‘connect (sth) with (thi, ie‘nwapyanka/re"wapblake ‘compare (Sth) with (sth? (wanyaka ‘see feleabu/ictakahy ‘mx th) with (th, i teagnug/ie wakagrag "tangle th) up with (th, Jeteafaphapa rustle agunst each other of blades 3 gras. 426, Causative. The causative Funetion indicate by the suffixes -pa and “Kiva which are preceded by the personal peanoun prefixes. There seems to be no consistent difference in ‘meaning of co-eceurrence bettveen these two except that “kya oceurs with animate patients more than with inanimate patients and more aften has the element of volition in the Instigator and is used with verbs of active meanirg as n ugspek‘ya ‘each, ecunk Wa case to do, ioyangk ya ‘eause to run operate, organi>, while -ya can be used more often with stative verbs such as sabya‘ause tobe black lula ‘cause tobe red, i's ‘ease to gro tals, bring up’ okahnifya ‘cause to understand, sbaygya cause to perish, destroy. The suffi -Kija ean als sornetimes ake the meaning of ‘allow’ asin yuhakiya allow to have uigk'ya‘allow to wear The sufix ya may take ihe extended meaning ‘conser aor have a particularly with kinship terms as in ateya ‘consider as a father, have as father. A ossesive causative is formed by a combination of =ya and Kas “kia Examples (yuha ‘have takin recover yuhawak'iye ‘cause to have akisniwaye ‘I cure Yuhayak’ive ‘you sng) cause to have’ skisiyaye "you sng) cure" Yuhak'ye ‘he causes to have akisniye ‘he cures uhauoK'yapl ‘we inl case to have’ akisibgyanp we Gne cute More complex forms include yuhamayak'ye'you (sng cause me to have’, may uhankyaph they cause you fing! to have met, nvuhamat ie “he eases me to have you (ang, snluiyanptwe eure you, antunyayapr you cue Us, daiciye' cure you Forms combining the cavsatve aut xy 2th the posse sft -klso occur as sn sabkya blacken one ov, ebkiva eat up ones on26 Lakota 43. Instrumental prefixes ‘The instrumental prefixes fndieate the manner in which an action is carried out, “They tnchade ka-by striking of chopping. pa-"by pushing or slow sustained pressure, na-"by the foot or, with inanimate things, offs own accord, yu~"by the hand, Dy wisting or general ‘causative ya-by the mouth, teeth or by speaking”, wa-‘by euting as with a blade, wo~'by Shooting or punching 88 with a pointed instrument. OF these pwr ka. yu~ and ya~ follow the personal pronour prefixes, while nz, wa-and wo precede them. With the verb in ya fn yu this Only applies tothe prefix upik= we’ since the pronouns for I’ and 'you" merge ‘vith the y-as shown above under 41.2. Class 11 verbs. Examples ae the following baste stem 1 form asa ‘chop off vwakaksa paksa break off by pressure’ wapaksa raksa break off by stamping on? nawaksa Waka 'eut off with a kaif’ ‘wawalsa (2nd sing. wayaksa wokse ‘break off by shooting’ wowaksa yukse wis off by the hand! ———Bluksa vaksa ‘bite off laksa “The prefix ka- often occurs to indicate rapid motion or natural phenomena as in Ksslog tyaya/e' accelerated away, kaska jyaya/e'Nt cleared up’ (weather, kawagkal iyaya/e't few ‘Upwards Although not freely productive these prefixes are often used in words for new ‘concepts such as paceeca ‘operate by pushing’ as of 3 flashlight, yulleturn on as of alight The prefix yu- often passes into the meaning of a general causative asin yuwaste ‘make gor improve, puotr*make more, mulip\, yurokecs take different, change. 44, Locative prefixes {set of prefiies occurs which can be thought to be originally of loeative meaning. These fare o-iny aon? and i"beste, of which fas the more frequent meaning of ‘by means of, ‘with, im absoiation with. The suffix a-ako often acquires more abstract meanings such as in addition to. tothe detriment of afr 2 purpose. AS examples one has yuslohan drag along’ and ayusfohag ‘rag slong on, (le and of live i, waste be goo waste goat by means of, benefit from. owaste'be good i, fel wel, ragka/e"be big. of anka/e'be big In, be wide, oes "be small i, be naetOW,aagka"be bigger than’ akaga Yo in addition to, add 10, acelya Taten fora purpose Verbs with the prefies (by, with and o- ‘i more usally have inanimate patients 0 that words like /vegTaka talk about will usually refer to a thing as in ‘ak about a thing: ‘watuk’a be tied of can only mean ‘be tired ofa thing ‘The prefix a~‘on on the other hand ‘an fake an animate patient an aramagajuit rained on me’ ‘A prefix k's often combining With o- and 4-to give ok'- and ak'r, Is associated swith the meaning of action fram (wo sides into the middle or cuting tn ha asin Kiwaksa ‘cut in hal okfeaa tighten a knot okicaska "wea knot in, o€ Yo unite, join together’ ‘ok isapa'be black surrounded by white’ (as of a bare patch surrounded by snow. When ‘combined with o- it can also have the meaning of dividing in half or cutting down the ‘mide as io oF Yeas ‘eatin two, ok'jata'be Forked’ okinablza'be burst open, of inahlecs ‘split down the middle, When combined with al produces words meaning tion from to sles often but not exelusively, denoting a reciprocal action such as akTcaska ie two things {ogether,ak'henakeea "be as many as each other, ak'iecteca ‘be the same as each other ak Wyuna “pick up and carry from both oral sides, ak}yuza/e ‘hold from al sides. ‘The ‘meshing ‘each other isn fact confined tothe set of circumstantial stems which are refeced ton Chapter 10. Note also akiyuksa sab int! asin omauppap ki hecela Kiyukse ceyas tezt akimayukse én'she only stabbed into where | was wrapped up, but did not stab into my Stomach’ BO 101 Lakote a ‘The prefix +15 ako very widely used in a varety of abstract Funetions with the meaning of Sssociation of another argument wit the verb not asa direct patent, Dut 3s an ‘poliquely’ involved argument asin feajeyata‘narve because of, aka ‘sur because of, be in want of, f'epa “be fat because of, 10k "ke concerned ‘because of, be worned by’ fanyanka ‘see i relation to, compare with. 1s physical location function ean be seen ih Jecahtaka ‘come in contact with, brush against’ wobtaka "hit agains, collide with, wala ‘Knock against, yap ‘colle with. ‘The complex forms 1y2-and iyo, which may be combinations of Fand a-and 07, ako occur with meanings which ate not Very ciflerent from the orginal meaning of and fas m atigza be tight in, iyorioza be ight in ll up, roto bump against, ayaa, syoyacd ‘Sring beads, thread a needle. In some eases adfference can be pereeived as n akaska Tix straight on os in acagkaska ‘affix wood to, make a fence around, bat syakaska attach to fas ofa tying or rope, 45. The indefinite patient prefix ‘As mentions above al transitive verbs are presumed to have a patient. If no patient trig rel noun acting ak pet erent, presi To hve a Sd ng patient. However some verbs have whi them the concept ofan indefinite patient, 'people fe"things Ths shown bya prefix war, Ths ver such a wakar/wanatame earn, things, money’ cannot take a specie object, but only the general concept of things fexpresed inthe verb sen conrss a verb seh a8 Kamna/atakanmna ea (hl Wl cour Mosentenees Ike mazasks Kanna he ears mone”. Examples incloe Wwaptetun/wdwap'et'ua “buy thing go. shopping. from op‘et'eg, “buy. Wak'uwe/wawat uwa ‘hol animtis, go husting” from "themt. ‘The form ofthe Ist person prefs basically mand that ofthe 2nd person fir However the vowel merges vith the inital occurring n some postpstitions, a in Imiclyela« untie'yela ‘neat to me, while ay ghde is inerposed between the +1 of the prefix and inital a and o- vowels asin navopeyapi« n-opeya-pin company with you (piur, mwyak'an< n-akanl'on me’. The posipositons concerned include egna ‘among ogna ‘through, by way 0 opeya‘in company wih’ anda those showing the prefix they takea Lakota ‘an animate objet. Note that the Ist plral prefix upik™ occurs without st attendant pi Suffix to mean Wwe mnelusve or exclusive Examples include mic yea ‘near to me, wic'egna “among them, mihakab ‘behind me, uakogna ‘by way of us, wiciyohag ‘among them’ _miyotiomn ‘around me. nxyopeyaps sn eompany with you ipur?, misak’i "beside me! ‘matokab'in ront of me muyakag!"on me’, miyohlatunder me’ ‘A huimber of the baste postposttions denoting very fundamental locative and Airectional meanings ray also show their objet by'a patlent marking prefix on the accompanying verb. This usually only happens with verbs of movement and physical akutude ie ya/ble 0 lgyanka/wvalranake'run,sotaka/iblotake' si, omant/omavwan ‘alk, travel and nayiy/nawajig stan’. ‘The pastpositons concerned are kic with fof ane person, ‘ob with (of more than one person ekta Yo, akag! ‘on ‘in’ and mahel "in. Examples are {ee mau "he Was vith me, ob niupp'tey were with you [put akapt mayapke "he sit on ‘me, kta mauprthey came to me, ef mah! ‘they arived near me kic' upntuppr kte"Wwe willbe wath you: ekta es te"T will came to you’ Note that ob which only takes plural labpet, does ot always show its object in the verb asin ob tyaye “he went away with them See ako 4.6.2 for a parallel placing ofthe prefix with the plain stem With the tems shovtn, the above isthe preferred construction. Wit certain others, however, both constructions are used in parallel as in wc'k'yeln upp, ikvela wicaunpy they are near to them, wieohan 1yaye, ohag 1wi'ayaye “he went among ther’ BG 273-6, egna Wicawanpaye wie'tyegna wahpaye ‘| am lying among them’ Pu 17. Items like olomn, ohomni around’ snd yuha ‘with’ mentioned above, which are transitional between verbal 8nd posipsitional status when marking their object with a prefs, show the more typeally ‘Verbal prefix ma~ for Ist singular 35 mn omafiomn! Wave, aomahomns ivaye he is going round mead maya osnani he eaveling with me’ Pu 164 ‘The posipesttion etanhag vs diosyncratie i Its behaviour sn that A takes the verbal refines ma- and ni-to refer to a referent, which is not the objet af the postpestion as 19 Wanbi emstaghay am from Wambit, Wand enitanhag "you are from Wambit. For this reason it is possible to regard it as being partially a verb. However its use with the Independent personal pronouns is unlike most verbs as in mive etaghag from me “The above should not be regarded as an exhaustive account of the postpositions, since Lakota provides the possibilty of using the plain stem in a way Which makes it very similar {a postpostion, especially when the prefixes and a-are present. A more detailed account ss goven in Pustet (2000), especialy as cegards the marking of the object. Lakota 8 7. Adverbs ‘Adverbs are an important word clas in Lakota witha very wide aplication. ‘There are 1wo types of adverb, primitive and detved, Primulive adverbs are words of adverbial function, which cannot be derived from verbs, Derived adverbs of general manner mesning are derived mainly from verbal stems, but in some cases also from nominal stems either bythe addition ofthe suffines -ya -ye-yelsor-yakel aso kiya, stand Kel or by the use of the plain stem, ether ants truncated or non truncated form. ‘The sulfies "ya and -yakel show the variants yan and -yapkelm nasal environments, The form wih “ya, “yea ls ten Used in places where English would uve adjectives (ee below 7.10) "The plan stem ean also occur in places where it qualifies a verb and as such resembles an adverb. However heres in fact a subordinated verb and ls more akin to 3 Paricple. For more deal on ths point see 46.2. Pain stem usages and 122.1. Plain stern embedding. Nevertheless illustrative examples will be given here. Note that many time phrases in Lakota ate not adverbs, but embedded sentences such as hago ki when i morning inthe morning wetu kup hehap when wt was sprig, st spring” Adverts of location are formed from words denoting locations by the suffises ta and -takiya the fist for location at the second for direction towards, The intensive suffixes $ and “h commonly occur with adverbs as in tavas at all, héc‘ee thus’ apni ‘already, oeyas Tust, before’, hecehet chee" "hus, sgyeh« sogyastronly, severely ‘There is no specific place for the aiverb in the sentence, thogh wil often precede e verb, which will usualy be in final postion as with sant enayag and mak opya bel ect! Lakota ki Mais opaya mnt muyag_urpi BO 106 SoLakota Top Missouri along water buzting cone Par ‘othe Lakotaseame along the Missouri splahing through the water take wag mak’opoya fasugg u BD something one dust cloudingly gallop come ‘Something came galloping ina loud of ust" TLL Primitive adverbs ‘These include many time an plae adverbial sue as ‘taya ‘entirely, atayas‘at al, ec, cece “habitially, constantly’ ecela‘nly’, ehaokec uy ‘definitely’, anita ‘quietly’, Kaabeya ‘in all dvections. kaiyuceya 'a way Of, k'yela Kagyela ‘nearby’, Kitapla ‘a little, somewhat, barely’, lla ‘very, very much, energetically’ Yaheng ‘on this sie’, takomat ‘definitely, obligatory taayan "vel, (éhay Tar away’ toksa ‘soon, in good tne, ungnafela ‘suddenly, upenayehet ‘possibly, wana now, wapeag straight away, med 7.2. Manner adverbs formed with -ja,-ve -ran ~ielt “ya ahectelya Tail, middling’, anwayels quiet, ak’oketk1ya ‘nthe opposite direction amasteya ‘warmly, anshimeya secretly. aayele‘enltely’, awlcakeya ‘uly, realy ‘coya lacking. inbyagsya Stern’, feahlagya in touch with, wieuava («tev ‘Sincerely’ inafimeya ‘seretly,iuyain vain, -Labya inthe form of katigyeya ‘dietly. mak'apbya in a loud of dust, rapiyunya ‘contcolling’ dousya"watraly’ ohiupkoya “quickly, mp'igcaskaya “together, pinty,scaya "ual siya poorly \weetehedly, waipavetiya “improperly. waokatuya high up, wasagya ‘strongly wasteya ‘well, wioyeya ‘ready, witeya Together, as a group, woe'et upglaya ‘marvellouly, miraculously. ye eiogye“tiferenly,dversely, rogye‘inadfferent way’“ Lakota vag Note that many of these involve the negative suffix ~sn# ectipsntyan ‘thoughtless’, fecunpteasniyan impossibly, glakigyag Wransversely, hohopeesniyay‘imnovably, tnafiniyan ‘quickly, hurrediy’ st'ac'agyag ‘in a chiefly manner’, 1yec'ecasniyan ‘unfttingly, katigyan ‘directly, kicosm)yan ‘uninvited, kiksuyesniyan‘thoughtlessy, ‘mak'a maniyan ‘on foot, ohionivan ‘always, for ever, okesniyag ‘without spaces sfolyesniyan “unknowingly. sniyag coldly, ok-asniyan "unconcerned, Vapisriyan ‘invisibly, waektasniyan ‘improperly’, wak'agyan ‘in a sacred manner’ wwapteogt'ugyag ‘miraculously, yasupisnijag legally, yuasnpieasmyag ineurably’ yuk esniyap being without, lacking, yuonihagyay with al due ceremony’. xyelahaakabyela'supertically’, mugyela“nummingly’ (as of people talking excitedly ‘gluhuruelyela modesty. kinsyela‘whizzingl’ fot rain, bullets, mahetuya ‘deeply povels misty’, skayela‘whutely, siyela whizzing lo rain, bullets, royela‘luey ‘watagyela ‘easily, cheaply’ -yakel sagyakel'strongly, steady’, wapltogyakel miraculously. -yagkel stacagyapkel'n a chefly manner’ 7.3. Manner adverbs formed with “kel ‘nahikel quickly’, Hagel very, nahmakel secretly 7.4, Manner adverbs formed with kya itactankiva in a chilly manner. nunpakiya In wo ways, otakWain many ways! 7S. Manner adverbs formed with “se ‘atay se Silently, motionless, fase s'secretly, winupicala sein the manner of Sn old woman’ wotoka se immovably 176. Other forms Some adverbs, which may or may not be relatable to verbal stems, do not show any of the above affises and are not formed from the plain stem. Examples ‘vvieakchan ‘uly, really, ec'ann ‘soe, ehazni long ago iaahmeyahag ‘secretly’, iwastela. twastepa,wastlaier sow, easily, Kohag ‘Taeanwhile,le‘ala‘ooent palmala ‘secretly, Cankal ‘ouside, Caan ‘already, Yoeyas Tit, before, rohan, {unwen! ‘never, uognahensna ‘occasionally’, waokal "high up. ‘The ites ec'anat ‘soon, chan Tong ago, Kobao ‘meanshil’ tShagni and tigwent “never are derived ‘ror the elreurstantisl stern “hag 77. Locational adverbs with -a, takiva These ean refer Colocation in space of ime. ‘Space. clokata ‘in the middle, hec‘etkya ‘in that direction hektakiya ‘backward! ‘hocokata inthe camp cite’, heya inthe mountains away, tokagata ‘in the sot, ‘Kang! Wicssata'tn the land ofthe Crows, mahpyata ‘in heaven in the sky’, mak ata the earth’ Mnizasetakiva "Yowards the Missurt, fahenakiva inthis direction, Fiyata'at heme, ¢iatakiye towards home, sazyata in the north, wiyohWyagpata the east, wivolpevata'in the west, warivatakiya'northwards. ‘Time and space: hékta ‘behind, in the pas, ohapketa Tinally, Cahenakiya in this Airction. since then oka ‘ahead nthe Fre 7.8, Plain stem usages resembling adverbs Full form ‘chake nally, inabin ‘quickly, hurrledy’, ina ni earlessly’, 1tok's sn nconcernedly whistling’ Truncated ‘hee "Vike this hel there’ hehan! "ther, fea tehanyag “equally with each othe’ Jeteawinh ‘eosswise, igvang ‘running, kateb agonal’, inil'akmost’. lehanyaug a away, ina foreign lan (possibly fom the clrcumstantial stems “hapyan Extent ‘manil'on. the praine, away from camp’, navag ‘galloping’ pala standing upright, tdbugwel ‘sometime, waipawe "improperly, wari! acking, without.” wosla! ‘standing upright, yupsi jumpin 7.9. Complex phrase adverbs ‘Some adverbs involve prasts or embedded sentences followed by the sufi -ya, Examples Ccapte wasteya ‘well inthe heart, happily, ‘ante kicuoyan ‘sincerely’, sungmanitu ‘yasmigyan "with wolves goawing at one’s bones fas when killed in battle, /oegte ‘yapaya BT 105 ‘withthe heart beating, yintegaps syececasniyay‘unbreakably’ an ‘yuwegapt iyec‘ecaniyan Lagap! BT 346 the? made i unbreakably, to be unbreakable 70. A note on adverb usage Adverbs in -ya-yelaare often used ina eonstructen with the existential verbs “han/he oF ~ yapka/e be iva place’ to desribe an object. ete they ae, in termes of Usage, equivalent 10 English adjectives. This s particularly common wih eolour expressions. Examples are Data Ki wagkatuya he the mountain stands highly” ve "the mountain was high, taku ‘wap skayelshe'sornething stood whitly’ te "ihre was something white ther, enana taku Keya sopsabya hiyeya ‘Usings were scattered blackly here and there’ ve. "there ‘were black things scattered here and there’ Del 228, mak’opioya he ‘dust cloudy i Stood! te there was. clot of dus Adverbs ean also occur with nouns asin taku wapkatuya ‘something high vp te. "important, Cpr ipasotkaya "house high up’ se. "a conspicuous, tall house’ It may be that the true Interpretation of these phrases i that a verb has been omited so that they are derivable from “a ouse (tanding) high up"46 Lakota 8. Conyunetions “Two types of conjunetion can be distinguished: conppining and subordinating. ‘The Fits type spins main sentences together, while the second ype comes atthe end of a subordinate clause and joins ito following main clause. Certain types of subordination are aso signaled by the tople marker ki/k'up see 122. Complex sentence). Generally in Lakota main clauses are always joined to each other by a conjunction, However there is sore difficulty in some cases In deciding whether 2 conjuction fs a conpiner of a subordinator. Fr instance in the passage ‘igh ecu Sn ea, moh’ any ocic'v kte BT 387 ‘although my deeds are not very useful, | willed you one of my deeds ‘The two main parts are ined by esa after which there i a slight pause, we put a comma to mark the pause and treat the whole as one sentence, e&a is treated as a subordinator with adversative meaning equivalent to although. However, even with the pause, we could treat both halves as main clauses and regard eS2 as an adversative conjoiner equivalent to ‘pevertheles 1 have taken the Fist course i the description, but feel thatthe division fs aot as plain as in many languages. This also true inthe case of casa connections between Sentences as mentioned below. 8.1. Conjoining conjunctions CCornmnon conppning conjunctions and conjoming phrases are ‘ca, canke so, consequently’, he Ug, he up etaphag “or that reason’, héc‘eca es, ‘necacUng in spite of it being thus, nevertheless, héeca un, él ug because It Was thus, therefore, ho iho, hot'so, then, 100, 1708s, then, ohay ‘meanwhile, keyas, ‘eas "bat. na ‘and nakug ‘alee, ska however tuk'a, tk’ "but, yupk’ag “then, Subsequently” Combinations accu such a3 ho co, consequenty, ho yupk’ag so {then ho ey@3 hot ejas'so ut. Certain adverbs are also used 10 join seniences such 238 heee thus so, hehan! "then, at that time, chanketa inal, wana ‘now. Lakota has two constructions used to lik sentences with a causal elation, corresponding to English ‘because’. Both of these resemble coninings rather than subordination, since the ‘avs sentence follows, whereas in Lakota a subordinate elause would normally precede. In Lakota the two elements ie "beeause’ and cagke, cf he ug he up cla hece's, because of this therefore’ are used ether alone or in combination, Consider the following examples 1 taku kite wasteyelaiyacu kt. 3 he up cleat yet DIF something Top this peacefully you-take Fut so thet for! you-bring ‘yu wil fake this thing pescefly.so therefore [have brought it to you! 2 tuktel eupparpi —tanin sai ca nece BH 296 where put-Phir be pain Neg so therefore "pecause I donot know where they have put him 3B wak‘agyep way rok tun-pi et llaceye ein kelp child one first bearPlur Top thivin much ery because be hungry be ug Stet ‘Top that for "when a eb ist born eles much Because is hung 4 Wasieuya na Lak‘otiya——owapicin-pt ey han wak aayeps "ye declarative sentence particle. For this and other particles of similar funetion see LL blow: ‘These eur in the examples below oceasonaly, but wall not be piven a elo, Lakora a English and Lakota write Plur whtrPlor_because now chk tuprpe lena ota aot fe so Stol live'Plur Top these many Lakota speak-Pur at Neg “they wanted to verte iin English and Lakota, because many ofthe children who ve ‘ow do not speak Lakota properly In the above 4. shows only i "becaus' ining thetwo sentences, while I. shows one of the expressions meaning ‘therefore’ Joining ther. Sentence 3. shows ig ining two sentences, ‘while Ki he uy Tor tis reason” comes athe end of Ihe whole construction. Finally in 2 the Sentence isn olaton, but shovs c's hece'Tor that reason’ at the end. Sentences which end With eapke, che un, he ug, 4 hece and the lke see to imply a further element such 3s Dect‘ thus’ 1e. c's he up hee eeu it Is for this reason tha is thus. ‘These different types of construction seem to be freely variable with no difference in meaning. It i however aifficut to decide whether they should be regarded as subordinations or ceonpnings. 8.2, Subordinating conjunctions Subordinating conjunctions intreduce conditional clauses, time clauses and certain other ‘miscellaneous types. As stated earlier the task of distinguishing a structure consisting of ‘main plus subordinate clause from one of two cenjpined main clauses i not as easy tt Lota asi is English, ‘Piss because the suboalinating conjuction type element, wich links the preceding subordinate clase to the folowng main clause, in some cases looks Very similar to a sentence inital adverbal. Thus of the following sentences Ly 2. and 3. are talents oF when they aie we went aay, hie moe arty" tre a then we went away Le toliag wpe uy hehag—upkiyayape when come-plur Top then we-goaway 2 up Kup heap uokivasapr come-plur Top then we-goaway 3 up dehy ukiyayapt come-phar then wegoanay 4 up na hehay——_ugkiyayapr come-plur and then wego away All four ofthe above are functionally the same ane funetion more hike wher they arrived, ‘we went away’ Note also that, not being primarily a wetten language, the subordination or lack of is not made clear by punctuation as ft wculd be in English This is partly de 10 the fact that hehag is both an adverb meaning ‘then’ and also a component of the subordinating element £'un hehan the equivalent of whe 8.2.1. Conditional clauses, Conditional elauses can 2e formed withthe tope marker ki/'p asshown in 12.142. Conditional clauses formed vith ki/k up. They are also Formed sath the conditional parteles ehaotans ‘fn open condita and ygkans, jugs kay, ke IP In counterfactual conditions Counteractval conditional sentences often show the irealls particle k'2 in the main clause and may then show one of the open eordtional partiles, The irrealis marker Ra ray be preceded by the Ture matker “Kta/e ‘Open conuiions Beye \wéglaka-p cia hhaytaghans ecug:ptBO 120 SeiFoc — speuk-Phiwish-Phr o-Plur “ifthey themselves wish o speak, they do! CCountertactual conditions8 Lakota vwactgka ugk hehagnt Ne ugniktert kta ta Del 249, [with then int we-yotrkiPPlur Fut Ire “AFT had wanted t, we Would have killed ou all ight then’ Iya fakpe prs ygkans ovate ki lehaghugniyag Iyaatiaek come-Plur if people Top tl now teboictnya-higrkta t's Del 5 theenedevour-Cont-Fut “Wf they had not come to attack Lya, he would have devoured al the people by now” 822, Time clauses. ‘These involve subordinating conjunctions, and also time adverbial ‘They distinguish general time, habitual repetitive occurrences, future and past time Conjunetions include the T-words!? tohap ‘when (pat, actual, tohag! ‘when’ Tutur potenta),tohaayan ‘unt i'unhag‘whil, ca‘gna (Sn) whenever, (ehantag since’ and the adverbs han, hehag! and héhan ‘then. eehan! right then, hehaptan ‘since the, hehagyaa “uptill then’ All of these follow the verb ofthe subordinate clause. Examples. Wath conppnetions uwats cana ecale Iekiakiya gt BO 102 someone die wherever straight after) back come Whenever someone dies, smmeditely afterwards he cores back waneun taku ktekta ——_yukeap ieughag. BT 145 row with Gt] what all Fut think while “now while he was thunking what to Kil with vate wie%eaga hagtan Lakota ki witayela—up-p! Del 253, people Col-grow since Lakota Top together. are-Plur ‘since the Lakota people originated, they have lived together? Wath adverts ceeds aiped Accra ZOU andnow dawn right then “assoon abit became dawn.” supkawak'ag Kurpisni hap sola awicapirpt na hehan! horse ve-Plur Neg when before themstrike-Piar and then wick’ p1 BO 10 theen-give-Plor ‘before they gave the horses, they counted coup on them and then they gave ther the horses" Wath conjunctions and adverbs ‘chan! yau kz herhanyan le ‘mapkig kte fo when yourcome-Fut thal thisin sit Put “Twil'stay bere until you arrive” 8.28. Miscellaneous types. ‘These chide the adversative conyunetions yesand sa ‘although and the indirect question marker heci ‘whether. The latter ean occur with the wh~ (questions and statements as well as with the open question, as shown in the fist three examples below, Examples "For further details on the T:-words se 10.1. Lakota “9 otupwaheta yig kta eet ‘yumga-0 BT 367 eny-Loego Fut whether ask-Plu "thay asked him whether he would goto Washington, tokieske wareyin na ectety ‘ec hana okiyake BH 39 somehow Ind-say and be thus whether those tll “he told nim how he bad spoken and how it Fad become true’ toni clante pahlokarpt —woxgtako-pt hoot rena BT 217 Some nurnber chest pierce-Plur Reftspeak-Plur whether those “these many people who had made vow to perform the Sundance, Wwoyule Eup ena tuwa _rebya hecl de omayakilkarps food ‘Top these somebody eat whether that yourme-say-Dat-Plur sak, nitapi Kte fo BH 151 NegTop _yourdie Plur Fut “if you éo not tell me who ate that food, you srl dle hes il yes wahteyaa Sn Kup Del 204 thatlat —_ yourask for although yourike Neg Top ‘although he asked for youn marrage, you did pot hike bir anpeta tone apteph esa hecena te 113 aysome waitPlur although straight away die ‘although they waited some days he soon ded0 Lakota 9. Pronouns Lakota has personal, interrogative and demonstrative pronouns. The later are dealt with under 8.1. The personal an interogative pronouns wil be dealt with bere 9.1 Personal pronouns Lakota has independent and prefised personal pronouns. ‘The Independent pronouns are sed {or emphasis in most cazes, but also preceding some pestpositons as in miye akan!" ypon me. ‘The pronoun system distinguishes nuinber, but fot gender and the first person plursi distinguishes exelusive and inclusive, ‘The exclusive Is dual and refers to speaker and auddresee only, while the inclusive indicates speaker and athers without restriction, whether 2nd or Sed person. The animate plral sux “pr marks plurality tn the 2od and 3rd persons and inclusivity inthe ‘we forms. The personal pronouns are indicated within the verb by pefoes and the suffix -pr(see 41). There are two andependent pronoun sets, of which one fea true pronoun, while the other has something of the characterises of a verb stating the pronoun as predicate. ‘The true pronoun does not show the animate plural marker “pan Thus doesnot striety distinguish phrality/inclasweness. These are shown below. ‘Troe pronoun mis 1 nie ‘you! s he, she, it they’ Gometimes pronounced and writen 19) uks wwe Predicative pronoun sing, exclusive plu, Inclusive mye ‘wer nie ‘ts you ing?” ——niyepl_———it s you ph (ele ‘tishe,she it thenabept ‘its they" upkiye it isus(exell unkiyest ‘tis us(inet? ‘The 3rd person members of the set, eand ept, occur frequently in company with the demonstrate pronouns such as be that and ena these “The difference of these (wo sel les in thei Usage. ‘The true pronoun is used in 2 contrastive Tunetion with other pronouns and often occurs in company with the focus ‘marking particle eya as in mis ey3'I on the other hand? Other examples include nis tok! ‘enielya hwo what did be say to you, nor nis tg how about you) uktel nap! kte ki mis ‘ya hel mahapt Kta wacig ‘where they bury you, | wish them to bury me" B 252. The secquence cya often introduces a new participant as in ciunke a eya Jacob thaksb Heohiya Eupr'so they in turn followed Jacob slowly” BH 32. “The predicative pronoun on the ather hand can oceur asa predicate as in he miye velo" me, he mive ca waht Yelo' is me that has come, wie'ata wag wanlaka yacly Ei he Imiye"l arm the man you wanted to see, Ate mye c'a umasiyelo Father requests me to be the one to come’ and commonly occurs when 2 person tes his name asin Highag Hota he uye'l am Grey Owl, It also ceeurs when wishing to emphasize the personal pronoun, although itis already represented in the verb arin muve waco sn yelo'L dort want i€ and ‘withthe enetic Kal’ as in miye K'o"me too. The 3rd person member occurs more frequently than the ethers and will often be equivaient to the word's, ae’ n English asin Je smi apkst eyelo ‘hiss my ite sister “The use of these two sets is shown by the folowing examples from White Hat (1999 164-5; Duane miye nahag nye unkicepelo Duane invited me and you, Missonte mig ktelo "5 Most ofthe examples tis section are taken from White Hat (1990) expect pp 1645. Lakote st "Vi golng fo Mission, Mis eya Me to, Missionta mnig ktelo. Nis 7" going to Mission. What about you?, Hap, ms eya Yes, ne too, Misiont mao Ktelo''in going to Mission, Miye hok wa rng telo''m gong ishing’ [Note aso the usage us ruyei's upto you, mis miye"Its up to me Further emphatic pronouns are formed with the emphatic suffies fl ha, asin miyes “ine by contrast” and niyes "you by contrast, miyecuiet' at lest’, nivecuhe! you at least, ‘miyeba'l instead, myeha you instead, yeha he stead. Example to miyes ie bla te" onthe other hand, will mary hit if my ster won't BO | 9.2. Interrogative and interrogative-indfinite gronouns There are three interrogative pronouns in Lakota, of which two are in fact imerrogative: Indefinite pronouns. "The snterropativeindefinte pronouns are used in statements with indefnite meaning and in questions with whe meaning. ‘These have been termed T= words by Rood anv Taylor (1976: 3-15 ard passin as they al show an initial t= In most eases they show initia sress. They are shown belo glossed with both the interrogate and indefinite meaning, whete applicable. ‘They are similar tothe non-specific function ofthe non-verbal "ype of the eireumstantial stems described under 0.1. below. Note thatthe tems taku {Wwva would in English often be translated as Thin’ and ‘person, though there s no such istinetion in Lakota, je ‘hat, someting, thing ta sh semen, person A. tukte ‘whiehi a The pronouns tk and twa aso show derived plural and negative forms tkwku things and fwwveph, taveneta ‘persons, peopl, tékun ‘noth, rawen nobody. Examples are piven below showing their use as wh- words of interrogative pronouns on the one hand aid indefinte pronouns on the ther. In thelr whe Tureion they are sed with the interrogaive sentence marker “hwo, -he. Examples Interrogative wh use taku yacin hwo what do you want, tuva twa hwo "who does it belong to?, tukte any yt hwo which one da you want? Indefinite we {aku 21 cistla wanyapke ‘he sav something small and yellow’ BT 16, takuku ote “any things taku kr obluspe'l have eausht the thing, taku kt hu ki Kahughuppt ‘they gashed the thing’s lege’ BO 3, na ake tava Kiet ble ‘and again I eame with someone’ BT 203, lena tuwep: ki caje wicabltig Ke evas.."l would narne these persons, but.” LE 18, punk'ay tuwesteka wana Oglala el macigpr 8 "thea some people did not want me to be among the Osala LE 18, tuweweka ofa anie ppt eyas Yahi sni‘many people wated for you, but yeu di not come, Negative use (akunybiuha sn" bave not got anything, towens wapblake n't didnot se anyone’ \When an open question eon involving the ansve: yes o o noles oe ofthe peau iakwo ua, slightly ferent forms ae often isa mare fakualtaku wanj tuna noge and tae’ 5 tke! yon hot you want siting? tk vay wane hve ih You se semathing, tu ag wana ved yu se scone” "The aoe sees tnvlve in Lakotaa dsinetin between acto aid potential meaning Feleted onder 15.1. below. r ©2 Lakota 10, Circumstantial stems Lakota shows a set of stems, which are basically verbal in nature, occurring in two forms, & fall form and truncated one. They are of wide application inthe language occurring in a umber of different word classes. As a group they involve reference to time, place, quality, rhomber, extent and other areas whlch are less easy to label and correspond to what ave been Called circumstantial by some linguists see Filloore 1994). They occur in thee furetional types connected with a set of preformatives which determine the relationship of the stem to {eres ofthe sentence, These ae (a prefix fo with less frequent form tu; denoting non- Spectfitty, (ll a prefix iye~ denoting function as a relator to 2 noun and lit) the ‘demonstrative pronouns le, he and ka mentioned above denoting specificity. Not all of these Stems show an equally elaborate array of functions, but the system in ¥s ull form can be shown as below: tor yer Nonrspeciic Relational Circumstantial Ste thes le, kas fe Specific “The elements to> spe-and hes Fes kar (e-have the folowing Functions, (al The nonspecife marker to-preduces elements, which in English would have the preformative some! or ‘any’, ether as adverbs, pronouns or as verbs and which in Interragatives can produce wh-questions (b) The relational marker jye~ produces relators which take a noun phrase or ominalzed clement as their anchor and may be either pestpesitions or verbs, (cl The specific markers he Je ka produce either adverbs or verbs involving the Concept of dels. The element ets & generalized demonstrative meaning ‘he/that Storeaid' and is no longer productive. It appears below in a numberof items such as 10.1:32, eeerurhappen thus and 10.1.8. etu’be there’ “The verbs formed from these stems are a specialized typeof statve verb which do not fave the capabilites of forming related words sue as verbal nouns with the prefixes wor and to the same extent that other staive verbs do. ‘The intimate celationship ofthese ites with the relational element fye-and with the dlctic elements he; fe ka-and the fact that they Span the different word clases of verb, adverb and postpastin ina kind of morphological Zonstllation’ (ee Jones 1979 passim) makes tem part ofa specific subset of stems rather than of the generol verbal lexeal stock, Because of their intimate relationship with the demonstrative pronoun se, they are often treated under the heading of demonstrates (see Boas & Deloria 1941, 114-24 and Ingham 1988 passim). Im each of the three main Tunetions of specific, non-specific and relational, the non- truncated stem produces a verb, while the truncated stem produces the more periphery Sentence functions, The periphery funetion of the truneated form of the non-speifie and Specific member 1 for the majority of slems, adverbial However for stem 4. *nakeca, ~ dakea Nomber, the function of the truncated form is glossed here as pronominal, since it ean Stand as an argument of the verb 'so many", It may be however that the English transation ff these forms makes them look more ifferent than they ate, as fona so many’ ean also Lakota 3 smean so many times. Nevertheless I wil simplicity of description, Froo the point of view of syntactic analysis the truneated form appears in subordinate clause position or in positions of adjacency" while nontruneated form appears in main clause position. This means that these pairs are parallel in func to other simular pairs of stems which may be verbal sich as skata/ska'play’ or nominal such 4s c2ote/ean!= "bear. In these the teuncated form occurs when the verb subordin ‘nother verb or when the nau s incorporated into a verbal expression. 1041, Meaning of the stems stems occurring are given below, shoving basi and truncated stems where these occur and noting the most common denominator of their meaning. The truneation in the case of 2, 8and B. involves the consonant changes t+ lard e» T observed in the iruneation process with verbs, asin skata/statplay, hjeca/hle-"tat,kablea/kabel- ‘spit, Variant forms of the stems are alo note, nthe designation of ‘pronoun’ forthe sake of Baste stem. ‘Truncated stem Meaning I - ‘quality occurrence of a problem 2 ‘alt, oeurrence ofa problem 4 “ ake na ‘number 5 shagleca hanya, -bapyela extent & shanty -bupwew “hap -hun "hip time 7 “kyetu Liye Section, undefined lotion Betta ete “hte vel ‘elie location The eyeumsantal stems nthe non spi fn, when shoving the carers of gop of words mentne earl, new in Laka studies Tower eh Cane deere as iergatneint ints: fore are towever ter words Mich ne tot reed as members of the exci grup sce thoy dont sho eter the bs Sh ree foe or the se ag ofr tether ak a Samah, thing tw ae hse oe pr ttre akevhy and uke whe af which fakutuwe and tukteare referred to ere under 92. ne ‘Asan imran of how the syste work ky consider the Stem 2 Kec having retrene toga This evel the following ten avers iokecs “be ke somthing somehow (al Non-Specific = tw Aaved tokel "ike someting somehow! tier fcc “te ke that, be thak i Specie 6 Adverb Ieee the tat has Sse 22. Stem truncation and 1224 Plan stem embod 1 nthe uae nn edt ete stata no ner mae 16 T'ausume under the we of heal tive ofthe prove dest marr ean kar, of which he-is the most general. ® . se4 Lakote aver tyececa “be like, similar to, lc) Relational (a0 Postpasition wyecel ‘ke. silat, Notice here velar fronting of &following -e-to cas in toe ‘somehow, heel "ke this ‘ect! ‘ike, similar to' ete The non-specific iter, the T-word, such 2s tok’! given here, ean in certain Interrogative sentences have the wl function so that foe ean bear the meaning how asin {ole enfelyapi ho how are you called. However the meaning ofthe T-word i somewhat fess simple to define than that of the specific and relational forms when in interrogative SMruetures. This f because, withthe late, the addition of the interrogative elements “hwo and che gives a yesfno question as in hee'eca “he i ike that, fececafhwo ‘she lke that ‘while the T-focm oscufring in en interrogate structure produces a wh question a in {ok ya ivayapr hivo where did they go off to! In contrast, the function of yes/no question ‘with Some” or any: i in Some cases served by an entirely different set of T- forms such as takugl taku wanj Something, anything, tuweliy tua wans someone, anyone, ok yetu ca, tuktetu ca 'somewhere anywhere, thane! ‘sometime, anytime, Ver: “The prefic ye- occurring here can be related tothe locate prefix of instrumental for relational meaning and the generalized demonstrative e= separated by an epenthetle-)~ The locatve pref 1; as is mentioned under 44, relates one entity to another often being translatable as bout when accompanying verbs asin rwvogiaka talk abou, 11 is important tornote that, although the relational funetion imples an item for the relational verb or pestporiton to relate to, there may not always be an NP present in the sentence. In these Eases there will be an understood Std person, her, It, whieh [s always unmarked in Lakota. "These are represented within sare brackets in the gloss as for instance" In certain examples it wil be noticed that Lakota employs a correlational structure in ‘whieh the main ad subordinate clauses each show one of the stem derived elements, Either the first non-specific and the second specific asin the example under 10.15.4.tohapyay, 'Sta yeyapt hehanyan pte au as far as the eve could Se, thus far the buffeloes were coming or the fist non-specific and the second relational as under 10.126. tokaf ecg c'sip Kt iyecel ecun po'ss | have ordered you toda, so shall you do “The basic set of circumstantial ster in thelr three functions is shown below, examples of the usge of each wing 10.1.1, “ka quality, occurrence of a problem. ‘The stem "X's oceurs only in the non specific and specific functions and mainly has verbal function, although specific adverbial funetion oscurs rarely 38 shown in 101.13. 10.1.1, Non specific verb, Generally the non specific fot’ wil mean something is wrong something happens in statements and ‘what 1s rong'n questions. Examples tobe ‘ate ipeya—uppriy ktahe BT'90 something wrong so father leave _we-go-Fut Lntert “how ean Wwe go and leave father bei Here the element fok's combines with the conjunction caso to produce the meaning “how brsometimes why”. Tok ean similarly be combined withthe postposition ug for, because of to mean why, for what reason’ ent ghakinyay raja a, Kutepl esa there Grosswise stand so very shoot-Plur_—_ although Lakote 5 ‘oka sev BT 200 Rel-be the mater-Neg he stood eight tere ess wie an although they shot at ham many times he was uneffected,” mies In this example fok's combined with the elatonal prefix # meaning here "because to ‘mean be someliow beeause of something 1. "be effected by Hiya owekS ———ok’a te sece BT 25 Now lest Something happen-Fut-Poss "No, | hope nothing wil happen pertaps? 301.12. Speie web, The sce stems" hs a or as of hie samples Unmmsaiarbeki nec wag ig fteapta_—_ueyay BOL ‘toriranch Top. bref mis indone by laceaces Saath with oro hae anh he seta er across the ace’ fncs minihaha ata Sie alerinivePiir Top eof thiskind mouterom ‘hiyw BO 109 ° Sake ofthe type which hes in water eame out rom his mouth 10.1.19. Specific adverb. ‘The specific adverb means ‘in ths manner, thus, Examples hhecekcle wick BT 174 thus them-gne-Plur “they gave fo them thus and thus e‘fferent things to different people ‘This form hecekce is one of various eduplicatel oF augmented forms, here showing an clement i. Its probably derivable fromm the altematve form of hee! namely hee thos! hing hea with elsion of -e-prodveing hecekc'e BD gives the folowing relatable forms hec'ecaka ‘such a one’, hecchel just so, he'eke'ea ‘of sul a sort, hee 2ke'e'eka ‘always such, bearing such a character, hec‘ekc‘e'n this manner, ost a8. hec'eke'eked (reduplicated form of heceke'd, heel at alone, oly tha 10.1.2. “a, “Xe! quality, occurrence of a problem. The stems “Ws and “#1 occu in all three functions. Generally takeea hike tok'a above will mean ‘something Is wrong ‘something happens, although fok'eca ean also have the meaning "what Kind” asin he oot fok'eca what colour is if or "what fs wrong with ts solout (Cal 19°11) an he tok he what and is o what is wrong with if The forms foreland tokesk'e cccur In many contents without any disernable difference in meaning With the meaning Taw or ‘somehow. ‘The form fof eSkeke also occurs as shown under 10.1.22. below. 10.1.21, Non specific verb. ‘The non-specific verb has the meaning ‘be somehow, be the ‘matter, e wrong’ in staternents apd “be how in questions, Examples Ineeya hugh tok eca-pi na ‘easkigygyan pt andFee some be the maiterPlur ant rage Phar nate pays piBT 278 and die fallPlar ‘ad some of them were effected and went toa mad rage and fll as though dead56 Lakota waggle thm awicarpic'a Lokeexsol Sing Upiinthem-bring-Plur so be the matter-Neg slinap'apina | KigiepiBT 237 come outPlur and go home-Plur ‘one by one they took them sno the tip then they eame out with nothing the matter vwith them and Went home hte natan aglinajig kel tokece-a _ghbwort BT 15% thus attack ——_they-arrive Top at somehow/Dim he arrwed “so when they arrived at the atack, he arrived coming slowly as one wounded! In the penultimate example fokeea Sn lit ‘there is nothing the matter witli has the meaning of ‘not il, cured and the last example shows a speckalised use ofthe non-specific f fokeca- withthe dimioutie suff la and implies etter sorsething being wrong withthe person Le. "tn sore way’ so that one Would suspoct a Weakness er injury or purely that the event happened slowly. ‘The base form, fok'ca ts that ofthe verb, but I take it here to be adverbial In function, asi cannot occur with the personal pronovn affixes. Notice that both Of these are examples of the non-iruncated stem in a subordinate claus, as referred to in 462. shove, Both of them are, a sense, Trozen forms’ occurring in specie meanings with the suffixes ni and ~ 10.1.22. Non specific adverb. ‘The non specific adverb means ‘somehow’, when In statement and "how' when ina question. Examples are shown gving first the se in Statements and then in interrogate sentences when is wh Functions shown tka kel makocekiistcols but somehow country Top pay without ‘owa-pelo BT 364 fear-Plur "bot they were afraid that somehow they might take the country from them without payment Keyas tok'est'el ake naleipig Del 67 faut somehove (Red) again. frce Ref "but somehow again he freed himeel Whe Funetion| tokerke wiyoptewayin kta hwo Det 106 somehow Tedecetve Fut nterr “how should I decetve him: 10.1.28, Specific verb, The specific verb has the meaning ’be lke this. Examples ‘agpetu eevea—cagna wicks okicizeel up weloBT 156 Gay belikeths when man Daten be “ona day such as this a man would go into battle paunyagrpiki—sloarpi —stle'eca BT 158 and wego-Plur Top know-Plur be as if ‘and it was as though they knew that we were going In the lst sentence le'ece is combined with the suffix -re meaning “ike to give the meaning ‘be as if hevaphay —Supkak'ay— yamnt——akyectcarpt ca thatfrom horse ‘wee Delikeeach other-Phur as, Lakote 37 nocetlungiaya ch seu-pr Del 238 miraculously a ukePhor ‘Trom then on they received miraculously three horses which were identical to each other 10.1.24. Specific adverb. The specific advert has the meaning “in this manner, thus Examples he fe hece! stolwaya BT 249 that this thus I-know ‘this thing | know thus Kahwoke ki keel waft Top thus Tike a thing blown by the wind, thus they ean ho Ike Wieasakiahan Wasicu ki nupig aklleceja 0 Indian Top Whiteman Tep both ike each other ‘niall kta oksh-p sr elo DIF lve the same-Plue-Fot be able Plur Deg So the Indians apd White People cannot lv> both together i the same way ‘The prefex ak‘ which precedes lec‘ey2 gives reciprocal meaning “ke each other, seen alo under 44 Locative Prefises. ‘The suffi -ya an adverb forming sittin Gee 7.2) which s superfluous in ths eae. Also occurring is ak peceketlyakel in abo the same manner as cach othe, 1011.25, Relational verb. ‘The relational verb has the meaning ‘be like, resemble. Examples rapiaki — Sunkawak'ag paki teeta hea ‘es nakpa kt ce and head Top horse head Top be like tnt Dut ear Top in contrast okeca, tuk ha ki ecocaselectca BY 188 be different shell skin Top be ike be as ‘and its head as just hke 9 horses head Lut the eas we ‘though they were lke the surface of a sell" ‘ferent, and it was as eve syececa aceurs again in combination with ses'eca mentioned above meaning seem hhughughe he upc si ‘yecteke'sea yela De 55 ho ‘is Grandma foot be ke (Red! “To this looks ike Grandmas foc Here the redupliated form mecca occurs sth no apparent change of meaning i Deloruis wansition correct However it may imply inteiy te ths realy sume ‘semble ranma’ foo 101.26. Relational postpostion, ‘The relational peatposition has the meaning “ike resembling’. Examples: = tok ceuncaiph kt puch eeuppoBT 191 somehow Gol-youbuhPtur Top the one Pi nas have ortrcd you ods "This interesting passage comes in an account of discovery of the body of a prehistoric animal, probably a mastodon, which hed been uncovered by heavy tin58 cr Lakota cant cela ok kt oct = uwata na powder only lead-Plur Top like shoot and {akunsm BE 210 rotting Neg "T shot like one who had only loaded the gun with powder (e-no balD and nothing Dappened 1.3, *ketu, “cel occurrence. Ths element canbe sen to be cognate with 10.1.2. “keen fe! shown above with te sulfx tu givg punctual o ation sighfieance rather than the state significance of the former. For this reison the non specific adverb function 1, speeific aver function 4, and relational postpositon function 6, served by foe, hecel and wyec'el Showin above under 1012.1, 10.124. and 10.128, could also be said to be part of ths stem, Infact the patting ofthe Fil -t0 with els the mexe likely as it also shown with stem 8 “ktetu and “Kiel, So as 10 avold repetition they will not be shown again here, but in feet fol’ el somehow, hecel ike that and syec'el “ike, similar 10 eould be thought to refer to ther quality or occurrence. 10.1.1. Non specific verb. ‘The non-specific verb has the meaning "happen somehow Examples: hele wecasa kiln wak‘an taku toketu kte that thisman Top very sacred something something happen-Fut clivuha sbolya BT259 Topall| know "this man was very saered, He knew everything that was going to happen’ fomnica kt toktu hwo WW 148 beans Top something happen Intere “ow are the beans? romktuka hwo. something-you-happen marr “how are you, how fit with you? In the example above ret has the reduced form toktuand alo shows a sux ka, which 865 no difference of meaning. This i the normal Way of asking after a person's health 10.182, Specific verb. ‘The specific verb has the meaning "happen ike thi’. Examples: fe hecetu na ovate ki wagyagkarpina ila this happen thus and people Top seePlur and very Woy-pi BT 238 be amazed-Plur “i happoned thus are th people sae it and were amaze tobias waeyio na ecetu eet hena wi'asayatapi ki somehow Ind-say apd happen thus whether those king Top ‘yuba okiyake BH 39 an tel “he related tothe king ll the ways in which he had said things and they had all come true In the lst example and also under 10.1.8. below the form ecetu eceurs which shows the generalized dernonsrativee-referred to above under 10, ‘The forms with e-are difficult to distinguish semantically from these with he Lakota 50 10.133, Relational verb. The relational verb tus the meaning “happen ke, happen 3s Examples tok mtnksi kabel kak’! yume ya would that my-sonthusand us have Juss Say ca wecetu Del 122 $0 happen ike it The side I wish that my son had this and that-and it happened in that way ‘The elements iyecet relational ver, ect and ecetu specific verb abo bear the extended meaning ‘to happen as is right, be correet as ako Joes ivececa above and can also take the ‘meaning ‘must, shoul The flloseing examples strate this meaning Wak'an ag syekiciet st Del 102 sacred deed happen ike it-Ben Neg “his sacred deeds dx not turn outright for him tho otay emacet sot ex BI 392 50 deed Tbe corzect Neg althouzh ‘se although my skill are not perfected. hhehagl ——iyukcap-plkta yet Col 117 ow think-Phir Fut happen ike “now they must think wines a omayani kte c_——_neetu Det 109 man-you So walleyou Fut Top happen thus “you are man soit is ight for you to go ona journey 10.14, “nakeca “nates, “nate, “na number. The feature of mimer specially ‘oentoned in any eases in Lakota whee in Eng ould not be te 8 phrase ike those prc who Would be fended ese mh pce a since te tet ona Seung in these expressions expel refers to ramber, Equal na phrse referring tom mmber of years the element sna Wl e present In wanivent 75 henamakcea 75 those many yeas oi an 10143. blo) In many cas fone can be ranaated simpy as fe Ainumber of asin ona ca 's fe days’ This tl tarking element aso ocers in the Dural demonstrative pronouns hen ths rs kana those yer enone er Eilsabove. ‘The vertal members onskecs an erkeca can in smn ete a funtion the same way asthe pronoun fona, whereas in ers they are quite detiaely verbal 35 shown by the use ofthe verbal pr! Sui =p af the personel pronoun ase at Ist ferson singular, “m2 person an unl at. erson plural, Notes tha forms th akc sch as tnakea are ast spech forms of hte wit nate such as tna 10.1.4.1. Non specific verb. ‘The non specific ver ina statement has the meaning “be of ‘certain number, whale in the interrogative it has the meaning "be how many” Examples ho wana “Toksia ki waniyenu—tonakeca na.BT 27 now boy'Top winter be som: nusne aad 0 now the boy was 3‘certain number of yes old nd eure wan scum tonakeca-ph wasn medicine one take and be som: number-Plar all tweaks BT 249, them give “he took some medicine ae gave some to haw ever many of therm there wereoo Lakota Whe Function azaskayskay——tonakea “hwo clock be some number nterr “what isthe time We have here an example of fonakea as the equivalent of English "now many, since the Ieral meaning ofthe sentence i ‘how many isthe clock, while under 101.42. tona serves that porpose. ‘There i a certain freedom of ehaice between thes two, which often obscures the verbal and pronominal dstinetion, 10.1.42. Non specific pronoun. The non specie pronoun has the meaning some number, several! when used with an accompanying noun or in the place of a noun. In the Interrogetive i will mean ‘how many” Examples hhecel wic'asa—tona waka kt owas eh oman some number bessered-Plur Top _allin aya BT 190 they-g0 “thus those many people who were sired all came there! ton ante pahlokarpi —wolglakarpt hee! ena BT 217 some number chest. piorce-Plur Refirspeak-Plur whether those ‘hose many people who had made a vow to danke the Sundance. oysteeya —tonakiya ppt owas people some somenumber-Loe livePlur Top all oka BT 250 Join up ‘the people who were ing i different areas all ined together Here tona receives the loeative suffix “kiya, which has the meaning of ‘ways, direction’ as shown ako inthe example aspaye yarnnrkiya ‘in three herds under 10.143. below. Wh- Function waniyety —nifona hwo winter you-some number Intere "how old are you 10.1.43, Speeifie verb. The specific verb has the meaning "be this many’, Its used often when a specific number or amount of things is mentioned, Examples ‘ma wanr dean! waruyetu75~ henamakeca BT 198 fand.now this time winter 75.—_-be this many-l ‘and now at this time | ar seventy five years ob cospaye ——yamni-kiya—wicayuharpt eye sleskaska eye herd three-Loe them-have-Plur say Aappied Red) seme erin hinsais hens epi nz hiopahig Remakecarpt BT 98 bePlur and sorrel(Red) those be-Plur and mousy be this many-Plor "they had three types of herd they say-there were dappled and sorrel and mouse coloured, there were those many 10.144, Specifie pronoun. ‘The specific pronoun has the mesning ‘this many’, Its used with an accompanying noun or in place ofa noun, Examples: Lakota 6 taku ale yey cage ef etupwan Something seater heen 50, in he bots yu hhenake het wanawiet Del 10: hen thismany Tn cockelbur Te Scattered something, and when he lokel at Jo there were this many cockleburs Here and inthe next example henake bears the enelitie he giving intensive meaning yunkayfenake het Shopica — yupivelawac'rpila sk Del 19 then thismany-Int alas ely dance-Plur Die Ta ‘and then there were this many'teals who were dancing nicely, ii saa” 10.145. Relational verb. ‘The relational verb has the meaning be as many as.” Examples rnsak’e ——iphagna el ake ecup-pira ake yenakeca and again morning in againdoPlurand—again.be as many ast) aces wicao-piBT 108, probably them-shoot-Phar od gunn the morning ey the same tiga egain prolly they sho the Here the fee translation reflects a pronominal fenetion. If, 38 suppose, the funtion really that of a verb, a more formally accrate at eral translation Would be was robably the same rumba that they shot Nstce that wnder 10.1.4. below the sue Eanitent from the sae text rendered with te rational postgoaiton. Note abo the prefix eecig ine an eres iphing ein sr air ened fer case the unmarked Sed person pronoun so thatthe eral meaning involves the pronoun It a shown in the los ' ° . ‘bahia kt el pahiy——_akiyenagnakeca pillow Top on gull be asian as eachother Red) }uhauokyarplo Del 195 haverus-Cour Phar they aed have lows a whi trons of quill embry nen In the above exemple the prefix ak'- denoting reciprocity i the same as mentioned under ia pe the 3 Feciproclty ‘mok'a——okahwoke ki Je iyenaraeca-p!htel BH 80 earth nfuing Top this _ eas many at-you Fut "you willbe as many asthe sands ofthe dese 10.46. Relational pstposiion, The elm psipton as th mening 8 many amples. ‘na wana yYamni cay wac'rpt ne yen can mat andnow —thveeday”—dance’Plarand as many ast day water yatkanrps sey BT 220, Grink-Plur Neg ‘and now they danced for three days and forthe same number (of days) they di not drink water maak foarma ake ake ena and again thid theyccomeand again a8 many ast) wicaorpt na ag BT 183 them-shoot-Plur and they-go home ‘again they came a third time and again they she the ame number and went home6 Lakota 10.15, “hagkecs, “hagyan, “hanyels extent. With this stem the functions non specific ‘et, specie verb and relational verb accu, also non specifi, specific and relational adverb, The diminutive sufix a here adds no further meaning, Compare however tak’eca ‘be somehow, tokcel slowly 10.15. Non specific verb. ‘The non specific verb tokank'eca has the meaning ‘be of some distance, some length in statements and In questions has the meaning ‘how long Is. how far Is.” Examples ‘ohagkeca hie he BBD 119 besome length yougive Intert “ow much in length did he give you? ‘tohapmakeca he BSD LID besome engin Interr| “how tall an 7 [Notice that in the frst example the Lakota sentence has 2 verb fohapkeca, whereas the English sentence has an interrogate adverb, This isoften the ease, where what would bea subordination in English is a main clause wn Lakota. A more literal translation of the example might be "how ruch in Tength is what he gave you? 10.152. Non specifle adverb. ‘The non specific adverb has the meaning some distance, some lengit, some amount, to some extent In statements. In interrogaives st has the meaning “Tow Tar, how much. Examples rohaoya0 ahi pik oboe Retsome distance they-come-stand tipi Top around ataya BT 225 all ‘Some way off from it they came and stoot all around the tpt” ‘The prefix here attached to tohapyan, gives the meaning "to some extent relative to a preceding referent wana tohanyap —yehay ——_yupk'ap..Del MB ‘now some distance go-Cont_ then “now he went on for awhile and then.” Whe fonction he letanhag —tohanyay he Del 138 he thisfrom — somedisianee ——_‘Hve-Taterr “Tow far from here does he live 10.153, Specific verb. ‘The specific verb has the meaning ‘be this far, this Jong, this much, to this extent, Examples unksg taku eva ebanhapk'cca ——wie'pa then somthing Somme be this ong Red) eubit, ‘ehanhank'eca Woyaka— keya-piBT 20 be that long (Rea) stick tol) say-Phur "ad now they said that there were affixed toi some things which were this lng, of, ‘cubits length Te above forms are reduplicated from lehupK'eca and hehapk'eca. ‘The reduplication marks the plurality ofthe objects referred to. No examples of the non-reduplieated form occurred sn may materia Lakota 6 10.154 Specific adverb, The specific adver as to Sich an extent. Examples: 1 meanings far, this ng, ths much, yunk'ay —tohagyay sta yey ——_ehapyan then sompedstance eye Send-Flut that far piekt —— auBT 204 Buffalo Top they-come “then as fa as the eye could sec, thus far were the buffaloes coming lenayyan Pte Sap He Unyanp eciya pi BT 188 thisfar buffalo white horn wego — eallPlr ‘uni now ithe eerersany called"We go to the White Buffalo Horn yunkan —ue'ap cokanyay —hehagyan —ataya we then shin inthemiddle thatfar— all” blood ‘hap BT 208 instane “then is shin, as Far asthe middle (of ww eovered in blood” In the above we see an example ofthe correlational structure mentioned above under 10. ‘where the specific adverb Is used in the same Wy as the relational posposition the more accurate translation being something like ‘atthe ail, that ar Thehanyelsowihaake atta end ‘this the end the conventional ending of sory) 10.1555, Relational verb. The relational ver his the meaning "be as far as a6 long as a5 tne as Examples ‘yemahank’cca Ine-be as long as! BED 119 am a9 tall a hei ehapkineha DIE be as long as ReflCaus the made himself the sare length ashi 10.156, Relational postposition. ‘The relational pstpastion has the meaning ss far a8. as long as. as much as." Examples. Imagaju mni wag eiKala——agsca bpehaoyan ca rain water one belitle —jumpeverPlur—abfaras Ss vanka BT 246 at here was alte rain pool small enough to jump across (akuny ——nivehagyay — rapka smi BD 255, pothing —_youras faras_be big Neg “rothing isas big as you! 10.1.6, “hapiu, ‘han, “shapl hun, “uy time, ‘The stem “han shows all functions expected Two main forms are found of the stem, ~hag for actual events and “hap! for Potential ones. This distinction is also marked by the two forms ofthe topic market k'up and ki In the ease of this stem, the ste “hagleccurs mainly with Tuture tne reference and the stem “han mainly with past ims, though to snot always followed and the stem ‘han is in some ways the unmarked member ef the pair occurring in a wher set ofenvironments. A number of different vowels occur in the truncated stem, showing the effect of the vocalle environment. 10.1.6.1. Non specific verb. ‘The element tohantu be at some time, at a certain te’ produces a considerable number of combinations such as wavohagtu way el‘at some time {which was.” tohagtuka yupK’ag ‘there was a certain ime then.., tohagtu c'pnasna “whenever there was a time, tohuowetuka ef ‘here was a certain time when. Itohagee ‘junk, there was a time relative to what went before and then Examples ‘ohagtuka wap ia trysta” gla cig Del 60 be sometime sort of one very home-Loc go back wish "Sp after atime she onged for home {tohugwetuka c's Lakota i capip sms Del 152 be sometime ort of which LakotarLoc come be clear Neg "Wis nat Known jst when it be story eame to the Lakota, ake rtohantu ‘yunk’2g ——houyig a. Del 254 Again Rebbe sometime then call and. ‘Some time later the other called again? 10.162. Non specifie adverb. The non specie adverb has the meaning ‘at some time at a certain time in statements and ‘when! in questions. Examples ‘na wana ungnahapsnahagwatohagl sna wactepi BT 220 and now oeeasionally—_—_night-Ind-semetime Hab dance: Phir “ang now from time to tne they would dance sometime inthe night tohiont taku hrecece ——wagyaka-pr soi BT 19, ever something be lke that see-Plur Neg “ever had they seen anything like this Lakota ovate ki tohaytanhag ki tazipa na wahigkpe ki hens LCokota people Top sometime-from Top bow and artow Top those wowaeig — yeyarpiDel 105 trust fend: Plur or some time the Lakota people have rele! on the bow and arrow Whe fonetion fohan! ——ecetkiya ya kta hwo sometime bere to yourcome Fut Lntere, “when will you be coming here? 10.68, Specific verb, ‘The specific verb has the meaning at this tne! Examples fa wand calagsagpahehaglwwanabocolam Cpl wap Snow oon more be that time now eampeentre Uuplone oF haga it 28 in makePlur Sn now it waste afternon nd now they made tp the mia he cama hake yarhi ki hhehantu 2 tagyag_—_woniciyakin kteBT 294 Finally yourcome Top ‘be that time so well speak-Dat-you Fut Finally now isthe time when you wil come, so he will speak to you well” Lakota 65 Febageu km hugka wo2e ky hena De this time Top and hunka wand Top these ‘at this time I now have the Hunks wants luna volo BY 234 have wana eyas — heuphagtu-pelo ca ows —_us-bethattine-Plur so “now It our turns come downto the rer wakpala Kiel Ku-po BT $25 et Top at come-Plar Imper 10.1.6.4 Specific adverb, ‘The specific adverb tas the meaning at this er that ime, thee, Examples faa lebanl —ccaoku Ri ogna—hyyaya BT 349 snd ths time road’Top through pass by ‘and now he passed along the road hhece! hehay! peta way pe-gmke kup hee ca slo BT'375, thus that time -mecicine one hest-put Top thats as knw 50 then he realized that it was the medicine that he had pot in his hat. 10.185. Relational verb, The relational verb has the mesring be time fo, be the right time, be due. Examples rma wane anpetu way el Kip kte ot ‘yehantu —wicokaovay and now dayone in” comne-Plur Fut Top Rebbe time at noon oeyas ——asnikyepu BT first fet Pier ‘and now it was the time for the day when they shoul come, frst they rested at betel tohaa! iye-hantw ki ovate! ataya kta opi kta BT 197 sosome ime Rel-be time Top people Top all. to yeurgo-Plur Fut Sowhen its the gn Lume let all you prope go there” hc wana ye-hagew sonow Rebbe ime “thus now its time for lit: 10.166, Relational postposition, ‘Thwe relational osipoition has the meaning ‘time for, the right time for. Examples wana Kihupa——waiyehant hhighan hotup-p! Cok Los paw arrive Ind-fte-time owl call Pur 'and now when twas about time Fr them 16 arive, they called ike ows 10.17. “kiyeru “kiya direction, undefined location. ‘This stem shows only the Funetions ron specific verb, non specifi adverb and specie adverb, 10.1,7.1. Non specific verb. ‘The non specific verb means ‘be somewhere, be in some Aiection’. However it does ant seem to be used in the phrase "be from somewhere Here the ‘truncated stem tokiye is wed as under 10.172. teow. I 8 als used in the combination Tokiyetu ca to mean Somewhere in questions. Examples66 Lakota totityew cd satrhwo be somewhere as you go away-Interr "have You gone somewhere! 10,1172. Non specific adverb. ‘The non specific adverb has the meaning ‘smmewhere, n some

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• A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  Fredrik Backman

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (4610)
• The Light Between Oceans: A Novel

  

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  The Light Between Oceans: A Novel

  M.L. Stedman

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (789)
• A Heartbreaking Work Of Staggering Genius: A Memoir Based on a True Story

  

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  A Heartbreaking Work Of Staggering Genius: A Memoir Based on a True Story

  Dave Eggers

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (231)
• Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln

  

  From Everand

  Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln

  Doris Kearns Goodwin

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (234)
• Fear: Trump in the White House

  

  From Everand

  Fear: Trump in the White House

  Bob Woodward

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (738)
• The Outsider: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Outsider: A Novel

  Stephen King

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1840)
• Brooklyn: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Brooklyn: A Novel

  Colm Tóibín

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (1946)
• On Fire: The (Burning) Case for a Green New Deal

  

  From Everand

  On Fire: The (Burning) Case for a Green New Deal

  Naomi Klein

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (74)
• The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century

  

  From Everand

  The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century

  Thomas L. Friedman

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (2259)
• Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  Jesmyn Ward

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1104)
• The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America

  

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  The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America

  George Packer

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (45)
• Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America

  

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  Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America

  Gilbert King

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (266)
• Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race

  

  From Everand

  Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race

  Margot Lee Shetterly

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (897)
• The Woman in Cabin 10

  

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  The Woman in Cabin 10

  Ruth Ware

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (2519)
• Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future

  

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  Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future

  Ashlee Vance

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (474)
• The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  Garth Stein

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (4203)
• Wolf Hall: A Novel

  

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  Wolf Hall: A Novel

  Hilary Mantel

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (3811)
• Shoe Dog: A Memoir by the Creator of Nike

  

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  Shoe Dog: A Memoir by the Creator of Nike

  Phil Knight

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (537)
• The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer

  

  From Everand

  The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer

  Siddhartha Mukherjee

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (271)
• John Adams

  

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  John Adams

  David McCullough

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (2409)
• A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

  

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  A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

  Betty Smith

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (1929)
• The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  

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  The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  John le Carré

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (104)
• The Hard Thing About Hard Things: Building a Business When There Are No Easy Answers

  

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  The Hard Thing About Hard Things: Building a Business When There Are No Easy Answers

  Ben Horowitz

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (345)
• Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  

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  Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  Jennifer Egan

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (792)
• The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  

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  The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  Stephen Chbosky

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (2104)
• Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance

  

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  Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance

  Angela Duckworth

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (589)
• Bad Feminist: Essays

  

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  Bad Feminist: Essays

  Roxane Gay

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1016)
• The Yellow House: A Memoir (2019 National Book Award Winner)

  

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  The Yellow House: A Memoir (2019 National Book Award Winner)

  Sarah M. Broom

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (98)
• Yes Please

  

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  Yes Please

  Amy Poehler

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1898)
• Never Split the Difference: Negotiating As If Your Life Depended On It

  

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  Never Split the Difference: Negotiating As If Your Life Depended On It

  Chris Voss

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (842)
• Angela's Ashes: A Memoir

  

  From Everand

  Angela's Ashes: A Memoir

  Frank McCourt

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (440)
• Principles: Life and Work

  

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  Principles: Life and Work

  Ray Dalio

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (599)
• Steve Jobs

  

  From Everand

  Steve Jobs

  Walter Isaacson

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (806)
• The Little Book of Hygge: Danish Secrets to Happy Living

  

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  The Little Book of Hygge: Danish Secrets to Happy Living

  Meik Wiking

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (401)
• Dalgado 1900 PDF

  

  Document300 pages

  Dalgado 1900 PDF

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• The Glass Castle: A Memoir

  

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  The Glass Castle: A Memoir

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  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (1715)
• Every Day Tsonga

  

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  Every Day Tsonga

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• The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good Life

  

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  The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good Life

  Mark Manson

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (5806)
• The Gifts of Imperfection: Let Go of Who You Think You're Supposed to Be and Embrace Who You Are

  

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  The Gifts of Imperfection: Let Go of Who You Think You're Supposed to Be and Embrace Who You Are

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  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1091)
• Little Women

  

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  Little Women

  Louisa May Alcott

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (104)
• Idioma Valencià

  

  Document316 pages

  Idioma Valencià

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• Яковлев Н. Языки и народы Кавказа (1930)

  

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  Яковлев Н. Языки и народы Кавказа (1930)

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• ASGoE PDF

  

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  ASGoE PDF

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• Uroki Ingushskogo Yazyka

  

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